This Document Contains Chapters 5 to 6 Chapter 5: Toward Better Health 5.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. The mental image we form of our own bodies is called A. unembodiment B. body image C. self awareness D. health psychology Answer: B 2. When women of color watch television shows with primarily minority casts, they tend to have _____ body satisfaction. A. lesser B. greater C. unaffected D. none of these Answer: B 3. Media portrayals appear to increase in men a desire to be A. thinner B. heavier C. more muscular D. less muscular Answer: C 4. Which of the following is true about the ideal body thought to be desired by the opposite sex? A. The type of woman men actually want is dissimilar to the body ideal held by women B. College women think men want a woman who is thinner with larger breasts than the woman the men say they actually desire. C. College men think women want a man who is thinner and taller than the man the women say they actually want. D. Women believe men want a thin woman, but men do not confirm this. Answer: D 5. According to the text, most physicians and mental health professionals now believe that A. psychological factors affect only stress-related illnesses B. there is a mutual interaction between our minds and bodies C. physical events do not affect our emotional lives D. the body alone should be the basis of medical diagnosis and treatment Answer: B 6. Studies on stress and the immune system firmly suggest that A. a sense of hope can reverse a terminal illness B. stress weakens the immune system, making us more susceptible to illness C. depression has little effect on the immune system D. the lack of sufficient "will power" is definitely a cause of cancer Answer: B 7. Which is NOT one of the traits psychologists use when describing personality? A. conscientiousness B. agreeableness C. extroversion D. happiness Answer: D 8. With regard to health behaviors, which personality trait enables us to adopt healthy and therefore preventive behaviors? A. introspection B. competitiveness C. conformity D. self-efficacy Answer: D 9. Individuals can best develop high self-efficacy by A. fantasizing about their body ideal B. monitoring the behaviors they wish to change C. practicing self-deprivation D. asking for support and encouragement from friends Answer: B 10. Approximately ________ percent of Americans have a healthy BMI. A. 15 B. 30 C. 40 D. 45 Answer: B 11. In most cases, obesity probably results from A. giving up smoking or alcohol B. genetic more than other causes C. physiological and psychological factors D. insufficient exercise Answer: C 12. What percent of Americans exercise as regularly as health experts recommend? A. 10 B. 20 C. 30 D. 40 Answer: B 13. Which is NOT an important feature to consider when selecting a weight-loss program? A. The diet should be safe. B. The program should include plans for weight maintenance after you have reached your goal weight. C. The program should begin with a goal of losing weight as quickly as possible. D. The costs should be clear and up-front. Answer: C 14. Are more Americans smoking tobacco today than ever before? A. yes B. no C. the percent of smokers has remained about the same D. today more young people smoke, but fewer adults smoke Answer: B 15. What percentage of smokers start before the age of 18? A. 35 B. 42 C. 61 D. 78 Answer: C 16. What is the recidivism rate (frequency of those who eventually resume the habit) for smokers who quit? A. almost all quitters resume the habit B. few ex-smokers smoke again C. about 50 percent return to smoking D. it varies by age, length of the habit, etc. Answer: C 17. Which of these is NOT key to quitting smoking? A. avoiding relapse at all costs B. getting support and encouragement C. getting medication and using it correctly D. learning new skills and behaviors Answer: A 18. Binge drinking is defined as consuming __________ or more drinks in a short period of time for men, _________ of more for women. A. 2, 1 B. 3, 2 C. 4, 3 D. 5, 4 Answer: D 19. Which of these is NOT a sign that you may be drinking too much? A. You need more and more alcohol to get the same effect. B. Others are talking about your drinking. C. You drink 1-2 drinks per day. D. You drink more often than you eat. Answer: C 20. A return to previous behavior is called A. relapse B. addiction C. rebound D. none of the above Answer: A 21. What percent of Americans live where air quality standards are not met? A. 18 B. 25 C. 32 D. nearly 50 Answer: B 22. The use of unhealthy substances (e.g., cigarettes, alcohol, or drugs) is depicted in A. 10 percent of G rated films B. 50 percent of PG-13 films C. 80 percent of all films D. 95 percent of all films Answer: D 23. Which is NOT one of the three stages of decision making when seeking medical care? A. Noticing and interpreting your symptoms B. Seeking advice from friends and family C. Seeking professional help D. Adhering to the prescribed treatment Answer: B 24. Those who underreport their physical symptoms to health care professionals are A. likely to be extroverts B. known as "hypochondriacs" C. self-conscious people D. self-healing personalities Answer: A 25. When we compare ourselves to others whose health is worse than ours, what coping strategy are we using? A. isolation B. denial C. avoidance D. downward comparison Answer: D 26. Women, compared to men, generally A. use fewer prescription drugs B. have higher rates of ulcers C. are more sensitive to changes in their bodies D. are less likely to report symptoms to a health-care professional Answer: C 27. People are least prone to visit a physician when the problem A. originates in a limb B. is hearing-related C. is psychological D. is bacterial rather than viral Answer: C 28. As many as ________ percent of all adults patients do not follow or complete the treatment prescribed by their doctor. A. 25 B. 35 C. 50 D. 60 Answer: C 29. Which of these is most likely to influence a patient's compliance with a prescribed treatment? A. personality B. gender C. socioeconomic status D. relationship with their doctor Answer: D 30. You are a physician and want to prevent your patient, Amanda, from gaining weight. She is currently at her ideal weight. What type of message should you present to her? A. a neutral one B. a negative one C. a positive one D. any message from a physician will be effective; research demonstrates that physicians are the most highly regarded members of our society Answer: C 31. Which set of phrases is mismatched? A. a positive frame; prevention B. a neutral frame; detection C. a negative frame; if you don't stop smoking, you are likely to die at a young age D. a positive frame; if you stop smoking, aerobic exercise will seem easier Answer: B 32. Negatively framed messages from health professionals are A. rarely effective B. effective more often than positively framed statements C. effective for detection but not for prevention of illnesses D. exemplified by the following: "Feeling tired? Use Zippi natural vitamins" Answer: C 33. Which of the following is NOT a key factor in assuming greater personal responsibility for your own health? A. developing healthy eating habits B. avoiding all stress C. monitoring your health D. getting periodic medical checkups Answer: B 34. Calorie requirements A. vary depending on activity levels B. are the same for all people C. tend to be greater for women than for men D. are usually around 3,000-4,000 per day Answer: A 35. The largest portion on our “food plate” should consist of A. meats B. dairy products C. carbohydrates D. fruits and vegetables Answer: D 36. The sleep/wake cycle is designed to A. conserve energy B. save electricity C. function with daylight savings time D. all of the above Answer: A 37. Which of these is NOT a suggestion provided in the text to help with sleep difficulties? A. go to bed and wake up at the same time every day B. take a hot shower before bed C. take some honey D. avoid alcohol and sleeping pills Answer: B 38. Physical fitness is associated with A. improved mood B. fighting some cancers C. reducing anxiety D. all of the above Answer: D 39. The most common health problem associated with physical activity is A. diabetes B. sleep apnea C. high cholesterol D. injury Answer: D 40. What role can others play in our wellness? A. Friends serve to distract us from our regular fitness routines. B. Social support can aid in recovery from illness. C. Friends are better in terms of encouraging us to stay fit; family members sound like "nags" when they interfere in our fitness routines. D. Family members are the ones who care most about us, so they are most likely to encourage us to stay fit. Answer: B 5.2 True/False Questions 1. By age 17, nearly 80 percent of American girls are unhappy with their bodies. Answer: True 2. Ideals of beauty in a given society remain basically the same over time. Answer: False 3. Different cultures have different beauty ideals. Answer: True 4. Under stressful situations, the body's immune system functions surprisingly well. Answer: False 5. Acupuncture is ineffective in treating pain or stress. Answer: False 6. Lifestyle kills more Americans than any other single factor. Answer: True 7. All people who are overweight are overeaters. Answer: False 8. Exercise is self-defeating because it make you want to eat more. Answer: False 9. Tobacco use is the leading preventable cause of death in the U.S. Answer: True 10. About half of those who quit smoking resume the habit later. Answer: True 11. Nearly half of all fatal traffic accidents involve alcohol. Answer: False 12. Environmental pollutants are one of the major sources of health-related problems. Answer: True 13. Avoidance is a coping strategy with regard to health. Answer: True 14. Men generally live longer than women. Answer: False 15. Most adult patients complete the treatment prescribed by their doctors. Answer: False 16. All adults require the same number of calories each day. Answer: False 17. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture food plate, the number of servings of each type is customizable based on your personal characteristics. Answer: True 18. Sleep deprivation contributes to impaired memory and slower reaction times. Answer: True 19. It is important to periodically evaluate and modify exercise routines. Answer: True 20. Individuals who are socially isolated are at lesser risk for health problems than those that are socially engaged. Answer: False 5.3 Short Answer Questions 1. What does current American media present as the ideal body for men and women? Answer: Ideal Body in American Media: • For Men: The ideal body often portrayed is muscular, lean, and fit, with well-defined abs and broad shoulders. • For Women: The ideal body is typically slim with an hourglass figure, emphasizing a small waist, ample breasts, and toned legs. 2. What are three health hazards of being obese? Answer: Health Hazards of Obesity: • Increased risk of cardiovascular diseases such as heart disease and stroke. • Higher likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes due to insulin resistance. • Increased incidence of joint problems, including osteoarthritis, due to excess weight putting strain on joints. 3. What are three health hazards of cigarette smoking? Answer: Health Hazards of Cigarette Smoking: • Elevated risk of lung cancer, as well as cancers of the mouth, throat, and esophagus. • Higher incidence of respiratory diseases like chronic bronchitis and emphysema. • Increased likelihood of cardiovascular diseases, including heart attacks and strokes, due to smoking's effects on blood vessels and circulation. 4. What are three health hazards of alcohol abuse? Answer: Health Hazards of Alcohol Abuse: • Liver damage, including fatty liver, alcoholic hepatitis, and cirrhosis. • Increased risk of alcohol-related accidents and injuries, such as motor vehicle accidents. • Higher incidence of mental health issues, including depression and anxiety disorders, exacerbated by alcohol's impact on brain chemistry. 5. What is downward comparison? What are the other forms of coping with health issues? Answer: Downward Comparison: Downward comparison is a coping mechanism where individuals compare themselves with others who are worse off in some way. This can help bolster self-esteem and reduce distress by highlighting comparative advantages. Other Forms of Coping with Health Issues: • Problem-focused coping: Taking direct action to address the health issue, such as adhering to treatment plans or making lifestyle changes. • Emotion-focused coping: Managing emotions associated with the health issue, such as seeking social support or practicing relaxation techniques. • Meaning-focused coping: Finding meaning or purpose in the health challenge, often through spiritual or existential reflection. 6. How can physicians affect patient compliance to treatment regimens? Answer: Physicians can improve patient compliance by: • Providing clear instructions: Ensuring patients understand their treatment plan and its importance. • Building rapport and trust: Establishing a supportive relationship to motivate adherence. • Educating patients: Explaining the benefits and risks of treatments to empower informed decision-making. • Monitoring progress: Regularly assessing and adjusting treatment plans based on patient feedback and outcomes. 7. Provide an example of a positively framed message and a negatively framed message. When should each be used? Answer: Positively Framed Message: "By following this exercise regimen, you will improve your cardiovascular health and increase your stamina." • Use: Positively framed messages are effective when promoting behaviors that lead to positive outcomes or gains. They appeal to aspirations and benefits. Negatively Framed Message: "Failure to adhere to this medication schedule may lead to worsening symptoms and complications." • Use: Negatively framed messages are effective when emphasizing the consequences of not taking action. They highlight risks and losses to motivate compliance. 8. Draw and label the USDA food plate. Answer: The USDA food plate, also known as MyPlate, illustrates the five food groups that are the building blocks for a healthy diet. Here's a description of how it should be drawn and labeled: • Fruits: Fill a quarter of the plate with fruits. • Vegetables: Fill another quarter of the plate with vegetables. • Grains: Fill half of the plate with grains, with at least half being whole grains. • Protein: Include a portion of lean protein alongside the grains. • Dairy: Add a serving of dairy such as milk or yogurt on the side. 9. Your brother has insomnia; give him three pieces of advice to help him sleep better. Answer: Three pieces of advice to help manage insomnia: 1. Establish a Bedtime Routine: Create a consistent bedtime routine to signal to your body that it's time to wind down. This can include activities like reading, listening to calming music, or practicing relaxation techniques. 2. Limit Stimulants and Electronics: Avoid caffeine and nicotine close to bedtime, and limit screen time from phones, tablets, and computers at least an hour before bed. Blue light from screens can interfere with melatonin production, making it harder to fall asleep. 3. Create a Comfortable Sleep Environment: Ensure your bedroom is conducive to sleep by keeping it cool, dark, and quiet. Use blackout curtains, earplugs, or a white noise machine if needed. Invest in a comfortable mattress and pillows that support good sleep posture. 10. What are some tips for sticking to an exercise program? Answer: Tips to maintain consistency in an exercise program: 1. Set Realistic Goals: Start with achievable goals and gradually increase intensity or duration. Celebrate milestones to stay motivated. 2. Find Enjoyable Activities: Choose exercises you enjoy, whether it's dancing, hiking, or team sports. Variety keeps workouts interesting and sustainable. 3. Schedule Exercise Sessions: Treat exercise like an important appointment. Block out time in your calendar and stick to your schedule to develop a routine. These strategies can help your brother improve his sleep quality and support you in sticking to your exercise program effectively. 5.4 Essay Questions 1. Are there gender differences with regard to body image? How so? Answer: Yes, there are gender differences in body image perceptions and concerns: • Women: Often feel pressured to conform to thinness ideals promoted by media, leading to higher rates of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors. • Men: Increasingly face pressure to achieve muscularity ideals, which can also contribute to body dissatisfaction and behaviors like excessive exercise or steroid use. These differences stem from societal norms and media portrayals that emphasize different aspects of physical appearance for each gender. 2. How are the immune system, personality, and lifestyle related to our physical being? Answer: • Immune System: A strong immune system is crucial for overall health and is influenced by lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise, and stress management. Personality traits like optimism can positively impact immune function by reducing stress levels. • Personality: Traits such as conscientiousness and resilience can influence health behaviors like adherence to medical advice and engagement in preventive health measures. • Lifestyle: Healthy lifestyle choices, including regular exercise, balanced nutrition, adequate sleep, and avoidance of harmful substances like tobacco and excessive alcohol, directly support immune function and overall physical well-being. 3. How does self-efficacy affect health and health-related behavior? Answer: • Self-Efficacy: Refers to an individual's belief in their ability to achieve goals and overcome challenges. Higher self-efficacy is associated with: • Health Behavior: People with high self-efficacy are more likely to adopt and maintain healthy behaviors such as regular exercise, healthy eating, and adherence to medical treatments. • Health Outcomes: Improved health outcomes result from better self-management of chronic conditions and greater resilience in facing health challenges. 4. What aspects of the environment are unhealthy for us? Answer: • Environmental Pollutants: Air pollution from vehicle emissions and industrial sources can lead to respiratory problems and cardiovascular diseases. • Poor Urban Planning: Lack of green spaces, sidewalks, and bike lanes discourages physical activity and contributes to sedentary lifestyles. • Workplace Stress: High-pressure work environments can lead to chronic stress, which in turn increases the risk of mental health disorders and cardiovascular problems. Addressing these environmental factors through policy changes, community initiatives, and individual lifestyle modifications is crucial for promoting public health and well-being. 5. What are five factors related to wellness (e.g. gender)? Answer: 1. Physical Activity: Regular exercise and movement contribute to physical wellness by improving cardiovascular health, strength, and flexibility. 2. Nutrition: A balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and whole grains supports overall health and reduces the risk of chronic diseases. 3. Sleep Quality: Sufficient and restorative sleep is essential for mental clarity, emotional well-being, and physical recovery. 4. Stress Management: Techniques such as mindfulness, relaxation exercises, and time management help reduce stress levels and promote emotional resilience. 5. Social Connections: Strong relationships and a supportive social network provide emotional support, reduce feelings of isolation, and contribute to mental wellness. 6. What factors are related to our seeking the assistance of a health professional? Answer: Factors Related to Seeking Assistance from Health Professionals • Symptoms Severity: The severity of symptoms or health issues often prompts individuals to seek medical advice or treatment. • Perceived Need: Recognizing the importance of professional expertise in diagnosing and managing health conditions encourages individuals to seek help. • Access to Healthcare: Availability of healthcare services, insurance coverage, and proximity to medical facilities influence the decision to seek professional assistance. • Recommendations: Referrals from family, friends, or other healthcare providers can motivate individuals to consult a health professional. • Personal Health Beliefs: Beliefs about the effectiveness of medical intervention versus self-care play a role in seeking professional help. 7. Describe some of the ways you can "take charge" of your wellness. Answer: Ways to Take Charge of Your Wellness • Regular Physical Activity: Engage in activities you enjoy, such as walking, swimming, or yoga, to promote physical fitness and overall well-being. • Healthy Eating Habits: Adopt a balanced diet with plenty of fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and whole grains to nourish your body and support optimal health. • Stress Management: Practice relaxation techniques, mindfulness, or hobbies that promote calmness and reduce stress levels. • Regular Health Check-ups: Schedule routine visits with healthcare providers for preventive screenings and early detection of health issues. • Self-Care Practices: Prioritize self-care activities such as adequate sleep, hydration, and taking breaks to recharge mentally and physically. Taking charge of wellness involves proactive steps to maintain and improve health across physical, mental, and emotional domains. These practices promote longevity, vitality, and a higher quality of life. 8. Discuss what makes for sensible eating. Answer: Sensible eating involves making informed choices that support overall health and well-being: • Balanced Nutrition: Include a variety of nutrient-dense foods such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats. • Portion Control: Be mindful of portion sizes to avoid overeating and maintain a healthy weight. • Moderation: Enjoy treats and indulgences in moderation, while prioritizing nutrient-rich foods as the foundation of your diet. • Hydration: Drink plenty of water throughout the day to stay hydrated and support bodily functions. • Mindful Eating: Pay attention to hunger and fullness cues, and avoid distractions while eating to promote mindful eating habits. 9. What suggestions would you make to a person starting a fitness program? Answer: For someone starting a fitness program, consider the following tips: • Set Realistic Goals: Define specific, achievable fitness goals such as running a certain distance or lifting a particular weight. • Start Slowly: Begin with moderate-intensity activities and gradually increase intensity and duration as fitness improves. • Mix It Up: Include a variety of exercises to keep workouts interesting and target different muscle groups. • Listen to Your Body: Pay attention to how your body responds to exercise and adjust routines as needed to prevent injury and promote recovery. • Stay Consistent: Establish a regular exercise schedule and stick to it, even on days when motivation is low. 10. Provide concrete examples of the following terms and how they relate to health: downward comparison, self-efficacy, body image, and negatively framed message. Answer: • Downward Comparison: Comparing oneself to others who are less fortunate in health status can boost self-esteem and perspective, leading to reduced stress and better mental health. • Self-Efficacy: Believing in one's ability to adhere to a fitness regimen increases motivation and persistence, enhancing physical fitness and overall well-being. • Body Image: A positive body image, where individuals accept and appreciate their bodies, correlates with improved mental health, self-esteem, and healthier behaviors such as balanced eating and regular exercise. • Negatively Framed Message: "Skipping your annual physical may lead to undiagnosed health issues." Such messages highlight risks and potential consequences, motivating individuals to prioritize preventive healthcare and health screenings. Understanding these concepts helps individuals make informed choices that positively impact their health and well-being, fostering a balanced and holistic approach to personal health management. Chapter 6: Taking Charge 6.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. The belief that we can influence the occurrence of events in our environment that affect our lives is called A. fate or luck B. perceived control C. internal reinforcement D. external locus of control Answer: B 2. Lisa uses the career development program offered at her college’s career development center to enhance her chances of finding the most suitable career. People who are like Lisa A. have an external locus of control B. are reluctant to believe in themselves C. have an internal locus of control D. have secondary control Answer: C 3. ______ locus of control is when a person believes they have control; ______ locus of control is when a person feels an outside source has control. A. Internal; external B. External; internal C. Personal; exterior D. Personal; external Answer: A 4. Louella feels that no matter how much she studies, she will not do well in her college courses because the professors are stingy with grades. Louella is characterized by A. high reactance B. high perceived control C. learned optimism D. an external locus of control Answer: D 5. In China (as compared to the U.S.), students are more likely to attribute school success to A. control B. fate C. luck D. self-efficacy Answer: C 6. People in Western cultures are likely to prefer ______ control; people in Asian cultures are likely to prefer ______ control. A. primary; secondary B. secondary; primary C. primary; primary D. secondary; secondary Answer: A 7. What type of control is an attempt to change the world to fit one’s needs? A. internal control B. external control C. primary control D. secondary control Answer: C 8. What type of control is an attempt to change oneself to fit into the world better? A. internal control B. external control C. primary control D. secondary control Answer: D 9. For most people, optimal adjustment is achieved when the amount of actual control ________ the desired need for control. A. is less than B. matches C. exceeds D. none of these Answer: B 10. What characterizes people with a high degree of perceived control? A. They seek knowledge about events that can influence their lives. B. They attribute success and failure to their own abilities rather than to luck. C. They are fairly well adjusted. D. All of these are typical of people with high perceived control. Answer: D 11. Individuals high in perceived control A. are likely to believe in luck B. do not take great efforts to acquire information about their environment C. are resistant to social influence D. are less likely to take part in social action that helps others Answer: C 12. A major characteristic of people with a high degree of perceived control is that they A. recognize the role of luck in their lives B. attribute responsibility for desirable outcomes to themselves and their efforts C. assume blame when they fail D. are reluctant to seek out information about their environment Answer: B 13. People high in perceived control A. are less likely to overcome eating disorders B. have a harder time quitting smoking C. are less anxious D. are more likely to drop out of a weight-reduction program Answer: C 14. People who have learned to be helpless often suffer from A. depression B. mania C. excessively high self-esteem D. none of these Answer: A 15. After she received a D in her organic chemistry course, Jan said, "I knew I couldn't do this. Now I'll never get into nursing school.” Jan is making her situation worse by interpreting an undesirable event in A. external, permanent, and specific terms B. internal, temporary, and universal terms C. external, temporary, and specific terms D. internal, permanent, and universal terms Answer: D 16. According to the text, people often ________ the control they have over the environment. A. eliminate B. overestimate C. stimulate D. explore Answer: B 17. Someone who believes that they had some personal control over winning the lottery likely subscribes to A. learned helplessness B. learned optimism C. self-efficacy D. the illusion of control Answer: D 18. Which of the following best exemplifies appropriate learned optimism? A. I guess she isn't going to call back. B. It was a good interview but nothing will probably come of it. C. She didn't return my call; she must be busy. D. No wonder she doesn't call back; I've been inconsiderate of her. Answer: C 19. Optimism is especially appropriate in those situations in which A. you want to gain people's confidence B. your goal involves a high degree of risk C. the cost of failure is high D. you want to be sympathetic with people's troubles Answer: A 20. When we want to lead and inspire others, we should A. focus on short-term but negative effects B. focus on being optimistic and emphasizing the positive C. focus only on the negative aspects of changing our ways D. focus on building empathy Answer: B 21. Being optimistic is inappropriate when A. there are many risks involved B. there are many people with unique responsibilities C. multiple solutions to an issue are available D. none of these Answer: A 22. Which of the following is not listed in the text as a benefit to defensive pessimism? A. setting low expectations reduces the sting of failure B. thinking about worst-case scenarios allows you to prepare for them in advance C. anxiety on task performance is reduced D. self-esteem is improved Answer: D 23. According to the text, the initial step for making sound decisions is to A. rise to the challenge B. make a commitment C. weigh the options D. evaluate the alternatives Answer: A 24. Which of these is NOT a stage in the recommended process for decision making? A. search for alternatives B. make a commitment C. rise to the challenge D. avoid looking back Answer: D 25. In the recommended process for making wise decisions, the fifth and final stage consists of A. searching for alternatives B. accepting the challenge C. assessing your actions and decision D. following through with your decision Answer: C 26. The most critical element in decision making, especially in the early stages, is A. taking risks B. clarifying values C. vigorous information processing D. justifying your choices Answer: C 27. You want to give away a perfectly good sofa—for free—but no one will take it, even when you offer to deliver it. Then you leave it out on the curb, and it disappears overnight. What might best explain the behavior of others who did or did not take the sofa? A. learned helplessness B. reactance C. decidophobia D. depression Answer: B 28. A feeling we experience when others limit our personal freedom by getting us to do what they want rather than what we want is called A. reactance B. negative explanatory style C. learned helplessness D. cognitive dissonance Answer: A 29. Which of the following is an example of reactance? A. giving money to charity every year and giving the same amount B. reading a book you have always wanted to read just for sheer pleasure C. finishing a crossword puzzle and feeling very proud of yourself D. driving slowly because someone is tailgating to get you to speed up Answer: D 30. Reactance is A. a negative reaction to efforts by others to limit our personal freedom B. a psychosomatic rash manifested when others try to control us too much C. feeling angry when we lose D. an uncomfortable psychological state that we feel when our behaviors are out of line with our attitudes Answer: A 31. When we feel that we may have made an incorrect or poor decision, the uncomfortable psychological state is called A. reactance after the fact B. pessimistic explanatory style C. learned helplessness D. postdecision regret Answer: D 32. Which of the following is the best example of cognitive dissonance? A. wishing you were someplace else when your family is fighting B. deciding not to decide C. agreeing verbally but disagreeing privately D. making a decision and then regretting it Answer: D 33. As she handed her professor her term paper, River complained that she had been sick while she was writing it, so it probably wasn’t her best work. This is an example of A. hindsight bias B. self-handicapping C. learned helplessness D. reactance Answer: B 34. According to the text, which of the following suggestions is a good way to improve your decision making? A. strive for perfection B. make decisions quickly C. use sounder judgment D. put aside your values Answer: C 35. The technique of listing the advantages and disadvantages of a given course of action before making a decision is called A. direct decision therapy B. values clarification C. drawing up a balance sheet D. creative conflict management Answer: C 36. Suggestions to improve your decision making skills include all of the following except A. strive for perfection B. clarify your values C. draw up a balance sheet D. use sounder judgment Answer: A 37. Which of the following is true regarding decisions? A. About half of all New Year's resolutions are broken. B. It is easier to choose between two desirable outcomes than two negative outcomes C. People who put resolutions in writing are more likely to achieve them D. All of these are true Answer: D 38. What portion of people break their New Year's resolutions within the first three months? A. almost everyone breaks them B. only people with learned reactance break them C. about half of the people break them D. very few people break them because most people publicly announce their resolutions Answer: C 39. When a wish to change leads to a decision to change, then A. an addiction cycle may begin B. we become obsessed with change C. we really change and grow D. all of the above Answer: C 40. Decision by default is explained by all of the following EXCEPT A. taking the path of least resistance B. taking the most familiar path C. taking no action at all D. taking time off to make a decision Answer: D 6.2 True/False Questions 1. Perceived control refers to the belief that we can influence the occurrence of events in the environment that affect our lives. Answer: True 2. Individuals who believe in internal control are more prone to depression. Answer: False 3. Internalized control is preferred in most all cultures. Answer: False 4. When faced with a personal problem, people high in perceived control usually don't feel the need to seek out information about themselves and their environment. Answer: False 5. Anecdotal evidence is generally accurate and the findings generated by it can usually be universally applied. Answer: False 6. Perceived control is related to improved well-being. Answer: True 7. People who suffer from learned helplessness tend to interpret negative events in external, permanent, and universal terms. Answer: False 8. Optimism can’t be taught because it is an innate trait found only in some people. Answer: False 9. An optimistic explanatory style is especially appropriate when you're trying to gain people's confidence. Answer: True 10. When the cost of failure is high, it's best to use an optimistic explanatory style. Answer: False 11. There are no benefits to a pessimistic outlook. Answer: False 12. The initial step in making a wise decision is to search for alternatives. Answer: False 13. One of the most critical elements in decision making, especially in the early stages, is vigorous information processing. Answer: True 14. Driving more slowly when you have a tailgater demonstrates reactance. Answer: True 15. Post-decision regret occurs when others limit our personal freedom by getting us to do what they want rather than what we want. Answer: False 16. In the long run, people usually feel more regret because of inaction than from action. Answer: True 17. Self-handicappers reduce post-decision regret by misrepresenting events once they have happened. Answer: False 18. Half the people who make New Year’s resolutions give up within three months. Answer: True 19. People will automatically decide to change for the better. Answer: False 20. Once a decision has been made, it is best to stick with it. Answer: False 6.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Describe what is meant by personal control. Answer: Personal control refers to the belief that individuals have the ability to influence events and outcomes in their lives through their actions and decisions, contributing to a sense of agency and responsibility. 2. Describe the characteristics of people with an external and an internal locus of control. Answer: • External Locus of Control: Individuals with an external locus believe that external factors such as luck, fate, or powerful others control their outcomes. They may feel less empowered and more prone to attributing success or failure to outside forces. • Internal Locus of Control: Individuals with an internal locus believe that their actions and decisions significantly influence their outcomes. They tend to take responsibility for their successes and failures, demonstrating higher initiative and resilience. 3. Using a concrete example, describe the explanatory style associated with learned helplessness. Answer: Example: After repeatedly failing to pass a certification exam despite diligent study, a person with learned helplessness may attribute their failures to internal, stable, and global factors. They might think, "I'm just not smart enough (internal), I'll never pass (stable), and I fail at everything (global)." 4. How is learned helplessness related to depression? Answer: Learned helplessness, characterized by perceived lack of control over situations, can lead to feelings of hopelessness and contribute to depression. Individuals may generalize their inability to overcome challenges in one area of life to other domains, leading to a pervasive sense of powerlessness and low self-esteem. 5. Describe what is meant by the "illusion of control." Answer: The illusion of control is the tendency for individuals to overestimate their ability to control or influence outcomes that are largely determined by chance or external factors. For example, believing that wearing a lucky charm increases chances of success in a lottery reflects the illusion of control. 6. List three conditions under which optimism is inappropriate. Answer: 1. In High-Risk Situations: Optimism may be inappropriate when the risks are severe or life-threatening, and realistic caution is needed. 2. During Times of Crisis: In crises where immediate action or precautionary measures are necessary, overly optimistic views can lead to underestimating potential dangers. 3. When Ignoring Negative Feedback: Optimism becomes inappropriate when individuals consistently dismiss negative feedback or warnings, potentially leading to unpreparedness or failure to address underlying issues. 7. List five stages of the process of making wise decisions. Answer: 1. Identifying the Problem: Recognizing and defining the issue or decision to be made. 2. Gathering Information: Collecting relevant information and considering various perspectives. 3. Generating Alternatives: Brainstorming and evaluating possible solutions or courses of action. 4. Evaluating Alternatives: Assessing the pros and cons of each option based on criteria such as feasibility, effectiveness, and ethical considerations. 5. Making the Decision: Selecting the best alternative based on the evaluation and committing to implementing the decision. 8. Describe what is meant by reactance. Answer: Reactance is the psychological phenomenon where individuals react against perceived threats to their freedom or autonomy by asserting their independence or engaging in behaviors contrary to those suggested or imposed. It can manifest as resistance or defiance in response to rules, regulations, or attempts to influence behavior. 9. Describe what is meant by cognitive dissonance. Answer: Cognitive dissonance refers to the psychological discomfort experienced when individuals hold conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors simultaneously. This discomfort motivates people to reduce the inconsistency to restore internal cognitive harmony. 10. Describe the balance sheet procedure as an aid in decision making. Answer: The balance sheet procedure involves listing pros and cons of a decision or course of action to facilitate rational decision-making: • Pros: Identify and list all potential positive outcomes, benefits, and advantages associated with the decision. • Cons: List potential negative consequences, drawbacks, and risks associated with the decision. This structured approach helps weigh the costs and benefits objectively, aiding in informed decision-making by highlighting potential outcomes and their implications. 6.4 Essay Questions 1. What is perceived control? Why is it helpful or not helpful to an individual? Answer: Perceived control refers to an individual's belief regarding their ability to influence events and outcomes in their life through their actions and decisions. It can be helpful because: • Empowerment: Feeling in control fosters a sense of empowerment and autonomy. • Motivation: It motivates individuals to take initiative and responsibility for their actions. However, it may not be helpful when: • False Sense of Security: Overestimating control in uncontrollable situations can lead to disappointment or stress. • Underestimating Chance: Ignoring factors beyond one's control may result in poor decision-making or lack of preparedness. 2. What are internal and external locus of control? Provide two concrete examples of each. Answer: • Internal Locus of Control: Individuals with an internal locus believe their actions and decisions directly influence outcomes. • Example 1: A student who attributes their good grades to their hard work and study habits (internal). • Example 2: An entrepreneur who credits their business success to their innovation and persistence (internal). • External Locus of Control: Individuals with an external locus believe outcomes are determined by external factors like luck or powerful others. • Example 1: Someone who believes their career advancement depends solely on their boss's favoritism (external). • Example 2: A person who attributes their weight gain solely to genetics and metabolism (external). Understanding these concepts helps individuals grasp how their beliefs about control influence their behavior, decision-making, and overall well-being. 3. Discuss the intricate relationship between perceived control and psychological adjustment and physical well-being. Answer: Perceived Control and Psychological Adjustment: • Psychological Adjustment: Individuals with a strong sense of perceived control tend to experience lower levels of stress, anxiety, and depression. They feel empowered to manage challenges effectively, leading to better emotional resilience and mental well-being. • Self-Efficacy: High perceived control fosters self-efficacy, the belief in one's ability to achieve goals and overcome obstacles, which enhances motivation and adaptive coping strategies in difficult situations. • Sense of Mastery: Perceived control contributes to a sense of mastery over life circumstances, promoting a positive outlook and proactive behavior. Perceived Control and Physical Well-being: • Health Behaviors: Those with higher perceived control are more likely to engage in health-promoting behaviors such as regular exercise, balanced nutrition, and preventive healthcare, which support physical well-being. • Stress Reduction: Feeling in control reduces stress levels and cortisol production, which can have beneficial effects on immune function, cardiovascular health, and overall physiological resilience. • Health Outcomes: Research suggests a link between perceived control and better health outcomes, including faster recovery from illness or surgery, and lower incidence of chronic diseases. 4. Explain the concept of learned helplessness. How does it develop? How do people who have learned to be helpless differ from those who haven't learned this? Answer: Concept of Learned Helplessness: • Definition: Learned helplessness is a psychological condition where individuals feel unable to control or change their circumstances, even when opportunities for control are present. • Development: It typically develops through repeated experiences of failure or adversity that individuals perceive as uncontrollable or unavoidable. Over time, they internalize a belief that their actions have no impact on outcomes, leading to passive behavior and reduced motivation to change their situation. • Examples: A student repeatedly failing exams despite effort may develop learned helplessness if they attribute their failures to lack of ability rather than seeking strategies to improve. Differences Between People with Learned Helplessness and Those Without: • Response to Challenges: Individuals with learned helplessness are more likely to give up quickly when faced with obstacles, while those without this condition persist in finding solutions. • Attributional Style: Those with learned helplessness tend to attribute failures to internal, stable, and global factors ("I am not smart enough"), whereas resilient individuals attribute setbacks to external, changeable factors ("I need to study harder"). • Psychological and Physical Health: Learned helplessness is associated with higher rates of depression, anxiety, and stress-related disorders, along with poorer physical health outcomes compared to individuals who maintain a sense of control over their lives. Understanding learned helplessness helps in identifying strategies to promote resilience and empower individuals to perceive control over their circumstances, fostering better psychological adjustment and physical well-being. 5. What is learned optimism? Explain how optimistic versus pessimistic people would explain the two following scenarios: a) Your best friend has not returned your call in days; b) You do well in a job interview. Answer: Learned Optimism: Learned optimism is the idea that individuals can develop a more positive outlook by changing their explanatory style—the way they explain events that happen to them. Optimistic Explanation (Scenario Analysis): • Scenario a) Your best friend has not returned your call in days: • Optimistic: "They must be busy or dealing with something important. I'll try reaching out again later." • Explanation: Optimistic individuals tend to attribute the lack of response to external and temporary factors, maintaining a positive outlook and assuming the best intentions. • Scenario b) You do well in a job interview: • Optimistic: "I prepared well and showcased my skills effectively. This increases my chances of getting the job." • Explanation: Optimistic individuals attribute success to internal, stable, and global factors, such as their abilities and efforts, reinforcing a positive self-view and motivation to continue performing well. Pessimistic Explanation (Scenario Analysis): • Scenario a) Your best friend has not returned your call in days: • Pessimistic: "They probably don't care about our friendship anymore. I must have done something wrong." • Explanation: Pessimistic individuals tend to attribute the lack of response to internal, stable, and global factors, such as their own shortcomings or the friend's lack of interest, leading to feelings of helplessness or rejection. • Scenario b) You do well in a job interview: • Pessimistic: "It was probably just luck. They might have liked someone else better." • Explanation: Pessimistic individuals attribute success to external, unstable, or specific factors, discounting their own abilities and undermining their confidence in future success. 6. Explain the five stages for making sound decisions. Answer: 1. Identifying the Problem: Clearly define and understand the issue or decision that needs to be addressed. 2. Gathering Information: Collect relevant data, facts, and perspectives related to the problem or decision to be made. 3. Generating Alternatives: Brainstorm and evaluate possible solutions or courses of action that could address the problem. 4. Evaluating Alternatives: Assess each alternative based on criteria such as feasibility, effectiveness, costs, and ethical considerations. 5. Making the Decision: Select the best alternative based on the evaluation process, and commit to implementing the decision effectively. Following these stages systematically helps ensure thorough consideration of options and factors, leading to informed and effective decision-making in various personal, professional, and organizational contexts. 7. Discuss the aids for improving decision making as detailed in the text. Answer: Aids for improving decision-making include: • Decision-making Models: Structured approaches like the rational decision-making model or bounded rationality help organize thoughts and prioritize criteria. • Information Gathering: Thoroughly researching and gathering relevant data and perspectives to make well-informed decisions. • Brainstorming and Generating Alternatives: Encouraging creativity and considering multiple options before making a decision. • Evaluating Risks and Benefits: Assessing potential outcomes, risks, and benefits associated with each alternative. • Consultation and Collaboration: Seeking input from others, such as colleagues or mentors, to gain diverse perspectives and insights. • Reflective Thinking: Taking time to reflect on personal values, goals, and long-term implications of decisions. • Feedback and Evaluation: Reviewing decisions periodically to assess their effectiveness and make adjustments if needed. These aids help individuals navigate complex decision-making processes more effectively, leading to better outcomes and minimizing the likelihood of regrets. 8. Define and provide an example of the following terms: reactance, learned optimism, learned helplessness, external locus of control, and post-decision regret. Answer: • Reactance: Reactance is the psychological resistance to perceived threats to one's freedom or autonomy, often resulting in behaviors that assert independence or defiance. Example: A teenager rebels against strict parental rules by staying out late. • Learned Optimism: Learned optimism refers to developing a positive explanatory style by attributing successes to internal, stable, and global factors, which enhances resilience and motivation. Example: After receiving constructive criticism at work, an optimist focuses on areas for improvement and takes proactive steps to grow. • Learned Helplessness: Learned helplessness is a condition where individuals perceive they have no control over outcomes, leading to passive behavior and diminished motivation to change their circumstances. Example: A student repeatedly fails exams and stops studying because they believe their efforts won't make a difference. • External Locus of Control: External locus of control is a belief that outcomes are primarily determined by external factors such as luck or powerful others, rather than one's own actions or decisions. Example: Someone attributes their career success solely to getting lucky breaks and influential connections. • Post-decision Regret: Post-decision regret is the feeling of disappointment or remorse after making a decision, often when outcomes are less favorable than expected. Example: A person regrets buying a car after discovering it requires frequent expensive repairs. Understanding these terms provides insights into how psychological factors influence behavior, decision-making processes, and overall well-being in various contexts. Test Bank for Psychology for Living: Adjustment, Growth, and Behavior Today Steven J. Kirsh, Karen Grover Duffy, Eastwood Atwater 9780205961627
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