CH-5-6 Training Design – Managing Performance through Training and Development : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 5 to 6 Chapter 5 Training Design Essential Outcome After completing the lesson on this chapter, if nothing else, students should be able to outline the primary steps and activities involved with designing a training program. They should be able describe how the process works, beginning with training objectives, the considerations that go into the “make or buy” decision, and choosing appropriate training methods from the range of options available. Chapter Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • write a training objective that includes the four elements and three components of an objective • explain how to decide to purchase or design a training program and how to write a request for proposal (RFP) • describe how to determine the content of a training program and the different types of training methods • explain how to use the conditions of practice to maximize the benefits of active practice • compare and contrast routine expertise and adaptive expertise • explain how to design a training program for active learning • explain how and why you would design an error-management training program Key Concepts: HOW DOES THIS CHAPTER CONNECT TO THE WORLD OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT? 1. Training objectives are the starting point for the process of training design. Once the performance problem has been identified and it has been determined that training is to be part of the solution, well-thought-out and properly written training objects (including statements of performance, condition, and criterion) that clearly state what trainees are expected to be able to do at the completion of training are essential in order to target training to improve the performance that is causing the problem. 2. Depending on factors such as available time, urgency of the training need, financial resources available, number of people in the organization requiring training, specificity of the training need, and internal expertise available to design the training program, it might make more sense to purchase a either generic or customized training from a vendor rather than develop the training in-house. If sourcing training from outside, properly prepared and presented RFPs (requests for proposals) are essential in order to secure the right training at an appropriate cost. 3. Training content is determined by the needs analysis and training objectives, which also inform the selection of the most appropriate training methods to use. Choices include off-the-job, on-the-job, and technology-based training, or some blended combination. Whatever methods chosen, incorporating active practice strategies into the training, using pre-training interventions, and thoughtfully determining the conditions of practice such as massed or distributed practice, overlearning, task sequencing, and use of feedback (see Table 5.3 on page 155) are critical considerations for the design of efficient and effective training. 4. Other techniques, including active learning, adaptive expertise, and error-management training (EMT), may be employed to increase learner engagement, confidence, and aid in learning tasks that are complex in nature, and which may not be identical in the actual work setting to those practised during training. 5. Well-thought-out training design complements and addresses the characteristics of the trainees and significantly increases the likelihood that the training will have the desired effect of changing individual behaviour and performance, thereby resulting in improved organizational effectiveness (see Figure 5.1 on page 164). Student Motivation: WHY SHOULD STUDENTS CARE? You may safely assume that most, if not all, of the learners in your classroom will have at some point on another have directly participated in some form of workplace training. By encouraging them to reflect on their first-hand experiences (either positive or negative) as a recipient of training, you will help them relate to the benefits of proper and effective training design. It might also help at this point, as well as other times throughout the course, to link back to the concept of strategic human resource management (SHRM) and instructional systems design (ISD), which is a key component of SHRM. Making this connection regularly is important because not all students in your class may truly appreciate the important role of training, particularly if they are taking this class as part of a human resources management program and their interests are geared toward other aspects of HR. In any case, all students should be able to appreciate the importance of wisely investing scarce institutional resources for the purposes of improving institutional effectiveness. By emphasizing that well-thought-out training design is a critical element of ISD, you will help foster an appreciation of its importance to the organization. Barriers to Learning: WHAT ARE SOME COMMON STUDENT MISCONCEPTIONS AND STUMBLING BLOCK? Even for some experienced teachers and trainers, writing proper training (or learning or instructional) objectives is challenging, so expect this might also be the case for some students. If you choose to have your students practise writing these (see exercises under Engagement Strategies, below), be prepared to spend time reinforcing the components of performance, criterion, and conditions; and also expect to see some objectives written from the perspective of what the trainer will do, rather than the trainee. This is a common mistake, and a perfect opportunity to illustrate the value of error-management training (see page 162). Engagement Strategies: WHAT CAN I DO IN CLASS? 1. For In-Class Exercise 1, on page 166: Facilitate this exercise as a “think-pair-share” by having each student create their list independently, then share and discuss their list with a partner. Finally, ask for some examples and discuss, adding any factors addressed in the chapter that might not have been covered. 2. For In-Class Exercise 2, on page 167: Divide the class into groups of 4–5 students. Each group is to develop a list of tasks involved in driving and organize these tasks for teaching somebody how to drive. They then should present their list with justification using material they have learned in class. Summarize. As an alternative to the learning to drive example, you may wish to use a technical example most everyone has experience with, such as programming a PVR or learning to use a computer or particular software program. 3. For In-Class Exercise 3, on page 167: As an alternative to having each student conduct this research, divide the class into groups of 4–5. Have each group answer the questions for the current class and then present their analysis in class. Summarize the analysis made by the various groups, concluding with discussion on effectiveness of the class. (Note: If you conducted the “stop-start-continue” learner feedback exercise suggested last chapter, this would be an opportune time to discuss how the strategies you employ along with those suggested by the class fit with this topic). 4. For In-Class Exercise 4, on page 167: Conduct as a class discussion using two or three examples volunteered by the class. 5. For In-Class Exercise 6, on page 167: Conduct as an in-class exercise. Use responses from randomly selected students to discuss the components of training objectives with the class. 6. For In-Class Exercise 7, on page 167: This can be an individual or group exercise. Ask students to focus on errors made and learning from those errors in their responses. Consider combining this with the previous two exercises, as there will likely be errors made in writing proper training objectives (see note above under Barriers to Learning). Suggestion for Large Class Exercises Role play: Divide the class into groups of 5–6 students. Ask each group to select 2–3 students to perform a role play to demonstrate various error-management techniques in a training setting. Have the other students in the group act as observers or recorders. Provide time for the development and enactment of the role play. Ask students to conduct a short debrief of their role play with the feedback from the recorders/ observers. Have them partner up with another group of student to share their findings. *This will require some preparation beforehand from the instructor to guide the development of the role plays and some debriefing on the technique of role play to ensure that students understand it is not a “skit” and that the three stages of a role play are utilized. The instructor will act as facilitator of the various role plays and rove around the classroom observing and guiding the role plays, as well as summing up the debrief points. Suggestions for Technology-Enhanced Classrooms a) Locate a job description on the Internet and have students look at the various elements of the job description. Have them highlight the sections that would translate well into training objectives. b) Locate an external training provider and look at one of his/her course/workshops. Highlight various sections such as “who should attend,” “training objectives,” and the costs/duration of the program. Have students share their observations about the program: Do the training objectives look achievable? Is the cost reasonable? Are the right people attending? Suggestions for Internet Classes a) Locate a job description on the Internet and have students look at the various elements of the job description. Have them post on the discussion board the sections that would translate into training objectives. Have them discuss the similarities/ differences in these objectives and how these would be measured. b) Have students locate an external training provider and look at one of his/her course/workshops. Ask them to highlight various sections such as “who should attend,” “training objectives,” and the costs/duration of the program. Have students share their observations about the program on the discussion board: Do the training objectives look achievable? Is the cost reasonable? Are the right people attending? Assessment Tools You may wish to make use of the Test Bank, PowerPoint slides, or at the end of a class, ask a student to summarize the key points from the lesson Reflections on Teaching: HOW CAN I ASSESS MY OWN “PERFORMANCE”? Good teaching requires the practice of ongoing self-assessment and reflection. At the completion of this lesson, you may find it helpful to reflect on the following, and consider whether or not you want or need to make any adjustments for subsequent lessons. 1. What worked in this lesson? What didn’t? 2. Were students engaged? Were they focused or did they go off on tangents? 3. Did I take steps to adequately assess student learning? 4. Did my assessments suggest that they understood the key concepts? 5. What (if anything) should I do differently next time? 6. How can I gather student feedback? 7. How can I use this feedback for continuous improvement of my teaching? Additional Resources Chapter Summary This chapter described the main activities involved in the design of a training program. First, we described the elements and components of training objectives. Next, we discussed the decision to purchase or design a training program and the factors to consider when making a purchase-or-design decision. The importance of a request for proposal (RFP) was also discussed. We then described the factors involved in the design of a training program, including training content, methods, active practice, and the conditions of practice. This was followed by a discussion on active learning and design elements that promote adaptive expertise with a particular emphasis on error-management training. Web Links • A Quick Guide to Writing Learning Objectives (from a training and development website): http://www.nwlink.com/ donclark/hrd/templates/objectivetool.html • A Guide to Writing Learning Objectives (industry example, link to PDF document): http://www.nerc.com/files/Instructional_guide_writing_Objectives.pdf • IN Training Solutions (outsourcing example): http://www.intrainingsolutions.com/business.html Suggestions for End-of-Chapter Exercises • Alternative for In-Class Exercise 4, on page 167: If learners do not have current or recent experience with an actual workplace training event, ask them to analyze an academic class as an alternate. Each student should submit a written answer for this exercise. • For In-Class Exercise 5, on page 167: Facilitate this exercise in pairs or triads. Have some volunteers present their findings in class. Summarize and debrief. Case Incident: We ID 25 Answers 1. What should be included in training objectives for staff tasked with verifying the age of customers? Describe how you would write these objectives, incorporating the four key elements and three components of well-written training objectives. Answer: Students may suggest that training objectives could include how to estimate someone’s age (by physical appearance – i.e. face, dress) or by conduct (body language, voice, mannerisms); or how to engage with customers to ask for identification in an assertive but non-confrontational manner. Others might suggest a training objective having to do with learning the company policy and procedures. In any case, the sample objective they write should include the four key elements and the three components of properly written training objectives (see pages 146-147). Training objectives should include: • Specific Behavior: What the employee should be able to do (e.g., estimate age by physical appearance or conduct, ask for identification assertively). • Conditions: Under what conditions the behavior should be performed (e.g., in a customer interaction setting). • Standards: The level of performance expected (e.g., accurately estimate age with 90% accuracy, handle customer interactions without confrontation). • Performance Measurement: How the behavior will be assessed (e.g., through role-plays, on-the-job observation). Additionally, objectives should be written clearly to include: • Performance: What the trainee will do. • Condition: Under what conditions they will perform the task. • Criterion: The standard or level of performance expected. 2. What content should be included in a training program designed to help staff verify customer age? Consider including various aspects such as assertiveness, conflict resolution, identification techniques, and policy rationale. Answer: Building on the responses to the first question, students may suggest content related to assertiveness and conflict resolution training, how to spot fake I.D. cards, and various visual screening techniques to determine if a customer reasonably fits the 25 or under criteria for having to produce identification. Further, they may suggest training content that provides context and rationale for the policy, such as learning statistics related to the hazards of under-age drinking (related to motor vehicle accidents, alcohol poisoning, etc.). The training content should encompass: • Assertiveness and Conflict Resolution: Techniques for interacting with customers in an assertive but non-confrontational manner. • Identification Techniques: How to spot fake I.D. cards and visually screen customers to assess if they fit the age criteria. • Policy Rationale: The reasons behind the policy, including statistics and information about the dangers of under-age drinking (e.g., motor vehicle accidents, alcohol poisoning). • Contextual Knowledge: Understanding the implications of age verification in preventing illegal activities and promoting safety. Case Study: Training the Sales Force Answers 1. How should training objectives be written to effectively focus a training program? Include the requisite elements and components in your sample objective and explain how a well-written objective can help both trainees and managers. Answer: The objectives of the training program had to do with increasing sales, and one can surmise that they mostly had to do with training in basic sales techniques (which many of the trainees indicated they already knew). In writing a sample objective to answer the next part of the question, students should be sure to include the requisite elements and components, and should be able to speak to how a well-written training objective can help focus training, and help provide both trainees and their managers with a better idea of what the focus of the training will be. Training objectives should include: • Performance: What the trainee will do (e.g., demonstrate improved product knowledge). • Condition: Under what conditions the performance will occur (e.g., during customer interactions). • Criterion: The standard for acceptable performance (e.g., accurately describe product features in 90% of customer interactions). • Measurement: How the performance will be assessed (e.g., through role-plays, customer feedback). Well-written objectives help focus training by clearly defining what is expected, guiding the training content, and providing a clear benchmark for success for both trainees and managers. 2. What were the implications of the decision to purchase an off-the-shelf training program without conducting a proper needs analysis? How did this decision affect the effectiveness of the training? Answer: The decision to purchase was one of convenience and time savings, and suited the decision-makers because they wanted to be seen as taking quick action to solve the problem of declining sales. The advantage of quick implementation was overshadowed by the disadvantage of not having any customization in order to address the specific needs of the company. While a training program developed in-house would have offered that customization, it still would have been ineffective if it did not focus on solving the real problem – something that was not identified because a proper needs analysis was never conducted. The decision to purchase an off-the-shelf training program led to a lack of customization for the company's specific needs. The training focused on basic sales techniques, which were already known to many trainees, rather than addressing the real issue, which was a lack of product knowledge. This lack of a proper needs analysis resulted in a training program that did not solve the underlying problem, reducing the overall effectiveness of the intervention. 3. How might a Request for Proposal (RFP) have influenced the training selection process, and why might it have still been ineffective without a proper needs analysis? Answer: An RFP likely would not have made too much of a difference in the absence of a proper needs analysis, because the decision makers would likely still have been fixated on training in sales techniques and would have emphasized this in the RFP. An RFP could have formalized the process and specified the training requirements, but without a proper needs analysis, it would still likely have emphasized sales techniques rather than the actual problem of product knowledge. The absence of a needs analysis meant that the RFP would not have addressed the real issues, leading to the selection of an ineffective training program. 4. What were the consequences of not conducting a needs analysis for the training program? How did this oversight affect the focus and effectiveness of the training? Answer: The effect of not conducting a new needs analysis was huge. It led to the assumption that poor sales techniques were the problem, when really the problem seemed to have more to do with a lack of product knowledge by the sales force, who stated they were overwhelmed with trying to keep up with all of the new products that were being quickly introduced. If a proper needs analysis had been done, the focus of the training would have been on helping the sales force acquire the requisite product knowledge rather than on sales techniques. As the product knowledge needed by the sales force was housed internally (by the design engineers), this would have led to the decision to design and deliver the product knowledge training in-house. Not conducting a needs analysis led to a focus on sales techniques rather than the actual problem of insufficient product knowledge. The training did not address the real needs of the sales force, who were struggling with new product information. A proper needs analysis would have revealed the need for product knowledge training, which could have been developed and delivered internally, thus aligning the training with the actual requirements. 5. How did the reliance on web-based training impact the trainees' experience and the effectiveness of the training program? How should the training modality be selected based on the focus of the training? Answer: The reliance on web-based training was not likely the best choice in this instance, because it created the feeling amongst the trainees that they were just “going through the motions”, slogging through slow and boring training material that did not teach them anything new. If the focus of the training on had been on product knowledge, it is possible that at least some of it could have been delivered effectively via the web, and students should appreciate that the focus of the training was the real problem, not the delivery modality. The reliance on web-based training led to disengagement among trainees, who felt the material was slow and unengaging. While web-based training could be effective for delivering some content, the real issue was the focus of the training on sales techniques rather than product knowledge. The modality should be chosen based on how effectively it can deliver the specific content required to address the identified needs. 6. Considering the previous discussions, how should a proper needs analysis inform the development of training objectives and content? What methods could be used to address the real problem effectively? Answer: In answering this question, students should be able to pull together the ideas discussed in the preceding questions. They should appreciate the importance of the needs analysis process in determining the real training need to solve the cause of the poor performance, and suggest training objectives and content related to product knowledge rather than sales techniques. They could suggest a range of training methods that could be used to accomplish such objectives. A proper needs analysis should reveal the actual training needs, such as product knowledge rather than sales techniques. Based on the analysis, training objectives should focus on increasing product knowledge. The content should include detailed product information, context for the importance of this knowledge, and methods to assess understanding. Training methods could include a mix of in-person workshops, interactive web modules, and hands-on practice to ensure comprehensive coverage and effective learning. Flashback Answers 1. How did the lack of effective use of the Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model impact the development and implementation of the training program? Specifically, what were the consequences of not properly conducting the needs analysis stage, and how could proper use of ISD have improved the situation? Answer: Use of the instructional systems design (ISD) model: • Refer to Figure 1.5 on page 26. The ISD model was not effectively used, most notably at the needs analysis stage. In place of a proper analysis, assumptions were made both about the nature of the problem (decline in sales) and that the problem had a training solution (sales training for the sales force). More attention was paid to the cost of the program than to the training objectives, content, methods, or principles. Had ISD been implemented, the costs of training could likely have been reduced, as focusing on product-knowledge training could have been delivered in-house at a much lower cost, and more importantly would have had a much great chance of solving the cause of the problem, which appears to be lack of product knowledge of all the new products recently introduced. The ineffective use of the ISD model led to a focus on sales training without a thorough needs analysis. Assumptions were made about the nature of the problem and the training solution. As a result, the training program was misaligned with the actual issue, which was a lack of product knowledge. Proper use of the ISD model, particularly the needs analysis stage, would have identified this gap and allowed for a more cost-effective in-house training solution focused on product knowledge, potentially leading to better results and reduced costs. 2. How might the use of a diagnostic tool like Mager and Pipe’s flowchart have altered management’s conclusion that training was the solution to the sales decline problem? What insights could have been gained from such an analysis? Answer: Management’s conclusion that training was the solution: • As noted above, management made assumptions that sales training was the solution to the problem of slumping sales. Had they used a diagnostic tool like Mager and Pipe’s flowchart (see Figure 4.2 on page 124), they likely would have been able to determine that while the problem was definitely worth solving, there may in fact be some “fast fixes” or aspects of the reward system at play (we do not have enough information to determine this from the case, but these barriers to performance are not uncommon in sales organizations). At the very least, they would have determined that the skills deficiency relates to product knowledge rather than poor selling techniques, therefore directing the type of training required. The use of Mager and Pipe’s flowchart could have provided a structured approach to diagnosing the problem, revealing that the issue might be related to factors other than sales techniques, such as product knowledge deficiencies or reward system issues. It could have helped management identify that the problem was more about product knowledge than sales techniques, thereby guiding the development of more appropriate training solutions or addressing other underlying issues. 3. What steps should be included in a comprehensive training needs analysis, and why is it important to consult a broad range of stakeholders? How do organizational, task, and person analyses contribute to developing an effective training program? Answer: Training needs analysis (see Figure 4.1 on page 111): • The training needs analysis should begin with a stakeholder consultation, which should include management, the sales force, the design engineers, and (if possible and practical) a representative sample of customers. It is important to not limit the consultation to the sales force and management only, as each will have “blind spots” and biases in their estimation of what the actual root cause of the problem is. • The organizational analysis should take into account the sales strategy, the competitive sales environment, and organizational context. The task analysis should examine the job description(s) of the sales force and knowledge and skills required to perform the role effectively. The person analysis should define the desired performance and identify the performance gaps, as well as any perceived barriers to performance. Based on this, a well-designed and properly targeted training program can be implemented. A comprehensive training needs analysis should include: • Stakeholder Consultation: Involving management, sales force, design engineers, and customers to avoid biases and gain a full understanding of the problem. • Organizational Analysis: Examining the sales strategy, market position, and organizational context. • Task Analysis: Reviewing job descriptions and required knowledge and skills. • Person Analysis: Identifying performance gaps and barriers. This thorough approach ensures that the training program addresses the actual needs and is tailored to the specific context and challenges. 4. What insights might emerge from the organizational, task, and person analyses during a training needs analysis? How can these insights inform the development of a training solution? Answer: Needs analysis results: • The organizational analysis may reveal aspects of the organization (its market position or sales strategy, for example) that might be exacerbating the problem of declining sales. • The task analysis might reveal problems with the way the sales force is structured (sales territory or product line, for example), or perhaps problems with the reward structure (sales targets, quotas, commissions). • The person analysis may reveal significant gaps between the skills, attitudes, or behaviours of “star” sales people compared with underperformers. • Each of the above may provide valuable information which would inform the design and development of the most effective training solution (if the analysis indeed indicated there was a training solution for the problem). Insights from the analyses could include: • Organizational Analysis: Issues related to the organization’s market position or sales strategy that may exacerbate declining sales. • Task Analysis: Problems with sales force structure or reward systems. • Person Analysis: Gaps in skills, attitudes, or behaviors between high-performing and underperforming salespeople. These insights help in designing a training program that is targeted and relevant, addressing specific areas of improvement and ensuring a more effective solution. Flash Forward Question • Have students refer to Table 6.1 on page 177 to see the various off-the-job training methods that could be considered. They should keep their focus on product knowledge training and consider which approach(es) would likely be most effective for this. Running Case Study: Dirty Pools Suggested Answers to Case Questions: 1. What are the key elements and components of well-written training objectives, and how might they be applied to a training program focused on taking and testing water samples in pools? Provide an example of a properly written training objective for this scenario. Answer: Review student answers for inclusion of key elements and components of properly written training objectives. If students are struggling for an objective, suggest one that has to do with properly taking and testing water samples. Well-written training objectives should include specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) elements. For a training program on taking and testing water samples, an example objective might be: "By the end of the training, participants will accurately take and test pool water samples using the provided testing equipment with 95% accuracy, as demonstrated in a practical assessment conducted during the training session." This objective includes clear performance criteria, a measurable outcome, and a timeframe for achievement. 2. What types of knowledge and skills should be included in the training content for a program focused on pool water safety, and why is it important to include both declarative and procedural knowledge along with technical and affective objectives? Answer: Content suggested should include both declarative and procedural knowledge, the acquisition of technical skills (may include cognitive as well as motor skills related to manipulating test equipment), and affective objectives related to attitude and appreciation of the importance of pool health and safety-related issues. The training content should include: • Declarative Knowledge: Information about pool water safety regulations and standards. • Procedural Knowledge: Step-by-step procedures for taking and testing water samples. • Technical Skills: Hands-on experience with water testing equipment, including both cognitive and motor skills. • Affective Objectives: Emphasis on the importance of pool health and safety, fostering an appreciation for the role of accurate water testing in maintaining pool safety. Including these elements ensures that trainees not only understand the theory behind water testing but also gain the practical skills and attitudes necessary for effective performance. 3. Why is active practice important in a training program, and how does it enhance the learning experience, particularly in the context of using water testing equipment? Answer: Students should appreciate the value of active practice as a way to develop and reinforce competencies to be acquired through the training. Keeping with the testing equipment example, they should be able to see how having trainees actually use the test equipment under the watchful eye of an experienced trainer would be more effective than simply reading about it, or watching someone demonstrate the techniques without the opportunity for the trainees to get hands-on with the equipment. Active practice is crucial because it allows trainees to apply what they have learned in a hands-on environment, reinforcing their skills and knowledge. For instance, having trainees use the water testing equipment under the guidance of an experienced trainer helps them develop proficiency and confidence. This practical experience is more effective than passive learning methods such as reading or observing demonstrations alone, as it facilitates skill acquisition and retention through direct engagement. 4. How do conditions of practice influence the effectiveness of training, and why is it beneficial to conduct training in an environment that simulates real-world conditions, such as poolside for water testing training? Answer: Students should be able to note that conditions of practice play an important role in training effectiveness. Staying with the water testing example, they should be able to appreciate how doing this training pool side (where they will actually be taking the water tests) will be much more effective than delivering the training in a classroom. Conditions of practice significantly impact training effectiveness because they ensure that trainees are familiar with the environment and conditions they will encounter on the job. Conducting training poolside, rather than in a classroom, allows trainees to practice water testing in the actual setting where they will perform these tasks. This realistic practice helps them adapt to the specific conditions they will face, improving their readiness and performance in real-world scenarios. 5. Why is it important for trainees to be prepared for conditions that may differ from those experienced during training, and how can training programs be designed to help trainees adapt to such variables? Answer: Students should be able to see that while routine expertise is important because consistency is needed, there will also be times when the trainees need to be comfortable with conditions that might be different than those during the training (they might be working at a different facility for example, where either the test equipment could be different, the size of the pool could be different, etc.) therefore they need to be able to comfortably adjust and adapt as appropriate. This could be built into the training program by introducing different variables to the active practice component of the training to see how trainees adapt. Trainees need to be prepared for varying conditions because they may encounter different equipment, pool sizes, or other factors in different locations. Training programs should incorporate scenarios with diverse variables to build adaptability. For example, introducing different types of testing equipment or varying pool conditions during practice sessions helps trainees develop the flexibility to handle unexpected situations effectively. This approach ensures they can adjust and perform well in diverse real-world environments. Chapter 6 Off-the-Job Training Methods Essential Outcome After completing the lesson on this chapter, if nothing else, students should have a solid enough grasp on the nine off-the-job training methods described to be able to differentiate each from the others. They should also be cognizant of the factors involved in determining the most appropriate training method (or methods) for addressing the performance problem they are seeking to remedy. Chapter Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • explain the difference between instructional methods and instructional media • compare and contrast the use and effectiveness of different instructional methods • explain how to design a simulation with high physical and psychological fidelity • choose an appropriate instructional method for a training program • discuss the implications of an aptitude-treatment interaction for training Key Concepts: HOW DOES THIS CHAPTER CONNECT TO THE WORLD OF TRAINING AND MOTIVATION? 1. Most workplace training takes place off the job, and typically involves one or more of the following instructional methods: lecture, discussion, case study, case incident, behaviour modelling, role play, simulations, games, or action learning. Each are described in some detail, and are summarized in Table 6.1 on page 177. 2. Each of the methods described have their advantages as well as drawbacks. When executed properly, each can be effective. The Tips for Trainers sections that follow the description of each method provide useful suggestions on how to get the most from each technique. 3. Proper selection in terms of the suitability of each method is critical. Decision factors include the objectives of the training, the costs of training delivery, the importance of transfer of training to the workplace, the skills and preferences of the trainer, and the characteristics and preferences of the trainees. The factors described on pages 193-194 provide a useful checklist to help determine the most appropriate off-the-job training method for a given situation. Student Motivation: WHY SHOULD STUDENTS CARE? There is a good chance that the majority of the students in your class will be looking forward to this middle section of the textbook, because they are more interested in learning about, discussing, and actually experiencing training than thinking about the important work that precedes and follows it. Thus, it will likely not be too difficult to interest students in this chapter or the two chapters that follow. There is also a high probability that your learners will have first-hand experience with at least several of the training methods described in this chapter (especially lectures). These direct experiences present opportunities for reflection as well as engagement in the lesson. Barriers to Learning: WHAT ARE SOME COMMON STUDENT MISCONCEPTIONS AND STUMBLING BLOCKS? While this chapter presents opportunities to build on the direct experiences of your students as recipients of at least some of these training methods, few, if any, will have experience with them from the point of view of the trainer (though most students will have had previous opportunities to deliver in-class presentations and therefore will have some experience with the lecture method). This might make it challenging for them to relate to the Tips for Trainers section that follows the description of each method. One way to compensate for this (time permitting) is by having your learners take on the role of trainer and try out at least one of the nine training methods as an in-class assignment during a subsequent class. See Engagement Strategies below for further ideas on how to go about this. Engagement Strategies: WHAT CAN I DO IN CLASS? 1. One effective way to actively engage your students while at the same time provide them with an opportunity to experience the role of a trainer is to assign them the task of designing and delivering a mini-training session on a topic related to training and development. Working either individually or in teams (depending on the size of your class and the time available for presentations), students identify a training need (or select from a list of suggested topics—see the list in the “Resources for Mini-Training Sessions section), choose a training method, deliver a mini-training session to their peers, and evaluate the results. Thus, they experience first-hand the key elements of instructional systems design (ISD). The seminars can be delivered one after another during a class dedicated to the activity or distributed over several subsequent classes. A list of suggested topics, guidelines for developing and delivering the sessions, and a training plan template can be found under Additional Resources, below. 2. For In-Class Exercise 2, on page 196: As a way of facilitating this exercise, have students write their responses on corresponding “liked” and “didn’t like” aspects of the training. Divide the class into groups of 4–5 students. Each group is required to develop a comprehensive list of items under both categories. Review the lists and ask the class what conclusions they draw from it. Debrief along the lines of what themes seem to constitute effective training and which ones we should avoid. 3. For In-Class Exercise 3, on page 196: Organize the class into triads in order for them to experience a role-play exercise. In lieu of the students creating scenarios, you may provide them with one they can relate to (e.g., a student having difficulty with an instructor, registering for a course, getting a refund on a product they purchased, etc.). Have the students play the role of customer, staff, and observer. Ask them to conduct a brief role play (one or two minutes), and then debrief, asking the observer to comment on what he/she observed. Have them rotate three times so each student gets to do each part. Debrief as a large group, focusing on students’ experience with the exercise. 4. For In-Class Exercise 4, on page 196: As an alternative, show the students a slide or overhead of a position description that indicates major roles and tasks. Use the description as the focus of the exercise. 5. For In-Class Exercise 5, on page 196: If you do not have sufficient class time to conduct this exercise, you could have students participate in a brief game instead. For ideas on games, see Web Links, below. 6. For In-Class Exercise 7, on page 196: Facilitate as a class discussion. Assign the design segment as an individual or group assignment. This project can also be assigned as homework. Suggestions for Large Class Exercises Behaviour modelling is a concept that is sometimes difficult for students to grasp. In some cases they may confuse it with role playing. To demonstrate an example of behaviour modelling that includes the entire class, consider the following: Select four students at the start of the class and ask for their participation in this activity. You will be asking them to teach “how to do an effective handshake” using the behavioural modelling method. Provide the four students with some time to “perfect” their handshake, making sure they all agree on what constitutes the perfect handshake. Divide the class into four sections with a trainer at the front of each section. (Students can remain in their seats for the observation portion.) Following the four steps in behaviour modelling (page 182-183), have the trainers demonstrate the perfect handshake with a volunteer. You could also have them model ineffective handshakes as a way of training through the use of the mixed modelling strategy. Students will observe the handshake technique, and then practise doing the handshake with a partner. When they feel they have perfected it, they will perform the handshake with their partner for the trainer and will be rewarded with a “prize” or “positive feedback” if it is done successfully. If additional practice is needed, students will continue to practise with their partner until they are ready to demonstrate their technique to the trainer. Ask students to discuss how they will ensure that “transfer” of this learned skill will take place. Consider having students shake hands in this manner at the start or end of the next few classes to demonstrate that transfer has occurred. Suggestions for Technology-Enhanced Classrooms Visual images are often invaluable in training, and as the saying goes, “A picture is worth a thousand words.” Create and show a montage of various images of people learning in the some of the settings described in this chapter (classroom, outdoor learning) at the start of the class. Have students identify the various training methods they see. Suggestions for Internet Classes a) Have students create a short game to reinforce a concept from the course. It should be a game that can be played asynchronously by other members of the class. Have them post their game to the course website and challenge each other to select 2 or 3 games to play and discuss their experiences. b) Have students conduct on-line research on outdoor experiential educational programs such as Outward Bound. Have them identify how the training is marketed (what message is shared in the promotional video, choice of words, etc.) and what aspects of it are promoted the most. Discuss these on the discussion board or complete as a short homework assignment. Assessment Tools. You may wish to make use of the Test Bank, PowerPoint slides, or at the end of a class, ask a student to summarize the key points from the lesson. Reflections on Teaching: HOW CAN I ASSESS MY OWN “PERFORMANCE”? Good teaching requires the practice of ongoing self-assessment and reflection. At the completion of this lesson, you may find it helpful to reflect on the following, and consider whether or not you want or need to make any adjustments for subsequent lessons. 1. What worked in this lesson? What didn’t? 2. Were students engaged? Were they focused or did they go off on tangents? 3. Did I take steps to adequately assess student learning? 4. Did my assessments suggest that they understood the key concepts? 5. What (if anything) should I do differently next time? 6. How can I gather student feedback? 7. How can I use this feedback for continuous improvement of my teaching? Additional Resources Chapter Summary This chapter described nine of the most common off-the-job instructional training methods. The advantages and disadvantages of each method were described, as well as suggestions for their use and how to make them most effective for trainee learning and retention. We also discussed instructional media and how they can be used with the instructional methods. The chapter concluded with a discussion of how to choose training methods and the main factors to consider. We also defined aptitude-treatment interactions and how they need to be considered when choosing a training method. The importance of combining instructional methods and using a blended delivery approach was also discussed. Web Links • Excellent source of free training games, “ice breakers,” etc.: http://www.thiagi.com Suggestions for End-of-Chapter Exercises 1. For In-Class Exercise 1, on page 196: Students can do this exercise in small groups(4–6 would be ideal). You may decide to use a list of potential topics and let the groups choose which one they want to discuss and present. (Note: This is a scaled-down alternative to the activity.) 2. For In-Class Exercise 6, on page 196: Facilitate this exercise in pairs or triads and have each group present their plan with explanations. Discuss each group’s presentation then debrief. Consider a different performance problem, such as “Teach senior executives how to use Skype,” as it is unlikely that a senior executive today would not be proficient in the use of e-mail. 3. For In-Class Exercise 8, on page 197: This can be assigned as a class project or a homework assignment. 4. For In-Class Exercise 9, on page 197: This can be assigned as a class project or a homework assignment. Resources for mini-training sessions: b) Guidelines for mini-training sessions 1. Select a topic you wish to learn more about from the list provided in class (Possible Research/Presentation Topics), or choose your own (must be approved by your instructor). 2. Sign up for a learning seminar time slot and indicate your topic. 3. Submit a one-page outline indicating your topic title, your approach/area of focus, and at least three references (websites, books, periodicals, etc.) you intend to use. The outline is due in-class on [insert date]. 4. Present a seminar to a small group of your colleagues during which time you will share your knowledge of your topic. Your seminar should: • Have a clearly defined topic/theme • Include content material from a minimum of three credible sources (other than the textbook used in class) • Include your own perspective, opinions, and conclusions • Engage participants • Run between 40–45 minutes in length Criteria sheets will be provided for participants’ and presenter’s feedback. Presenters are to have the participants complete the feedback sheets and submit them to the instructor together with an agenda for the seminar and a self-assessment at the conclusion of their seminar. Seminars will be presented in class on Mondays from [insert date]. 5. Using the findings from your research, plus your synthesis and feedback from your learning seminar, prepare and submit a research paper (not exceeding five typed pages) on your topic. Be sure to include: • A title page containing the topic, your name, and your student number • An introduction (a clear statement of the purpose of the paper) • A listing of the related literature used (minimum three credible sources) • An analysis of the literature and your own perspectives and insights • A conclusion The research paper is to be submitted in class on [insert date]. Case Incident: The Altercation Answers 1. Considering the situation described in "The Altercation," which training method would you recommend for addressing the issues, and why? Discuss the strengths and benefits of this method, and how it would effectively prepare employees to handle similar difficult customer interactions. Answer: Students will almost certainly suggest role play as the most logical (and likely most effective training method for this situation because of the practice opportunities the method presents, but can also make valid cases for most of the other methods, perhaps less so for games and action learning. The important thing is that in making their recommendation, they back it up with a solid rationale based on the strengths and benefits of that particular training method. Role play is recommended as the most logical training method for this situation. Role play provides realistic practice opportunities for employees to simulate and navigate tense or difficult customer interactions. This method allows trainees to practice responses, receive feedback, and refine their skills in a controlled environment. By role-playing various scenarios, employees can build confidence, improve their communication strategies, and better manage customer altercations when they occur on the job. Although other methods like simulations or on-the-job training could also be effective, role play offers direct and interactive practice that closely mirrors real-life situations. 2. Reflecting on your own experiences with customer service training, especially if you have worked in retail or a similar field, did you feel adequately prepared to handle difficult or tense customer interactions? If not, what additional training or approaches could have improved your ability to manage such situations? Share specific examples from your experience to illustrate your points. Answer: This question is essentially a continuation of the first question. As it is very likely that at least some of the students in your class will have retail sales experience, try to engage them in the discussion and encourage them to share their own experience both with customer service training and with examples of situations where they had to deal with a tense or difficult customer situation. Ask them to share if they felt their training adequately prepared them for the situation, and if not, what kind of training might have been helpful. Students with retail experience might share that while their training provided basic customer service skills, it often fell short in preparing them for complex or high-pressure situations. They might express that additional role-playing exercises, scenario-based training, or simulations could have enhanced their ability to handle difficult interactions. For example, they may recall a situation where they struggled with a particularly challenging customer and felt that more targeted training in conflict resolution or negotiation skills could have been beneficial. They should discuss how their training could have been improved to better equip them for such scenarios, emphasizing the value of practical, experience-based training methods. Case Study: The Customer-Service Training Program Answers 1. Assess the overall effectiveness of the customer-service training program described in the case study. Although the program was successful in terms of test scores and trainee reactions, why did it ultimately fail to produce the desired behaviors? What key element was missing that contributed to this outcome? Answer: Students should be able to state that while the training program was successful on the service based upon the test scores and trainee reaction, it failed in that it did not result in the desired behaviours the training was intended to produce. Students should note that while trainees may have been trained cognitively and may have been provided with helpful knowledge, the training did not provide opportunity for practice and application of the new knowledge. The training program, while successful in terms of cognitive knowledge (test scores) and trainee satisfaction (reactions), failed to produce the desired behaviors because it lacked practical application and opportunities for practice. Although trainees were provided with helpful knowledge, the program did not include sufficient practice or application of this knowledge in real-world scenarios. Effective training requires not just theoretical understanding but also practical experience to reinforce and apply new skills. 2. Based on the case study, identify and describe the training methods used in the customer-service training program. Which methods were employed, and how might they have contributed to the training's strengths and weaknesses? Answer: Students should identify lecture, discussion, and possibly case study/case incident through the use of the video examples. They could also suggest that the video segments showing ineffective and effective customer service served as a sort of behaviour modelling training. Students might suggest that these methods were appropriate but not adequate as they did not provide opportunities for practice. The training methods used included lecture, discussion, and video examples. The videos demonstrated both ineffective and effective customer service, serving as a form of behavior modeling. While these methods were appropriate for providing knowledge and illustrating concepts, they were insufficient as they did not incorporate practice opportunities. The lack of practical application means that while trainees gained theoretical knowledge, they did not develop the skills needed for effective customer service in practice. 3. What additional training methods would you recommend to address the shortcomings of the customer-service training program? How would methods like role play and action learning contribute to improving the training outcomes? Answer: To provide opportunities for practice, students should identify role play and possibly action learning as good choices to supplement the other training methods and provide the practice opportunities that were lacking. To address the training program's shortcomings, incorporating role play and action learning would be beneficial. Role play provides trainees with hands-on practice in simulated scenarios, allowing them to apply new skills and receive feedback. Action learning involves solving real problems in a collaborative setting, which can enhance learning and application. These methods would complement the existing training by providing practical experience and helping trainees develop the skills needed to handle customer service challenges effectively. 4. Reflect on how the choice of training methods impacted the overall effectiveness of the customer-service training program. How can thoughtful selection of training methods and well-written objectives contribute to achieving better training outcomes? Answer: The choice of training methods had a significant impact on the effectiveness of the customer-service training program. While lectures, discussions, and videos were useful for conveying information, they did not facilitate the practice needed to develop customer service skills. Thoughtful selection of training methods, such as incorporating opportunities for practice and real-world application, along with well-written training objectives, can greatly enhance training outcomes. Well-defined objectives help in selecting appropriate methods and ensuring that the training addresses all necessary aspects of skill development and application. 5. Discuss how the choice of training methods influences the effectiveness of a training program. How can thoughtful and well-written training objectives guide the selection of appropriate training methods to enhance training outcomes? Answer: Students should appreciate the significant impact that training methods can have on training outcomes and training effectiveness. This is a good opportunity to reinforce how having thoughtful and well-written training objectives can help with the selection of the appropriate training methods. The choice of training methods has a profound impact on the effectiveness of a training program. Methods that do not align with the training objectives or fail to provide opportunities for practical application may result in inadequate skill development and poor outcomes. Thoughtful and well-written training objectives are crucial as they clearly define what trainees need to achieve, which in turn guides the selection of appropriate training methods. For example, if the objective is to develop specific skills, methods that provide hands-on practice and real-world application (like role play or simulations) would be more effective than lecture-based methods alone. Well-crafted objectives ensure that the training methods chosen are aligned with the desired outcomes, ultimately improving the overall effectiveness of the training program. Flashback Answers 1. a) Identify and describe the key learning outcomes for a customer service training program focused on improving customer interactions. b) How can learning theories such as conditioning theory, social cognitive theory, and adult learning theory be applied to improve the effectiveness of customer service training? c) Discuss the impact of motivation theories on training design and how they might influence trainee behavior and performance. d) Analyze how incorporating training motivation strategies, such as goal-setting, could enhance the effectiveness of customer service training. Answer: a) Learning outcomes: • Greeting customers effectively • Assisting customers (and solving customer problems) • Providing courteous, friendly service Learning Outcomes: The key learning outcomes for a customer service training program might include: • Greeting customers effectively. • Assisting customers and solving their problems. • Providing courteous and friendly service. b) Learning from learning theories: • Conditioning theory suggests learning is a change in behaviour in response to a stimulus. In the case of the training, the reward/punishment contingencies were not strong enough, or overpowered by the realities of the customer contact situations. More emphasis on generalization during the training might have helped. • Social cognitive theory suggests that learning is social and occurs through observation. While the trainees observed “good” and “bad” customer service through watching videos, this was not enough to improve their self-efficacy or their ability to self-regulate when it came to delivering good service under pressure. Adding realistic role plays to the training may have helped. • Adult learning theory suggests adults need to know why they are learning, have input into the training, and be able to draw on their own experiences. Based on the information provided, it does not appear that the training design took many of the primary adult learning principles into account. Application of Learning Theories: • Conditioning Theory: This theory suggests learning occurs through behavior change in response to stimuli. To improve training, stronger reward/punishment contingencies could be implemented, and more emphasis should be placed on generalization to ensure trainees apply skills in various customer interactions. • Social Cognitive Theory: This theory emphasizes learning through observation and social interaction. While trainees observed customer service scenarios through videos, incorporating realistic role plays could enhance their self-efficacy and ability to regulate their behavior in real situations. • Adult Learning Theory: This theory highlights the importance of knowing why learning is necessary, involving learners in the training process, and connecting training to their prior experiences. The training design should address these principles to better engage adult learners. c) Motivation theories: • Needs theories suggest that people will act to meet various needs according to a hierarchy. Safety needs often translate into avoidance of conflict, or inappropriate/ineffective responses to conflict, which should have been taken into account in the training design. Impact of Motivation Theories: • Needs Theories: According to needs theories, people act to fulfill needs in a hierarchical order. For customer service, under d) Role of training motivation: • Goal-setting and training motivation theories do not appear to have been factored in, perhaps explaining some of the examples of poor performance in dealing with challenging customers (e.g., no clear goals were established to provide the motivation to provide effective service). Training Motivation Strategies: • Incorporating goal-setting and motivation strategies could improve training outcomes by providing clear objectives and incentives for trainees. This approach could help focus their efforts on delivering effective service and enhance their overall performance in dealing with challenging customer interactions. 2. a) How did the passive nature of the initial training affect its effectiveness, and what role could active practice, such as role plays, have played in enhancing the training program? b) Analyze the conditions of practice in the training program. Which elements from Table 5.3 on page 146 were missing, and how might their inclusion have improved the training outcomes? c) Discuss the relevance of adaptive expertise to the training program. How could focusing on adaptive expertise have impacted the transfer of skills from training to real-world customer service scenarios? Answer: a) Active practice: • Most of the training was passive, as it consisted of listening to lectures and watching videos. Even though there was some discussion and a test, it was not enough to constitute active practice. The addition of role plays could have significantly enhanced this type of training. Active Practice: • The initial training program primarily involved passive methods such as lectures and videos, which limited the opportunities for active practice. Active practice involves engaging trainees in hands-on activities that mirror real-life tasks, such as role plays. Incorporating role plays could have provided trainees with practical experience and a chance to apply their knowledge in simulated scenarios, enhancing their readiness for actual customer service situations and improving the overall effectiveness of the training. b) Conditions of practice: • It does not appear that much thought went into establishing the conditions of active practice (see Table 5.3 on page 146). While there was some attentional advice, there were no metacognitive strategies used, nor does the case reveal any evidence of the use of advance organizers, goal orientation, preparatory information, or prepractice briefs. The conditions of practice during training were also apparently lacking (massed or distributed practice, whole or part learning, overlearning, task sequencing, and feedback and knowledge of results—although most trainees did receive a certificate after successfully completing their knowledge test). Each of these conditions, if employed, would have enhanced the training by supporting learning, building confidence (self-efficacy), and promoting transfer to the job. Conditions of Practice: • The training program lacked several key elements of effective conditions of practice (see Table 5.3 on page 146). For example: • Metacognitive Strategies: There were no strategies to help trainees plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning. • Advance Organizers and Goal Orientation: The training did not use advance organizers or set specific learning goals. • Preparatory Information and Pre-practice Briefs: There was no preparatory information provided to trainees before practice sessions. • Practice Conditions: The training did not incorporate varied practice conditions such as massed versus distributed practice, whole versus part learning, or overlearning. Additionally, task sequencing and feedback were not adequately addressed, though some trainees did receive certificates upon completing their tests. • Including these elements would have enhanced learning by supporting skill acquisition, building trainees' confidence (self-efficacy), and promoting better transfer of skills to job performance. c) Relevance of adaptive expertise: • Adaptive expertise (the ability to use knowledge and skills across a range of tasks, settings, and situations) is highly relevant to this training program. One of the biggest drawbacks of the program was the lack of transfer from the training environment to the work environment. Faced with difficult situations, sales staff responded inappropriately and ineffectively. Had adaptive expertise (including emotional control) been a focus of the training, the likelihood of trainees responding appropriately in difficult customer-service situations would have increased substantially. Relevance of Adaptive Expertise: • Adaptive expertise refers to the ability to apply knowledge and skills effectively across various tasks, settings, and situations. This concept is highly relevant to the training program because one major issue was the lack of transfer from the training environment to real-world customer service situations. If the training had emphasized adaptive expertise, including emotional control and flexibility in handling diverse scenarios, trainees would have been better equipped to respond appropriately in challenging customer interactions. This focus could have improved their ability to handle real-life situations more effectively, bridging the gap between training and actual job performance. Flash Forward Question • Direct students to Table 7.1 – On-the-Job Training Methods, on page 206. It is very likely that students will identify coaching as the most appropriate on-the-job training method for this situation. Some might conclude that coaching could augment or supplement (but not replace the off-the-job training described in the case. Again, as it is likely that at least a few of the students in your class will have had retail sales experience, it would be good to ask them if they have received any on-the-job coaching. Running Case Study: Dirty Pools Suggested Answers to Case Questions 1. Why would off-the-job training be considered appropriate for the Dirty Pools case study, and what benefits might it offer in terms of imparting knowledge and developing skills? Answer: Students should conclude that off-the-job training would be appropriate to impart knowledge and to develop skills to a certain level. They might comment on benefits such as efficiencies and consistency attained through training larger groups of trainees at the same time. Off-the-job training is appropriate for the Dirty Pools case study because it allows for the effective imparting of knowledge and development of skills in a controlled environment. Benefits of off-the-job training include: • Efficiency: Training can be conducted for larger groups simultaneously, ensuring that all staff members receive the same level of instruction and information. • Consistency: It ensures that all trainees are exposed to the same content and training methods, which helps maintain uniform standards across all facilities. • Focused Learning: Trainees can engage in in-depth learning without the immediate pressure of on-the-job responsibilities, allowing for more comprehensive understanding and skill development. • Flexibility: Off-the-job training can utilize various instructional methods and materials, catering to different learning styles and needs, which can be particularly beneficial for complex topics like pool safety and maintenance. 2. What off-the-job training methods might be effective for the Dirty Pools case study, and why might these methods be appropriate? Discuss methods such as lectures, case studies, simulations, and others you consider valid. Answer: Students may suggest that off-the-job training methods including lecture, case study/case incident, discussion, simulations, and perhaps other instructional methods could all be valid. They should be able to explain why they feel this way. Several off-the-job training methods could be effective for the Dirty Pools case study, including: • Lectures: Useful for delivering foundational knowledge about pool safety standards, procedures, and regulations. Lectures can be efficient for conveying theoretical information to a large group. • Case Studies/Case Incidents: These methods can provide practical examples of pool safety issues and solutions, allowing trainees to analyze and discuss real-world scenarios, which enhances problem-solving skills and critical thinking. • Discussion: Facilitates interactive learning and sharing of experiences among trainees. It encourages engagement with the material and allows for the exploration of different perspectives and solutions. • Simulations: Effective for replicating real-life pool maintenance scenarios and testing procedures in a controlled setting. Simulations can help trainees practice and refine their skills without the risks associated with actual pool environments. • Role Plays: Although not mentioned in the suggested answer, role plays could also be beneficial for practicing specific skills and behaviors related to pool safety and customer interactions. Instructor Manual for Managing Performance through Training and Development Alan M. Saks, Robert R. Haccoun 9780176570293,9780176798079