CH-5-7 Kantian Ethics – Introducing Ethics: For Here and Now : Exam Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 5 to 7 Chapter 5 Kantian Ethics CHAPTER SUMMARY In chapter 5, the student learns about the various formulations and interpretations of Kantian ethics and how Kant’s test, with its emphasis on universalizability, has changed over time. Most philosophers today no longer think that Kant’s categorical imperative test defeats the egoist. Most also recognize that the categorical imperative test needs to be supplemented with appropriate moral grounds for making exceptions. We also examine Kant’s two interpretations—welfare liberalism and libertarianism—and how, though different, can be reconciled in practice. We see again that the same expanded “Ought” implies “Can” principle affects, and constrains, Kantian ethics like it did Utilitarian ethics. At the end of this chapter, we see that this is because whether we are weighing people’s interests, as in Utilitarian ethics, or their liberties, as in Kantian ethics, and regardless of libertarian objections, what matters most is that the weighing be constrained by an expanded “Ought” implies “Can” principle so that unreasonable sacrifices are not imposed on anyone. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. In this chapter, the student will learn about Kant’s categorical imperative test and how it relates to egoism. 2. In this chapter, the student will come to understand that while the universalizability inherent in Kant’s test is a central requirement of morality, it is not enough on its own. 3. By the end of this chapter, the student will have examined the other formulations of Kant’s test that place additional moral constraints on universalizability. 4. By the end of this chapter, the student should understand two interpretations of Kant’s ethics: welfare liberalism and libertarianism, and students will examine examples of each and where there are conflicts in liberties. 5. By the end of this chapter, the student should understand that the “ought” implies “can” principle previously examined impacts analysis of libertarianism and welfare liberalism and why libertarians would object to this principle. DISCUSION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss whether the moral constraints of the alternative formulations to Kant’s categorical imperative test exclude exceptions to universal norms and principles that unfairly disadvantage some people in order to benefit others. What effect do they have upon the theories of Kantian ethics? Answer: The moral constraints of alternative formulations to Kant's categorical imperative test typically aim to uphold universal norms and principles without exceptions, prioritizing fairness and consistency. While these constraints may prevent actions that unfairly disadvantage certain individuals to benefit others, they also contribute to the rigidity and absolutism of Kantian ethics, potentially limiting its flexibility in addressing complex moral dilemmas. 2. Describe both welfare liberalism and libertarianism. Which theory do you find more morally palatable and why? Cite examples in your response to illustrate why one theory seems morally superior to the other. Do you think the objections to libertarianism set forth in this chapter are valid or invalid? Answer: Welfare liberalism advocates for government intervention to promote social welfare and reduce inequality, while libertarianism emphasizes individual liberty and limited government involvement. I find welfare liberalism more morally palatable as it prioritizes social justice and addresses systemic inequalities through policies like universal healthcare and education. For example, welfare programs like Medicaid ensure access to healthcare for vulnerable populations, whereas libertarianism's minimal government involvement may exacerbate social disparities. The objections to libertarianism, such as neglecting the needs of the disadvantaged, are valid critiques of its limited government approach. 3. Do you think universalizability is sufficient to render Kant’s test an attractive moral theory? If so, why? If not, explain what else you think is needed, besides universalizability, to render Kant’s test an accurate, moral, and just one. Answer: While universalizability is a key aspect of Kant's moral theory, it alone may not be sufficient to render his test universally attractive. In addition to universalizability, Kant's test relies on principles such as respect for human dignity, consistency, and rationality. Moreover, considerations of practicality, empathy, and the consequences of actions are also necessary to ensure that Kant's test is accurate, moral, and just in addressing complex moral dilemmas and promoting ethical behavior. Multiple Choice Questions Choose the best possible answer for each of the following 1. Describe Kant’s basic test to determine whether actions are actually moral. A. Kant’s test requires one to act only as one would determine would be in one’s best interests to act. B. Kant’s test requires one to act according to a rule that one would want all others to universally follow. C. Kant’s test requires one to act according to a rule that reflects what is morally acceptable. D. Kant’s test requires one to act according to a rule that helps the minority regardless of the cost to the majority. Answer: B 2. Explain the difference between Kant’s categorical imperative and the egoist’s law. A. The egoist does not support a universal law but believes that everyone ought to do what best serves his/her own self-interest. B. The egoist believes in universal law but also believes that everyone ought to do what best serves his/her own self-interest. C. The egoist does not support a universal law or any other law for that matter. D. The egoist believes in acting on the law that all should follow, but only in the arena of competitive sports. Answer: A 3. Express whether the universalizability inherent in Kant’s test is sufficient for a theory based on truly moral grounds. A. Yes, the universalizability in Kant’s test is sufficient for morality because it considers what benefits the overall good. B. Yes, the universalizability in Kant’s test is sufficient for morality because what is morally required for one is morally required for all without consideration of any exceptions. C. No, morality requires that the universalizability in Kant’s test be combined with adequate moral grounds for determining that the rule would benefit the most people for the overall good. D. No, morality requires that the universalizability in Kant’s test be combined with adequate moral grounds for determining when exceptions are to be explicitly or implicitly included in those maxims. Answer: D 4. Describe two other formulations of Kant’s categorical imperative. A. One formulation requires people not to treat others without regard to our own self-interests, and a second formulation requires that our universalized principles be considered when considering the categorical imperative. B. One formulation requires people to understand that the ends justify the means, and a second formulation requires that people treat others as they would treat members of their own families. C. One formulation requires people to treat others only as they wish to be treated, and a second formulation requires that universalized principles be acceptable to everyone and obtained respectfully. D. One formulation requires people not to treat others only as a way of getting what they want, and a second formulation requires that universalized principles be acceptable to everyone and that all are treated respectfully. Answer: D 5. Explain how withholding information from juries provides an example of welfare liberalism. A. Withholding information from juries does not provide an example of welfare liberalism at all and should never be done in a democratic society. B. Because some information may be prejudicial and/or irrelevant to a case, withholding or discounting that information reduces the chances that the jury will reach a fair verdict. C. Because some information may be prejudicial and/or irrelevant to a case, withholding or discounting that information increases the chances that the jury will reach a fair verdict. D. Because some information may be prejudicial and/or irrelevant to a case, withholding or discounting that information constitutes obstructing justice in a criminal case. Answer: C 6. Identify what libertarians maintain as their moral theory. A. Libertarianism requires that people should have the greatest amount of liberty that is necessary to preserve one’s way of life. B. Libertarianism requires that people should have the greatest amount of liberty that is morally proportionate with the greatest amount of liberty for everyone else. C. Libertarianism requires people to interfere with another person’s exercise of their liberty. D. Libertarianism requires that people should have only the amount of liberty that is prescribed by law. Answer: B 7. Express the reason why libertarians would be opposed to a publicly-funded welfare system. A. Libertarians believe that those who have more goods and resources should provide to those without or with less resources as an act of charity, and charitable acts should be forced or required by law. B. Libertarians believe that those who have more goods and resources should provide to those without or with less resources only if they are legally required to do so. C. Libertarians believe that those who have more goods and resources should provide to those without or with less resources as an act of charity, and charitable acts should not be forced or required by law but simply voluntary. D. Libertarians believe that those who have more goods and resources not have to pay for a welfare system because they earned their wealth fairly. Answer: C 8. Identify what is likely to occur without sufficient positive welfare rights. A. In the absence of adequate positive welfare rights, the poor could determine when and how to exercise their negative welfare rights on their own without the umbrella of an institution guaranteeing sufficient positive welfare rights. B. In the absence of adequate positive welfare rights, the poor have to rely only on negative welfare rights under an institution set up to guarantee sufficient negative welfare rights. C. In the absence of adequate negative welfare rights, the poor would be unable to exercise their positive welfare rights without the umbrella of an institution guaranteeing those rights. D. In the absence of adequate positive welfare rights, the poor would be able to determine themselves when and how to exercise their negative welfare rights by electing officials who support the grant of those rights. Answer: A 9. Describe how John Rawls’ idealized choice situation supports welfare liberalism. A. Rawls’ idealized choice situation supports welfare liberalism in its view that if people are to achieve a fair system of rights and duties, they must ignore certain basic information about themselves when choosing that system so as to avoid bias. B. Rawls’ idealized choice situation supports welfare liberalism in its view that if people are to achieve a fair system of rights and duties, they must give to others even if they are not required by law to do so. C. Rawls’ idealized choice situation supports welfare liberalism in its view that if people are to be just and moral, they must ignore certain basic information about themselves until they are considered by all to be just and moral. D. Rawls’ idealized choice situation—in its view that if people are to obtain a fair system of rights and duties, they must ignore basic information about themselves when choosing that system so as to avoid bias—does not, in fact, support welfare liberalism at all. Answer: A 10. State two common objections to libertarianism. A. First, it would be unreasonable to require wealthy people to sacrifice the liberty to spend their money on social programs and activities, and second, the right to welfare is a guaranteed right from both a libertarian and liberal perspective. B. First, it would be unreasonable to require wealthy people to support anyone but themselves since it would go against their own self-interests, and second, the right to welfare is an inherently unreasonable construct. C. First, wealthy people should be required to sacrifice the liberty to do what they want with their wealth so that the poor has the liberty to meet their basic needs, and second, the right to welfare from a libertarian perspective is much less just than the right to welfare from a liberal perspective. D. First, it would be unreasonable to require wealthy people to sacrifice the liberty to do what they want with their wealth so that the poor has the liberty to meet their basic needs, and second, the right to welfare from a libertarian perspective significantly differs from a liberal one. Answer: D Essay Questions 1. Do you think a What if everyone did that? argument makes a good moral test? Why or why not? Include the concept of universalizability in your response and explains why it supports your answer or weights against it. Answer: Yes, the "What if everyone did that?" argument can serve as a good moral test, especially when considering the principle of universalizability in ethics. By applying this question, individuals can assess whether their actions could be consistently adopted as a universal law without leading to contradictions or negative consequences. If everyone were to act in the same way, and the consequences would undermine social cohesion, justice, or ethical principles, it suggests that the action is morally problematic. Therefore, the concept of universalizability supports the effectiveness of this moral test by highlighting the importance of consistency and coherence in ethical decision-making. 2. Describe how the libertarian view is illustrated in the example of the four Robinson Crusoes. Do you think this is an apt example of libertarianism? Why or why not? In your answer, explain how welfare liberalism would treat the situation differently. Answer: In the example of the four Robinson Crusoes, the libertarian view is illustrated by each individual's autonomy and property rights over their respective islands. Each Crusoe has the freedom to govern their island as they see fit, without interference from others. This example aligns with libertarian principles of minimal government intervention and individual liberty. However, whether this example is apt depends on one's perspective. While it demonstrates the libertarian ideal of personal freedom and property rights, critics may argue that it oversimplifies real-world complexities and overlooks issues of social justice and equality. Welfare liberalism, on the other hand, would likely advocate for some form of resource redistribution or cooperation among the Crusoes to ensure equitable outcomes. For instance, welfare liberalism might suggest pooling resources to address common challenges like defense or infrastructure development, promoting collective well-being over individual autonomy. Thus, welfare liberalism would treat the situation differently by prioritizing social welfare and addressing inequalities rather than solely focusing on individual liberty and property rights. 3. Explain whether you think an “ought” implies “can” principle—expanded or unexpanded— sufficiently resolves the conflicting needs of the rich to hold onto their money and use it for their own purposes and the poor to take the resources they require to meet their basic needs? In your answer, identify which group is favored in such an analysis and why. Answer: The "ought" implies "can" principle, whether expanded or unexpanded, does not necessarily resolve the conflicting needs of the rich and the poor. While it acknowledges that individuals should only be morally obligated to do what is within their capabilities, it may not address systemic inequalities or the structural barriers that prevent individuals from meeting their basic needs. In such an analysis, the rich are often favored due to their greater resources and ability to maintain their wealth, while the poor may continue to struggle to access essential resources and opportunities for socioeconomic advancement. Chapter 6 Aristotelian Ethics CHAPTER SUMMARY In Chapter 6, the student learns about Aristotelian ethics. Unlike the Kantian and utilitarian theories, Aristotelian ethics considers ethics as a way of being rather than as a way of doing. This way of thinking puts the focus on a virtuous life that is assumed to be required for happiness. Virtue is further characterized as a means between two vices: one of excess and the other of defect. While Aristotle himself raises difficulties for his account of virtue, we have seen how it is possible to overcome those difficulties in a way that leads to greater compatibility with Kantian and utilitarian ethics, which at first seemed to conflict with Aristotelian ethics. The chapter continues with an analysis of Ayn Rand’s version of Aristotelian ethics, namely, that there is no conflict of interest between people, and, accordingly, there is no duty to others in need and no real altruism. However, the chapter eventually reveals that even Rand’s version of Aristotelian ethics, which initially appears to be at odds with both utilitarian and Kantian ethics, leads to similar practical requirements, especially once the no-conflict thesis that is endorsed by Rand and other Aristotelians is rejected and an expanded “Ought” implies “Can” principle is seen to play a significant role in determining the theory’s practical requirements. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. In this chapter, the student will examine Aristotelian ethics and the parts happiness and virtue play in this ethical theory. 2. In this chapter, the student will be able to explain how various philosophers have characterized a virtuous life thereby giving more definition to the term “virtue.” 3. By the end of this chapter, the student should understand the importance and usefulness of “rules” for Aristotelian ethics and how one should act still plays a part in this theory. 4. By the end of this chapter, the student should understand how the Aristotelian theory conflicts with Kantian ethics but then observe that both have similar requirements. 5. By the end of this chapter, the student should understand Ayn Rand’s version of Aristotelian ethics, her various theories, and why those theories are truly Aristotelian or should be rejected in favor of a different principle. DISCUSION QUESTIONS 1. Do you agree with Aristotle’s argument that it is necessary to be virtuous to be happy? If you agree, explain the rationale for your position. If you don’t agree with this argument, what do you consider problems with or objections to this argument? Answer: I do agree with Aristotle's argument that virtue is necessary for happiness. Aristotle posits that happiness (eudaimonia) is the ultimate goal of human life, and it is achieved through virtuous activity in accordance with reason and excellence. Virtue enables individuals to live in harmony with their rational nature and fulfill their potential, leading to a fulfilling and flourishing life. Moreover, virtuous actions cultivate inner harmony, ethical integrity, and meaningful relationships, which are essential components of true happiness. However, objections to Aristotle's argument may arise from various perspectives. Some critics may argue that happiness can be achieved through other means besides virtue, such as pleasure, wealth, or power. Others may question the universality of Aristotle's virtues or the practicality of consistently practicing virtuous behavior in a complex and unpredictable world. Additionally, challenges may arise in defining what constitutes virtue and how it should be prioritized in moral decision-making. Overall, while Aristotle's argument provides a compelling framework for understanding happiness and virtue, objections may arise from differing philosophical perspectives or practical considerations. 2. Discuss how the expanded “ought” implies “can” principle restricts or impedes Aristotelian ethics. In your discussion, explain how this universal principle is similar or different when applied to Aristotelian theories than to Kantian or utilitarian ethics. Answer: The expanded "ought" implies "can" principle, which suggests that moral obligations are contingent upon one's ability to fulfill them, can present challenges to Aristotelian ethics. While Aristotle emphasizes the cultivation of virtues as essential for achieving happiness, individuals may face obstacles or limitations that hinder their ability to develop or practice virtues fully. This principle highlights the importance of considering practical constraints and external factors that may affect moral agency and decision-making. In contrast, the application of the "ought" implies "can" principle in Kantian ethics is more straightforward, as Kant's moral theory emphasizes the importance of rational autonomy and the universalizability of moral principles. According to Kant, individuals have a duty to act in accordance with moral law, which applies universally regardless of external circumstances. Thus, the principle reinforces Kant's emphasis on moral obligation and duty, albeit in a different context from Aristotelian ethics. Similarly, in utilitarian ethics, the "ought" implies "can" principle may be interpreted in terms of maximizing overall utility while considering practical constraints and feasibility. Utilitarianism evaluates actions based on their consequences and aims to maximize overall happiness or well-being. However, the principle may also highlight the importance of considering the feasibility and practicality of achieving the greatest good for the greatest number in real-world situations. Overall, while the expanded "ought" implies "can" principle may present challenges to Aristotelian ethics by highlighting practical constraints on virtue cultivation, it also underscores the importance of considering individual agency and external factors in moral decision-making across different ethical frameworks. 3. Discuss how Ayn Rand’s theory of morality and duty compares and contrasts with contemporary philosophers of Aristotelian theory. Do you agree with her theories? Why or why not? In your response, explain how Howard Roarke’s speech in The Fountainhead explains or elaborates on Rand’s theses. Answer: Ayn Rand's theory of morality, often associated with her philosophy of Objectivism, contrasts with contemporary Aristotelian theory in several key ways. While Aristotle emphasizes the cultivation of virtues as essential for achieving happiness and flourishing, Rand rejects altruism and emphasizes rational self-interest as the primary moral imperative. Rand's theory prioritizes individual rights, personal autonomy, and the pursuit of one's own values, advocating for a laissez-faire capitalist society where individuals are free to pursue their own goals without interference from others or the state. In contrast, Aristotelian theory emphasizes the importance of moral virtues such as courage, temperance, and justice, which are cultivated through rational reflection and habituation. Aristotle's ethics also emphasize the importance of social relationships, community, and the common good in achieving eudaimonia, or flourishing. Whether one agrees with Rand's theories depends on one's philosophical and ethical perspective. Critics argue that Rand's rejection of altruism and her celebration of self-interest may lead to selfishness, exploitation, and a disregard for the well-being of others. However, proponents of Objectivism argue that Rand's emphasis on individual rights and rational self-interest promotes personal responsibility, innovation, and human flourishing. Howard Roark's speech in "The Fountainhead" elaborates on Rand's theses by articulating his philosophy of individualism and independence. Roark rejects conformity, societal expectations, and the notion of sacrificing one's own values for the sake of others. Instead, he advocates for the pursuit of personal integrity, creative expression, and the realization of one's own potential. Roark's speech exemplifies Rand's emphasis on individualism, rationality, and the pursuit of one's own happiness as the highest moral ideal. Whether one agrees with Rand's theories or not, Roark's speech serves as a powerful expression of her philosophy of Objectivism. Multiple Choice Questions Choose the best possible answer for each of the following 1. Identify the hallmark concept of Aristotelian ethics. A. Aristotle primarily considered ethics as a different way of learning. B. Aristotle primarily considered ethics as a way of acting, not as a way of being. C. Aristotle primarily considered ethics as a way of being, not as a way of acting. D. Aristotle primarily considered ethics as a way of seeing others, not just oneself. Answer: C 2. Select which aspect is missing in philosopher Martha Nussbaum’s definition of a virtuous life. A. Whether pleasure and pain, cognitive ability, and early infant development are considered in the examination of a virtuous life. B. Whether virtue in certain spheres can be specified in an objective, nonrelativist way. C. Whether virtue in certain spheres is centered on the mind or whether it considers practical reason as well. D. Whether virtue in certain spheres is centered on one’s own happiness or whether it considers the good and happiness of others besides oneself. Answer: D 3. Explain what else can be helpful to people trying to live a virtuous life than just rules telling people what to do and what not to do. A. Giving to the poor each year is more helpful than rules in communicating what virtues we should exercise and how we should exercise them. B. Textbooks and classes on ethics are more helpful than rules in communicating what virtues we should exercise and how we should exercise them. C. Stories and examples illustrating instances of virtuous actions are more helpful than rules in communicating what virtues we should exercise and how we should exercise them. D. Full and detailed discussions with family and friends are more helpful than rules in communicating what virtues we should exercise and how we should exercise them. Answer: C 4. Select which characteristics a morally sufficient theory of ethics must consider. A. A true moral theory of ethics must consider a person’s character, intentions, and actions. B. A true moral theory of ethics must consider a person’s age, economic status, and affiliations. C. A true moral theory of ethics must consider a person’s family, vocation, and how that person is viewed by society. D. A true moral theory of ethics must consider a person’s gender, character, and charitable works. Answer: A 5. Describe Ayn Rand’s response to the potential problem with the view she espouses in The Fountainhead—that moral conflicts arise when the self-interests of people conflict. A. Rand’s response is to reject the idea that there are conflicts of self-interests between people at all. B. Rand’s response is to explain why one’s self-interest is paramount over another’s self-interest. C. Rand’s response is to ignore any moral conflicts that arise in The Fountainhead. D. Rand’s response is to reject the idea that Aristotelian ethics is not a superior moral theory in its dealing of moral conflicts. Answer: A 6. Identify why the character Tooey in The Fountainhead is so antagonistic to the main character, Roarke, and seeks to destroy his career. A. Tooey is so adverse to Roarke because creative, talented, and independent people like Roarke have taken jobs away from other, more ordinary, people. B. Tooey is so adverse to Roarke because creative, talented, and independent people like Roarke challenge how Tooey chooses stories to write about for his column in The Banner. C. Tooey is so adverse to Roarke because creative, talented, and independent people like Roarke had rejected Tooey in the past and thwarted him from his true dream of being an architect like Roarke. D. Tooey is so adverse to Roarke because creative, talented, and independent people like Roarke challenge how Tooey, with his lack of talent, maintains power over other people and manipulates them. Answer: D 7. Explain why Rand argues that people who are wealthy and/or talented have no duty to help the poor. A. Because Rand denies that the talented or rich have a duty to help the poor, we can poke holes in her thesis that there are no conflicts of interest between the poor and the wealthy or talented. B. Because Rand denies that the talented or rich have a duty to help the poor, she can allow for the existence of conflicts of interest between the poor and the wealthy or talented, which do not require any duty to help but allow for occasional acts of generosity. C. Because Rand maintains that the talented or rich have a duty to help the poor, she can sustain her thesis that there are no conflicts of interest between the poor and the wealthy or talented, which do not require any duty but allow for circumstantial acts of generosity. D. Because Rand denies that the talented or rich have a duty to help the poor, she can accept that during conflicts of self-interest, the talented and rich have a duty, after all, to help the poor. Answer: B 8. Identify the other theses that would be true if Rand’s thesis—that there are no conflicts of interest at all between people—was also true. A. If one accepts that there are no real conflicts of interest, one would have to also accept Rand’s thesis that the wealthy or talented should put the needs of the poor above their own and her thesis that one should always consider the self-interests of others. B. If one accepts that there are no real conflicts of interest, one would have to also accept Rand’s thesis that in the face of conflict, one must help those in need and her thesis that true altruism is non-existent. C. If one accepts that there are no real conflicts of interest, one would have to also accept Rand’s thesis that there is no duty to help those in need and her thesis that true altruism is non-existent. D. If one accepts that there are no real conflicts of interest, one would have to also accept Rand’s thesis that one should use one’s talent to help others and her thesis that true altruism is a desired way of life. Answer: C 9. Explain what theory emerges once we reject Rand’s theory that there are no conflicts of interest. A. If we reject the idea that there are no conflicts of interest, we see that there is a duty to act in one’s self-interest, and we recognize altruism and selfishness both as positive virtues. B. If we reject the idea that there are no conflicts of interest, we see that there is a duty to help those in need, and we recognize altruism as a virtue to combat selfishness. C. If we reject the idea that there are no conflicts of interest, we see that there is a duty to help those in need, and we recognize selfishness is a virtue in and of itself. D. If we reject the idea that there are no conflicts of interest, we see that there is an absolute duty to give one’s time and money if one has the talent and the wealth, and we recognize altruism as a somewhat unnecessary virtue. Answer: B 10. Discuss why Kant and Aristotle would argue over the notion of who is a virtuous person. A. For Aristotle, a person is virtuous if they act virtuously because they want to. For Kant, a person is virtuous if they act virtuously to help others because they should regardless of how they feel about taking such actions. B. For Aristotle, a person is virtuous if they act virtuously to help others because they should regardless of how they feel about taking such actions. For Kant, a person is virtuous if they act virtuously because they want to. C. For Aristotle, a person is virtuous if they find it easy to act virtuously and acting this way makes them look good. For Kant, a person is virtuous if they act virtuously but against their own desires. D. For Aristotle, a person is virtuous if they act virtuously even if they don’t want to. For Kant, a person is virtuous if the person does good works. Answer: A Essay Questions 1. Explain the various ways that Aristotelian ethics conflict with Kantian ethics. Include in your answer the basic premises of each, and identify which set of ethics you agree with and explain why that philosopher’s theories are more appealing to you. Answer: Aristotelian ethics and Kantian ethics differ in several fundamental aspects: 1. Basic premises: • Aristotelian ethics, rooted in virtue ethics, emphasizes the cultivation of moral virtues as essential for achieving eudaimonia, or flourishing. Virtues such as courage, temperance, and justice are cultivated through rational reflection and habituation. • Kantian ethics, grounded in deontological ethics, emphasizes moral duties and the categorical imperative as the foundation of morality. According to Kant, individuals have a duty to act in accordance with universal moral laws, which are based on rational autonomy and respect for human dignity. 2. Ethical focus: • Aristotelian ethics focuses on character and the moral virtues, prioritizing the development of virtuous habits and the pursuit of personal excellence. • Kantian ethics emphasizes moral principles and duties, prioritizing adherence to universal moral laws and the rational will. 3. Moral motivation: • In Aristotelian ethics, moral motivation arises from the cultivation of virtuous character traits and the pursuit of eudaimonia, which is inherently fulfilling and desirable. • In Kantian ethics, moral motivation arises from a sense of duty and the recognition of moral principles as binding regardless of personal desires or inclinations. I personally find Aristotelian ethics more appealing due to its emphasis on character development, personal flourishing, and the cultivation of virtuous habits. Aristotelian ethics resonates with my belief that moral excellence and fulfillment arise from living in accordance with one's true nature and realizing one's potential. Additionally, Aristotelian ethics provides a holistic framework for ethical decision-making that considers the complexities of human nature and the importance of social relationships and communal well-being. 2. What is your understanding of Ayn Rand’s interpretation of Aristotelian ethics? Describe how her works either make her a true student of Aristotelian theories or how her work really veers away from true Aristotelian ethical theory. Answer: Ayn Rand's interpretation of Aristotelian ethics is complex and multifaceted. While she drew inspiration from Aristotle's ideas, particularly his emphasis on reason, individualism, and the pursuit of happiness, Rand's philosophy, known as Objectivism, also diverges significantly from Aristotelian ethics in several key aspects. Similarities between Rand and Aristotle can be found in their emphasis on reason as the primary means of human knowledge and their advocacy for the pursuit of individual happiness as the ultimate goal of human life. Both philosophers view rationality as the essential characteristic of human nature and emphasize the importance of individuals striving to achieve their full potential. However, Rand's departure from Aristotelian ethics becomes evident in her rejection of Aristotle's concept of virtue as the mean between two extremes (the doctrine of the golden mean). Instead, Rand advocates for a more absolutist approach to ethics, where moral principles are derived from the nature of reality and the requirements of human life. In Objectivism, virtues such as rationality, honesty, integrity, independence, and justice are not seen as means to an end but as intrinsic goods in themselves. Furthermore, Rand's ethics places a strong emphasis on individual rights and laissez-faire capitalism, concepts not explicitly present in Aristotle's ethical framework. While Aristotle acknowledges the importance of political life and the common good, Rand's Objectivism prioritizes individual rights and self-interest above collective concerns. Overall, while Ayn Rand's interpretation of Aristotelian ethics shares some similarities with Aristotle's ideas, her departure from certain key aspects of Aristotelian ethical theory makes her a distinct thinker rather than a true student of Aristotelianism. 3. Provide an analysis of Ayn Rand’s “no-duty” and “no-altruism” theses. In your response, use examples from The Fountainhead and any other book authored by Rand discussed in this chapter to support these theses. Answer: Ayn Rand's "no-duty" and "no-altruism" these are central tenets of her philosophy of Objectivism, which she expounds upon in her novels, particularly "The Fountainhead" and "Atlas Shrugged." 1. No-duty thesis: Rand rejects the traditional notion of duty as an obligation to others, asserting that individuals have no inherent duty to sacrifice themselves for the sake of others. Instead, she argues that individuals should pursue their own rational self-interest as the highest moral aim. In "The Fountainhead," the character of Howard Roark embodies this no-duty thesis. Roark refuses to compromise his artistic vision or integrity to conform to societal expectations or please others. Despite facing immense pressure to conform to conventional architectural styles, Roark remains steadfast in his commitment to his own principles and values. For example, when Peter Keating asks Roark to design a building in a traditional style to please a client, Roark adamantly refuses, stating, "I don't build in order to have clients. I have clients in order to build." This illustrates Roark's rejection of duty to others and his unwavering dedication to his own values and pursuits. 2. No-altruism thesis: Rand argues against altruism, the moral doctrine that advocates self-sacrifice for the welfare of others, and instead champions rational self-interest as the proper guide for human action. According to Rand, altruism undermines individual happiness and leads to the suppression of individual rights. In "Atlas Shrugged," the character of John Galt embodies the rejection of altruism. Galt leads a strike of the mind, urging the most productive members of society to withdraw their talents and abilities from a world that exploits and sacrifices them for the supposed greater good of others. Galt's famous speech articulates Rand's no-altruism thesis, where he declares that "I swear by my life and my love of it that I will never live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for mine." Galt's rejection of altruism stems from his belief that individuals should pursue their own happiness and flourishing without sacrificing themselves to the needs or demands of others. In both "The Fountainhead" and "Atlas Shrugged," Rand uses her characters and their actions to illustrate and support her no-duty and no-altruism theses. Through their adherence to rational self-interest and rejection of altruism and duty, Rand presents a vision of moral heroism and individualism that celebrates the pursuit of one's own values and goals as the highest virtue. Chapter 7 The Challenge of Feminism CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter discusses the ways in which traditional ethical theories are biased against women. The chapter begins with a look at Carol Gilligan's work, which has given rise to the challenge that traditional ethics is biased against women. In this chapter, the student will learn about the arguments and research showing that the bias of traditional ethics is manifested by the practical inadequacy of its theories of justice and its ideals of a morally good person. The student will read that it is further argued that traditional ethics can overcome this bias by applying its theories of justice and its ideals of a morally good person so as to determine just family structures with more equal responsibilities allocated to both men and women and to implement an ideal of androgyny to consider desirable traits and virtues as applicable to both men and women. By the conclusion of Chapter 7, the student will understand that with equal opportunity and the ideal of androgyny, traditional ethics can meet the challenge of feminism and adequately take women's perspectives into account. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. In this chapter, the student will first examine Carol Gilligan’s challenge to traditional biases against women and her explanation of the care and justice perspectives. 2. By the end of this chapter, the student will be able to explain and describe how traditional ethics raise inadequate concepts of justice that fail to account for the interests of women. 3. By the end of this chapter, the student should understand about gender disparities and discrimination in the workplace and in the home and what would be needed to try to alleviate both. 4. By the end of this chapter, the student should understand that in addition to the practical inadequacy of the traditional ethical theories of justice, traditional ethics also fails to account for women’s interests in their concepts of the ideally morally good person. 5. By the end of this chapter, the student should understand that the ideal of androgyny and equal opportunity, if considered, can save traditional ethics from exhibiting bias against women. DISCUSION QUESTIONS 1. Do you think women and men share equally in childcare and family duties? Name several policies and institutional supports that would promote and facilitate both parents being able to work and have an equal hand in childcare responsibilities and obligations. Does the U.S. Family and Medical Leave Act provide these supports? Why or why not? Answer: No, women and men do not currently share equally in childcare and family duties. Policies like paid parental leave, affordable childcare, flexible work arrangements, and cultural shifts promoting shared parenting could help promote equal involvement. The U.S. Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) provides some support by guaranteeing unpaid leave for eligible employees but falls short in providing financial assistance or addressing cultural norms that perpetuate unequal caregiving responsibilities. 2. Discuss what the ideal of androgyny has to do with equal opportunity. Do you think this ideal will really create equal opportunity? How else can equal opportunity be created for both women and men inside and outside of the home? In your response, explain how utilization of this ideal would change the definition of a morally good person from the standpoint of traditional ethical theories. Answer: The ideal of androgyny, which emphasizes the blending of traditionally masculine and feminine traits, can promote equal opportunity by challenging rigid gender roles and stereotypes. While embracing androgyny may help create more equitable opportunities, true equality requires addressing systemic barriers and promoting inclusivity in education, employment, and caregiving responsibilities. Embracing androgyny could redefine the notion of a morally good person by emphasizing qualities like empathy, collaboration, and flexibility over traditionally gendered virtues, thus challenging traditional ethical theories. 3. Do you think that a libertarian or a welfare liberalism interpretation of Kantian ethics would endorse equal opportunity between men and women to alleviate gender bias in the Kantian ethical theories? Explain your answer as to each interpretation. Answer: Both interpretations of Kantian ethics could endorse equal opportunity between men and women to alleviate gender bias. A libertarian interpretation might emphasize individual autonomy and equal treatment under the law, while a welfare liberalism interpretation might prioritize social policies aimed at ensuring equal access to education, employment, and resources. Both approaches would align with Kant's principle of treating individuals as ends in themselves, irrespective of gender. Multiple Choice Questions Choose the best possible answer for each of the following 1. Identify the premise of Carol Gilligan’s work, In A Different Voice. A. Gilligan’s underlying premise is that women’s moral development is the same as men’s even though the moral judgments men and women make may differ. B. Gilligan’s underlying premise is that the moral development and moral judgments made by men and women both differ. C. Gilligan’s underlying premise is that women’s moral development is delayed when compared to men’s, which renders different the moral judgments men and women make. D. Gilligan’s underlying premise is that women’s moral development is the same as men’s even though the moral judgments men make are better than those made by women. Answer: A 2. Explain how traditional ethical theories do not adequately account for the interests of women. A. Many theorists tend not to adequately account for how their concepts objectify and sexualize women. B. Many theorists tend not to adequately account for how their concepts are financially acceptable to women and thus remain economically biased against women. C. Many theorists tend not to adequately explain how the care perspective is adverse to the justice perspective rendering traditional ethical remain biased against women. D. Many theorists tend not to adequately account for how their concepts are morally acceptable to and for women and thus remain biased against women. Answer: D 3. Select the argument opponents make to women’s cry of discrimination in the wage disparity between men and women in the United States. A. Opponents of feminists’ argument claim that the wage disparity between men and women is because women, on average, don’t reach the high levels of education that men do, not discrimination. B. Opponents of feminists’ argument claim that the wage disparity between men and women is because of women’s personality conflicts with authority, not discrimination. C. Opponents of feminists’ argument claim that the wage disparity between men and women is because of women’s choices, not discrimination. D. Opponents of feminists’ argument claim that the wage disparity between men and women is because of women’s attitudes, not discrimination. Answer: C 4. Identify an alternative theory for what impedes women from ending the pay disparity that exists between men and women. A. Women can’t be the primary caregiver and breadwinner, and their ability to choose between the two is limited by the fact that men have been unwilling to be the primary breadwinner, which deprives women of the opportunity to choose between the two roles. B. Women can be the primary caregiver and breadwinner, and their ability to handle both roles has little to do with men’s contributions at all. C. Women can’t be the primary caregiver and breadwinner, and their ability to choose between the two is limited by the fact that men have been unwilling to be the primary caregiver, which deprives women of the opportunity to choose between the two roles. D. Women can’t be the primary caregiver and breadwinner, and their ability to choose between the two is limited by their indecisiveness while men have increasingly taken on the role of primary caregiver. Answer: C 5. Besides the traditional family life with the man as primary breadwinner and the woman as primary caregiver, select an alternative for how men and women can combine a career and family life. A. An alternative to the traditional family model is a model where men and women equally share both roles—engaging in child-rearing and household responsibilities while also earning money in their respective careers. B. An alternative to the traditional family model is a model where men admit to the fact that they refuse to engage in child-rearing and household responsibilities. C. An alternative to the traditional family model is a model where women are willing to allocate child-rearing duties and responsibilities to men. D. An alternative to the traditional family model is a model where women give up their careers but keep the power in the family. Answer: A 6. Explain how ethical theorists can take women’s interests into account. A. Theorists can recognize women’s interests by replacing traditional gender-specific roles and traits with traditional female traits that are equally available and attributable to both men and women. B. Theorists can recognize women’s interests by replacing traditional gender-specific roles and traits with gender-neutral, ideally desirable traits equally available and attributable to both men and women. C. Theorists can recognize women’s interests by replacing traditional gender-specific roles and traits with traditional male traits that are equally available and attributable to both men and women. D. Theorists can recognize women’s interests by replacing traditional gender-specific roles and traits with the Aristotelian model for a morally good and virtuous person. Answer: B 7. Express what is the “ideal of androgyny” in a morally good person. A. The “ideal of androgyny” represents the scenario where either a woman or a man is confused about his/her sexuality and can be perceived as either gender. B. The “ideal of androgyny” is the common ideal that one can appear to be a woman or a man at the same time. C. The “ideal of androgyny” is the common ideal representing the combination of virtues and desirable traits traditionally associated with both men and women. D. The “ideal of androgyny” is the common ideal that one cannot have both the virtues and desirable traits traditionally associated with both men and women. Answer: C 8. Selection the option that research has NOT shown is occurring in family life. A. Studies have shown that the traditional arrangement where the mother is the primary parent and the father is the primary breadwinner is not preferred to one where both tasks are more equally shared. B. Studies have shown that when both men and women share in parenting and breadwinning more equally, their children will suffer adverse mental and emotional effects. C. Studies have shown that the partner who provides more income has more decision-making power, and the greater the difference in incomes, the more decision-making power the higher earning partner tends to have. D. Research has shown that couples with separate spheres of influence find that each partner does not share equal power within the family. Answer: B 9. Express the statistical male conceptions of housework and parenting in a family where both the man and the woman work outside the home. A. Most men think that if both parents work outside the home, then both parents should be splitting the housework and parenting responsibilities 50/50. B. Most men think that if both parents work outside the home, then women should still be doing the majority of the housework, at least 70%, and if the men are doing half, that’s unfair to the men. C. Most men think that if both parents work outside the home, then men should be doing the majority of the housework and parenting, at least 80% of it. D. Most men think that if both parents work outside the home, then women should be doing the majority of the housework and parenting, at least 80% of it. Answer: B 10. Identify the general ways in which traditional ethical theories are biased in favor of men and against women. A. Traditional ethical theories favor men and are biased against women in the insufficiency of these theories about the part women play in different cultures and in their theories about virtues. B. Traditional ethical theories favor men and are biased against women in the insufficiency of these theories about gender roles in family responsibilities and in their ideals of a morally good person. C. Traditional ethical theories favor men and are biased against women in the insufficiency of these theories about justice and their views about equal opportunity in the workplace. D. Traditional ethical theories favor men and are biased against women in the insufficiency of these theories about justice and in their ideals of a morally good person. Answer: D Essay Questions 1. Explain the similarities and differences between the care perspective and the justice perspective. In your answer, explain why it can be difficult to prioritize one perspective over the other. Answer: The care perspective and the justice perspective are two distinct ethical frameworks that often intersect but can also diverge in their approaches to moral decision-making. Similarities: 1. Concern for Well-being: Both perspectives are rooted in a concern for the well-being of individuals and communities. 2. Ethical Considerations: Both perspectives aim to address ethical dilemmas and promote fairness in societal interactions. 3. Social Context: They both consider the social context in which moral decisions are made, acknowledging the importance of relationships and social structures. Differences: 1. Focus: The care perspective emphasizes the importance of nurturing relationships and empathy, focusing on the interconnectedness of individuals and the importance of meeting others' needs. On the other hand, the justice perspective prioritizes principles of fairness, equality, and rights, aiming to ensure that everyone is treated justly and fairly under the law. 2. Criteria for Decision-making: The care perspective often involves making decisions based on the specific needs and circumstances of individuals, prioritizing care and compassion. Meanwhile, the justice perspective typically relies on principles, rules, and impartiality to guide decision-making, aiming for equitable outcomes based on predetermined criteria of justice. 3. Application: While the care perspective is often applied in contexts such as healthcare, education, and personal relationships, where nurturing and empathy are crucial, the justice perspective is frequently used in legal systems, policymaking, and social justice movements, where fairness and equality are paramount. 4. Emotional vs. Rational: The care perspective tends to incorporate emotional considerations and interpersonal dynamics into decision-making, valuing empathy and compassion. In contrast, the justice perspective leans more towards rationality and impartiality, focusing on principles and rules to ensure fair outcomes. It can be difficult to prioritize one perspective over the other because both perspectives offer valuable insights into ethical decision-making. In many situations, there is a tension between the care for individuals' needs and the pursuit of justice and fairness for all. For example, in cases where resources are limited, prioritizing care for a few individuals may seem morally compelling from a care perspective, but it may raise concerns about fairness and distributive justice from a justice perspective. Similarly, a strict application of justice principles may overlook the unique needs and circumstances of individuals, leading to outcomes that seem harsh or insensitive from a care perspective. Ultimately, the challenge lies in finding a balance between these perspectives and recognizing when each is most appropriate. In some cases, a synthesis of both perspectives may offer the most ethically sound approach, acknowledging the importance of both individual care and justice for all members of society. 2. Do you think that Aristotelian and utilitarian theories have exhibited gender bias? If so, describe how these theories have not accounted for women or considered equal opportunity for men and women. Answer: Both Aristotelian and utilitarian ethical theories have historically exhibited gender bias, largely due to the societal contexts in which they were developed and the limited perspectives of their creators regarding gender roles and equality. 1. Aristotelian Ethics: • Aristotle's ethical framework is based on the concept of virtue ethics, which emphasizes the development of moral character and the pursuit of eudaimonia (human flourishing). However, Aristotle's views on women were deeply entrenched in the patriarchal norms of ancient Greek society. He regarded women as inherently inferior to men and believed that they lacked the rational capacity required for full moral agency. • In Aristotle's works, such as "Nicomachean Ethics," he often portrayed women as passive and subordinate to men, with their primary role being that of wives and mothers. This perspective excluded women from active participation in ethical deliberation and moral decision-making. • Aristotle's conception of eudaimonia was largely based on the experiences and aspirations of Greek male citizens, neglecting the diverse needs and aspirations of women and other marginalized groups. 2. Utilitarianism: • Utilitarianism, developed by philosophers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, evaluates the morality of actions based on their consequences and the principle of maximizing utility or happiness for the greatest number of people. However, early utilitarian thinkers often failed to consider the unequal distribution of power and resources between men and women in society. • Utilitarian calculations typically focused on aggregate outcomes without adequately accounting for the differential impacts of policies and actions on men and women. This oversight resulted in policies and practices that perpetuated gender inequality and discrimination. • Additionally, utilitarianism's emphasis on rational calculation and impartiality sometimes overlooked the unique experiences and perspectives of women, who often faced distinct forms of oppression and injustice. Both Aristotelian and utilitarian theories have evolved over time, and contemporary scholars have critiqued and revised these frameworks to address their historical biases and limitations regarding gender. Contemporary feminist ethicists, for example, have challenged traditional ethical theories by highlighting the importance of gender equality, intersectionality, and the recognition of diverse experiences and perspectives in moral deliberation. In summary, while Aristotelian and utilitarian ethical theories have exhibited gender bias in the past, ongoing efforts to critique and revise these frameworks have contributed to a more inclusive and equitable understanding of ethics that better accounts for the experiences and needs of women and other marginalized groups. 3. Describe ways in which traditional ethics have failed to account for women’s interests when setting forth requirements for a morally good person. In your response, explain how traditional traits exhibited by men and women can skew the requirements for a morally good person in various ethical theories. Answer: Traditional ethics, influenced by patriarchal norms and gender stereotypes, have often failed to account for women's interests and experiences when defining the requirements for a morally good person. This failure stems from several factors, including the prioritization of traits traditionally associated with men over those associated with women, as well as the exclusion of women's perspectives from ethical discourse. Here are some ways in which traditional ethics have fallen short in this regard: 1. Emphasis on Masculine Virtues: Many traditional ethical theories, such as Aristotle's virtue ethics, Kantian deontology, and even some interpretations of utilitarianism, have emphasized traits traditionally associated with masculinity, such as courage, assertiveness, and rationality, as defining characteristics of moral goodness. This emphasis often marginalizes traits traditionally associated with femininity, such as empathy, nurturing, and compassion, which are equally important for moral development and ethical decision-making. 2. Neglect of Women's Experiences: Traditional ethical theories have often been developed by and for men, with little consideration given to the unique experiences and perspectives of women. As a result, women's voices and concerns have been marginalized or ignored in ethical discourse, leading to a lack of recognition of the ways in which gender inequality and discrimination impact moral agency and ethical decision-making. 3. Double Standards: Traditional ethics have sometimes applied double standards when evaluating the moral behavior of men and women. For example, women may be held to stricter standards of chastity and modesty than men, with their moral worth often tied to their adherence to traditional gender roles and expectations. This can lead to unjust judgments and unequal treatment based on gender. 4. Stereotypical Expectations: Traditional ethical theories have perpetuated stereotypical expectations of women as caregivers and nurturers, relegating them to subordinate roles in moral communities. This narrow conception of women's roles limits their opportunities for moral agency and leadership, reinforcing gender inequalities within both ethical theory and practice. 5. Invisibility of Women's Contributions: Women's contributions to ethics and moral philosophy have often been overlooked or attributed to male thinkers, erasing their intellectual contributions and reinforcing the idea that ethics is a primarily male domain. This erasure perpetuates the marginalization of women in ethical discourse and reinforces the privileging of masculine perspectives and values. In summary, traditional ethics have failed to account for women's interests by prioritizing masculine virtues, neglecting women's experiences, applying double standards, perpetuating stereotypical expectations, and erasing women's contributions to ethical thought. Moving forward, it is essential to recognize and challenge these biases in order to develop a more inclusive and equitable ethics that reflects the full diversity of human experiences and perspectives. Test Bank for Introducing Ethics: For Here and Now James P. Sterba 9780205903849, 9780205226689