CH-5-6 Social Interaction and Social Structure – Sociology : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 5 to 6 CHAPTER 5 SOCIAL INTERACTION AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE CHAPTER OUTLINE SOCIAL INTERACTION AND REALITY ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE Ascribed and Achieved Status Master Status Social Roles Groups Social Institutions SOCIAL NETWORKS VIRTUAL WORLDS SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity Tönnies’s Gemeinschaft and Gellschaft Lenski’s Sociolcultural Evolution Approach SOCIAL POLICY AND SOCIAL INTERACTION: Media Concentration Boxes Research Today: Disability as a Master Status Trend Spotting: The Growth of Online Societies Research Today: Social Networks and Obesity Sociology in the Global Community: The Virtual World of Second Life Taking Sociology to Work: Danielle Taylor, Account Manager, Cash Cycle Solutions LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 5 1. Define social interaction and social structure. 2. Identify and discuss the various elements of social structure. 3. Discuss the differences between ascribed and achieved statuses. 4. Discuss what is meant by “master status.” 5. Identify and describe the various types of social role situations. 6. Discuss the purpose of groups as an element of social structure. 7. Discuss the impact of social networks and technology on social relationships. 8. Analyze the importance of social institutions using the three major sociological perspectives. 9. Compare (and link) Durkheim’s concept of mechanical versus organic solidarity to Tönnies’ concept of Gemeinschaft versus Gesellschaft. 10. Discuss Lenski’s model of sociocultural evolution. • Taking Sociology to Work: Danielle Taylor, Account Manager, Cash Cycle Solutions • Chapter-opening excerpt from Philip Zimbardo, The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil. • Discussion of how social networks have boosted morale during recent economic downturn • Trend Spotting Box, “The Growth of Online Societies” • Research Today Box, “Social Networks and Obesity” • Case Study: The Second Life Virtual World • Discussion of cross-cultural differences in social interaction and social reality. • Discussion of the inauguration of President Barack Obama as an example of the institutional function of providing and maintaining a sense of purpose. • Summing Up table, “Sociological Perspectives on Social Institutions.” • Research Today box, “Social Networks and Smoking,” with figure • Social Policy: Media Concentration CHAPTER SUMMARY Social interaction refers to the ways in which people respond to one another. Social structure refers to the way a society is organized into predictable relationships. Both social interaction and social structure are central to understanding how different aspects of behavior are related to one another. Our response to someone’s behavior is based on the meaning we attach to his/her actions. Reality is shaped by our perceptions, evaluations, and definitions. The ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within a society. Sociologists use the term status to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society. A person can hold a number of statuses at the same time. An ascribed status is assigned to a person by society without regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics, generally at birth. An achieved status is attained by a person largely through his or her own efforts. A master status dominates other statuses and thereby determines a person’s general position within society. Master statuses may be either ascribed or achieved. A social role is a set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. Role conflict occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Role strain is a term used to describe the difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes conflicting or incompatible demands and expectations. The process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity is referred to as role exit. A group is any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who regularly and consciously interact. Groups play an important part in a society’s structure. Much of our social interaction takes place within groups and is influenced by their norms and sanctions. Social institutions are organized patterns of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs. Functionalists view social institutions as necessary for the survival of society in meeting the basic needs of its members. Conflict theorists suggest that social institutions maintain the privileges of the most powerful individuals and groups within a society. Interactionists emphasize that our social behavior is conditioned by the roles and statuses that we accept, the groups to which we belong, and the institutions within which we function. Members of different groups make connections through a series of social relationships known as a social network. With advances in technology, we can now maintain social networks electronically; we don’t need face-to-face contact. Émile Durkheim developed the concepts of mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity to describe the kind of consciousness that develops in societies where there is a simple or complex division of labor, respectively. Ferdinand Tönnies used the term Gemeinschaft to refer to a small, close-knit community, typical of rural life, where people have similar backgrounds and life experiences. Conversely, the Gesellschaft is an ideal type characteristic of modern urban life. Here, most people are strangers who feel little in common with one another. In contrast to Tönnies’ perspective, Gerhard Lenski viewed societies as undergoing change according to a dominant pattern known as sociocultural evolution. His view suggests that a society’s level of technology is critical to the way it is organized. The hunting-and-gathering society, the horticultural society, and the agrarian society are three types of preindustrial societies. An industrial society depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. A postindustrial society’s economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information. A postmodern society is a technologically sophisticated society that is preoccupied with consumer goods and media images. At the macro-level of analysis, we see society shifting to more advanced forms of technology. The social structure becomes complex and new social institutions emerge to assume some functions previously performed by family. On the micro-level of analysis, these changes affect the nature of social interactions between people. People come to rely more on social networks, rather than solely on kinship ties. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources 1. What is the relationship between social interaction and reality? IN THE TEXT Visual Support: Photo of Zimbardo’s mock prisoners, Photo of bride and groom cake-topper IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 5-1 Classroom Discussion Topics: 5-1 Video Resources: From Social Interaction to Social Structure; Keeping Up Appearances 2. What is the importance of roles and statuses to social structure? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: status, ascribed status, achieved status, master status, social role, role conflict, role strain, role exit Boxes: Research Today, “Disability as a Master Status” Visual Support: Figure 5-1 Social Statuses diagram; Photo of doorman greeting resident; Photo of transsexual Taking Sociology to Work: Danielle Taylor, Account Manager, Cash Cycle Solutions IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5 Classroom Discussion Topics: 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Social Structure and Emotions; Changing Social Roles in the Catholic Church; Prison Interaction Video Resources: Breaking Silence; Coming Out Under Fire; From Social Interaction to Social Structure; Group Influence; Social Interaction, Conflict, and Change REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Social Roles 3. How are groups and social institutions important to social structure? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: group, social institutions IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 5-5 Video Resources: Group Influence 4. What are the major theoretical perspectives on social institutions? IN THE TEXT Visual Support: Photo of Inauguration Day, 2009; Table 5-1 Sociological Perspectives on Social Institutions IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Video Resources: Social Institutions—Politics and Education 5. What are social networks? IN THE TEXT Key Term: social network Box: Research Today, “Social Networks and Obesity” Visual Support: Photo of young adults Trend Spotting Box: The Growth of Online Societies IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Idea: 5-6 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Networking among Men and Women; Social Networks in China Video Resources: Social Interaction in Diverse Settings 6. What are the issues surrounding the new phenomenon of virtual worlds? IN THE TEXT Case Study: The Second Life Virtual World IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Student Research and Discussion: 7 - Online Courses and Virtual Classrooms Video Resources: 7. How do sociologists view the development of societies historically and globally? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity, Gemeinschaft, Gesellschaft, sociocultural evolution, technology, hunting-and-gathering society, horticultural society, agrarian society, industrial society, postindustrial society, postmodern society Visual Support: Cartoon on bureaucratic impersonality; Table 5-2 Gemeinschaft-Gesellschaft; Photo of South American indigenous people; Table 5-3 Stages of Sociocultural Evolution; Photo of Universal Studios Theme Park in Osaka IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 5-7 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Gerhard Lenski Video Resources: LECTURE OUTLINE I. Social Interaction and Reality • Social interaction refers to the way people respond to one another. • Social structure refers to the way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships. The linkage of social interaction and social structure is central to sociological study. • Social reality is literally constructed from our social interactions. The meanings we attach to people’s behavior are shaped by our interactions with them and with the larger society. • As noted by the conflict perspective, ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within society. II. Elements of Social Structure A. Statuses • Status refers to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society. A number of statuses can be held at the same time. Examples: U.S. president, son or daughter, dental technician, neighbor. 1. Ascribed and Achieved Status • Ascribed status is generally assigned at birth without regard to a person’s unique talents or characteristics. Examples: race, gender, and age. • Achieved status comes to us largely through our own efforts. Examples: lawyer, pianist, convict, and social worker. 2. Master Status • Dominates other statuses and thereby determines a person’s general position within society. Example: Extreme obesity may serve as a master status in American culture. B. Social Roles 1. What Are Social Roles? • A set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. Roles are a significant component of social structure. Example: Police are expected to protect us and apprehend criminals. 2. Role Conflict • Occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Example: newly promoted worker who carries on a relationship with his/her former workgroup. • Occurs among individuals moving into occupations that are not common among people with their ascribed status. Examples: female police officers and male preschool teachers. 3. Role Strain • Difficulty arises when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations. Example: alternative forms of justice among Navajo police officers. 4. Role Exit • The process of disengaging from a role that is central to one’s self- identity. • Ebaugh’s four-stage model: (1) doubt, (2) search for alternatives, (3) action stage or departure, and (4) creation of a new identity. Examples: graduating from high school or college, retirement, and divorce. C. Groups • Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. Examples: sports team, college sorority, hospital business office, symphony orchestra. • Groups play a key role in transmitting culture. D. Social Institutions • Organized patterns of beliefs and behavior centered on meeting basic social needs, such as replacing personnel (the family) and preserving order (the government). 1. Functionalist View • Five major tasks or functional prerequisites: (1) Replacing personnel, (2) teaching new recruits, (3) producing and distributing goods and services, (4) preserving order, and (5) providing and maintaining a sense of purpose. Example: Patriotism assists people in maintaining a sense of purpose. • Social institutions create survival and stability for society. • Social change can be dysfunctional, since it often leads to instability. 2. Conflict View • Does not agree with functionalists that the outcome of meeting basic needs is necessarily efficient and desirable for all members of society. • Major institutions maintain the privileges of the most powerful individuals and groups within a society, while contributing to the powerlessness of others. Example: Public schools are financed largely by property taxes, so affluent areas have better equipped schools and better- paid teachers. • Social institutions have an inherently conservative nature. • Social institutions operate in gendered and racist environments. • Social changes are needed to promote equality. 3. Interactionist View • Behavior is conditioned by roles and statuses that we accept, the groups to which we belong, and the institutions within which we function. Example: The status of a judge is in relation to other statuses. E. Social Networks • A network is a series of social relationships that links people either directly or indirectly to still more people. Can center on virtually any activity. Examples: networking for employment, exchanging news and gossip. • Influence of the Internet (technology) on social networks. Using email rather than sending letters. F. Virtual Worlds • Recent technological advances allow people to maintain and expand social networks without face-to-face interactions. • Allows interaction without supervision by authority figures. Examples: adolescents, employees. • Participants in virtual world interact via avatars. • Virtual worlds have become politicized and consumer-oriented. • Electronic networks affect the workplace. • Electronic networks can help preserve real-world networks. Examples: email, digital photos, blogs. III. Social Structure in Global Perspective A. Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity • Mechanical solidarity exists in societies with a minimal division of labor. A collective consciousness develops that emphasizes group solidarity. • Organic solidarity exists in societies with a complex division of labor. It emphasizes mutual interdependence—in much the same way as organs of the body are interdependent. B. Tönnies’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft • The Gemeinschaft community is typical of rural life. Social interactions are intimate and familiar. • The Gesellschaft is an ideal type characteristic of modern life. Most people are strangers and feel little in common with one another. See Table 5-2. C. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach • Lenski views human societies as undergoing a process of change characterized by a dominant pattern known as sociocultural evolution: long-terms trends in societies resulting from the interplay of continuity, innovation, and selection. See Table 5-3. • Technology is critical to the way society is organized. As technology advances, a community evolves from a preindustrial to an industrial and finally a post- industrial society. 1. Preindustrial Societies • Hunting-and-gathering societies rely on available foods; technology is minimal. • Horticultural societies plant seeds and grow crops rather than subsist only on available foods. • Agrarian societies increase crop yields, and technological innovations are more dramatic (e.g., the plow). 2. Industrial Societies • Society depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. • Reliant on new inventions that facilitate agricultural and industrial production, and on new sources of energy. • Need for specialized knowledge. 3. Postindustrial and Postmodern Societies • A postindustrial society is technologically advanced. Its economic system is primarily engaged in processing and controlling information. • Postmodern societies are technologically sophisticated and preoccupied with consumer goods and media images. • Postmodern theorists take a global perspective, noting ways that culture crosses national boundaries. Examples: In the United States, people listen to reggae music from Jamaica, eat sushi and other Japanese foods; and there are Disney Worlds in Paris and Tokyo. IV. Social Policy and Social Interaction: Media Concentration A. The Issue • Increasingly, a small number of very large corporations own the media production process. B. Sociological Insights • A clear trend in the media industry is toward the consolidation of ownership. • In the United States, the gate-keeping process lies in the hands of private individuals, whose primary interest is to maximize profits. • Functionalists view media concentration as a step toward greater economic efficiency while conflict theorists view it as limiting opportunities for minority ownership. D. Policy Initiatives •The Telecommunications Act of 1996 made a significant distinction between information services and promoters of telecommunications services. • In 2007, the Federal Communications Commission began allowing the consolidation of newspaper and television ownership in cities with only one local newspaper and local television station. KEY TERMS Achieved status A social position that a person attains largely through his or her own efforts. Agrarian society The most technologically advanced form of preindustrial society. Members are engaged primarily in the production of food but increase their crop yield through technological innovations such as the plow. Ascribed status A social position that is assigned to a person by society without regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics. Gemeinschaft A close-knit community, often found in rural areas, in which strong personal bonds unite members. Gesellschaft A community, often urban, that is large and impersonal, with little commitment to the group or consensus on values. Group Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. Horticultural society A preindustrial society in which people plant seeds and crops rather than merely subsist on available foods. Hunting-and-gathering society A preindustrial society in which people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available in order to survive. Industrial society A society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. Master status A status that dominates others and thereby determines a person’s general position in society. Mechanical solidarity A collective consciousness that emphasizes group solidarity, characteristic of societies with minimal division of labor. Net neutrality The principle that the government should remain nonselective or neutral toward online content. Organic solidarity A collective consciousness that rests on mutual interdependence, characteristic of societies with a complex division of labor. Postindustrial society A society whose economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information. Postmodern society A technologically sophisticated society that is preoccupied with consumer goods and media images. Role conflict The situation that occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Role exit The process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity. Role strain The difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations. Social institution An organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs. Social interaction The ways in which people respond to one another. Social network A series of social relationships that links a person directly to others, and through them indirectly to still more people. Social role A set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. Social structure The way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships. Sociocultural evolution Long-term trends in societies resulting from the interplay of continuity, innovation, and selection. Status A term used by sociologists to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society. Technology Cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 5-1: Pathology of Imprisonment An experiment at Stanford University (described briefly in this chapter of the text) provided a significant critique of the impact of a total institution. Philip Zimbardo and a team of social psychologists carefully screened more than 70 volunteers for participation in a simulated prison. It is important to stress that the two dozen males selected were mature, intelligent, emotionally stable college students from middle-class homes. Subjects were paid $15 a day to live in a mock prison created in a classroom building. By a flip of a coin, half were arbitrarily designated as prisoners and the others as guards. The guards were allowed to make up their own rules for maintaining law, order, and respect. The students designated as “prisoners” were unexpectedly picked up at their homes by a city police officer in a squad car, searched, handcuffed, fingerprinted, booked at the station house, and taken blindfolded to the mock jail. The results of this experiment startled prisoners, guards, and researchers alike. After only six days (rather than the intended two weeks) Zimbardo and his colleagues, aware of the ethical implications of using human subjects, had to terminate the simulation because of the frightening behavior that had taken place. The student guards had begun to take pleasure in cruel treatment of prisoners. Physical punishment was prohibited, but the guards created their own forms of abuse, including solitary confinement, hourly roll calls throughout the night, and removal of blankets from uncooperative inmates. About a third were tyrannical and arbitrary in their use of power; and the remaining guards did not interfere with this tough approach. At the same time, the prisoners meekly accepted not only their confinement but also their mistreatment. When their requests for parole were denied, these subjects merely returned quietly to their cells, where they cried hysterically. This experiment serves as a sobering commentary on the possibility of improving prison life. Although Zimbardo argues for better training programs for prison guards, it appears that the guards themselves are “prisoners” of their social position as defined within the prison community and by society at large. Zimbardo’s participants were not subjected to the racism, sexual aggression, and lethal violence that can be found in contemporary prisons. Therefore, it is even more discouraging to read that four inmates were discharged prematurely because of “severe emotional responses.” Zimbardo’s research suggests that some of the problems found in prisons are inevitable, and casts a disturbing shadow on hopes for reform of correctional institutions. See Philip Zimbardo, “Pathology of Imprisonment,” Society 9 (April 1972): 4, 6, 8; Zimbardo, “On the Ethics of Intervention in Human Psychological Research: With Special Reference to the Stanford Prison Experiment,” Cognition 2 (August 1, 1974): 243–256; Craig Haney, Curtis Banks, and Philip Zimbardo, “Interpersonal Dynamics in a Simulated Prison,” International Journal of Criminology and Penology 1 (February 1973): 69–97. 5-2: Social Roles Amidst Disasters Lewis Killian studied the reaction of four Oklahoma and Texas communities to physical disasters such as explosions and tornadoes. He and his researchers found that individuals experienced unusual role conflicts because of the abnormal and stressful social conditions. In one case, the heroic role of rescue worker conflicted with a person’s occupational duties. As a result, a minister gave up an opportunity to act as a hero. This minister, hearing an explosion on the shipping docks, headed in that direction to join the rescue effort. On his way, he realized that he had to make a choice between serving as a rescue worker and serving as a minister. He chose his counseling role rather than the physical rescue work. In a second situation, Killian found a conflict between the roles of community member and member of a group with ties outside the community, specifically, a labor union. At the time of the disaster studied by Killian, telephone workers were on strike. Because of the emergency, union leaders allowed the strikers to return to their jobs. However, a few days later the union determined that the emergency was over—a judgment that was not shared within the community—and ordered the workers to walk out again. Rather than forsaking their role as community members, the telephone workers resigned from the union. Killian reports, “it was almost a year before union officials were able to reorganize the local in this town, and some workers never rejoined” (Killian 1952:313). The choices faced by the minister and the union members could not have been anticipated before disaster struck in their communities. Therefore, role conflicts can arise not only out of everyday familial and occupational situations, but also out of extraordinary circumstances such as a natural disaster. See Lewis M. Killian, “The Significance of Multiple-Group Membership in Disaster,” American Journal of Sociology 57 (January 1952): 309–314. 5-3: China and People with Disabilities Having a disability is a master status found throughout the world. Sometimes its power surfaces in unusual ways. In 1994, Fang Zheng was hailed as China’s discus champion among athletes with a disability. In his case, the disability that he had overcome was the loss of both legs. But the Chinese government barred him from international competition when Communist party officials learned that his disability occurred during the Tiananmen Square uprising of June 4, 1989, when students and workers were demonstrating for democratic reforms. A Chinese Army tank ran him down, crushing his legs and dragging him 30 feet as the tank plunged into the crowd to suppress dissenters. His legs were later amputated. Prior to the publicity associated with this event, sociologist C. Edward Vaughan evaluated public policy and the existing laws regarding people with disabilities in the People’s Republic of China. In 1988, China published its first five-year plan for the rehabilitation and education of people with disabilities. The Handicapped People’s Association, an organization sponsored by the Chinese government, participated in the preparatory work and discussions that led to the final document. The plan focuses on improving educational opportunities for people with disabilities and on strengthening special education programs. While the plan encourages all levels of government to enhance the employment, health, education, and general welfare of people with disabilities, these policies are outlined in broad terms and lack specific goals. In 1990, China’s national government issued the “Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Disabled Persons.” This law was shaped, in part, through the advocacy efforts of the Disabled People’s Association. The law suggests that employers offer work opportunities to people with disabilities who pass entrance examinations. All levels of society are encouraged to offer access to people with disabilities, including access to cultural materials and transportation. To bring greater recognition to the contribution of people with disabilities, the third Sunday of every May was established as National Disabled Persons’ Day. The new legislation prohibits public officials from violating the interests or rights of people with disabilities. It outlaws violent and insulting behavior aimed at the disabled, as well as mistreatment of people with disabilities by family members or caregivers. Unfortunately, as Vaughan observes, it will be difficult for many people with disabilities to obtain justice. Few attorneys are available to represent disabled people in cases arising from the 1990 law. Most people with disabilities have limited economic resources and few connections to powerful public officials. See Patrick E. Tyler, “China Discus Champ: Alone, Disabled, and Barred,” New York Times (September 8, 1994): A3; C. Edwin Vaughan, “The Development of Public Policy and New Laws Concerning the Rights of People with Disabilities in the People’s Republic of China,” Journal of Disability Policy Studies 4 (Summer 1993): 131–140. 5-4: Role Transitions Sociologists and other social scientists have examined the transitions that people make from one social role to another. Usually, researchers look at major turning points in the life course, such as rites of passage when people move between different sets of social networks. Sociologist Ira Silver notes that these studies fail to acknowledge the importance of material objects and the physical space in which role transitions take place. He explores one particular role transition, moving away to college, to illustrate that objects play a central role in how students contract their social identities. The term social identity refers to the meaning individuals perceive that others may attach to their particular social roles. Following the work of Erving Goffman and the dramaturgical approach, Silver pays specific attention to the objects that are used as “props,” used to manage the impressions that others form about the roles a given individual occupies. Students make what amounts to strategic choices about which objects to leave at home, objects that Silver refers to as anchors or prior identities, and which ones to bring to school as masters of new identities. The researcher conducted interviews with freshmen and sophomore students at a residential university. Students indicated the strong ties they had to their anchors, those objects that they associated exclusively with prior stages in their lives, such as childhood or early adolescence. Students commented that leaving behind the objects representing the ties they felt to their parents seemed to assume that most of their prized possessions were left behind. The anchors that the students chose to bring with them often reflected a conscious assemblage of their different past activities or accomplishments. By contrast, markers (for example, record and CD collections and mementos from trips to exotic places) are objects symbolic of where the students saw themselves presently and of the type of impression they wanted to generate. For example, one female student made it clear that she never considered bringing her stuffed animals. Another made a similar statement about dolls. While this may seem obvious, such decisions are conscious efforts to move into another social role. Conscious efforts also go into deciding what to display on the walls of one’s room. One male student, for example, purposely put up an unusual Beatles poster to signal to others that he was a real fan and had not just bought one that could be conveniently obtained anywhere. The research confirms the enduring accuracy of the famed interactionist Herbert Blumer’s three fundamental principles: (1) human beings act toward things on the basis of the meaning that the things have for them; (2) the meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with one’s peer group; and (3) these meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process used by people in dealing with the things they encounter (1996:2). Sources: Herbert Blumer. Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969; Blumer, “Role Transitions, Objects, and Identity,” Symbolic Interaction 19 (Winter 1996): 1–20. 5-5: Bowling Alone What are our relationships with others? Do we even have relationships with others? These questions have been raised because of a provocative book by Robert D. Putnam, Professor of International Affairs at Harvard University. Putnam states in Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community that civic life in the United States is collapsing; people are not joining, as they once did, the groups and clubs that promote trust and cooperation. This lack of connectedness in turn undermines democracy. Putnam takes his title (and central emblem of decline) from the fact that bowling league membership has dropped 40 percent since 1980; hence, we are “bowling alone.” Putnam’s premise has led to much discussion; even President Clinton made references to it during his first term. Is there empirical support for his thesis? Putnam contends that there is. Drawing on NORC General Social Survey data, he finds a 25-percent drop in all group membership since 1974, once the data are adjusted for rising educational levels. Putnam adjusts for schooling because better-educated people typically have belonged to more organizations. Once we adjust for more people being educated, says Putnam, it turns out we are less a nation of joiners. Looking at the same data, economist Robert J. Samuelson does not feel that there has been such a change. Most of the decline has been in church groups, and if one factors that out, the change has been mixed, but certainly not a trend of major decline. Furthermore, while membership in some traditional groups is declining, many new groups are developing and flourishing. Little League participation is giving way to soccer leagues, YMCA to health clubs, and church organizations to fellowships such as Promise Keepers. Sources: Robert D. Putnam. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. Robert J. Samuelson, “Join the Club,” Washington Post National Weekly Edition 13 (April 18, 1996): 8; Richard Stengel, “Bowling Together,” Time 146 (July 22, 1996): 35-36. 5-6: Social Networks in the United States Sociologist Peter Marsden used the 1985 NORC General Social Survey (GSS) to gain an overview of the features of social networks. Respondents in the national interview survey were asked to name all the people with whom they had discussed “important matters” (family, finances, health, politics, recreation, and so forth) within the past six months. Subsequent questions focused on the first five names mentioned, as a concession to time constraints. The respondents were asked to describe the relationship between themselves and each of their confidants as, say, “especially close” or “total strangers.” Items describing the respondent’s relationship with each confidant (in terms of closeness, frequency of contact, duration of acquaintance, and the role relations) were included, as were questions asking for the sex, race or ethnicity, education, age, and religious preferences of each confidant. Among the findings was the distribution of network size. Comparatively large percentages of respondents reported that they had recently discussed important matters with no one, or with only one person. Nearly a quarter of the respondents had networks of zero or one, and thus had relatively little counseling support. Few respondents indicated that they had more than six discussion contacts; the mean and mode were three. The networks drew heavily on kinship as a source of relationships. Respondents cited a mean of 1.5 relatives, slightly more than the 1.4 nonrelatives cited. There is substantial variability in the extent to which these interpersonal networks consisted of relatives rather than nonrelatives: 30 percent consisted only of people having some family relation to the respondent, while nearly 20 percent contained no family members. The average network had a proportion of relatives of 0.55. Marsden found this comparable with the level of “kin composition” found in previous surveys of large populations, including network items based on “intense name generators.” The racial and ethnic homogeneity of the networks was pronounced; only 96 respondents (8 percent of those with networks of size 2 or greater) cited “confidants” with any racial or ethnic diversity. By contrast only 22 percent of the respondents had networks with “alters” of only one sex. If anything, these estimates understate the extent of homogeneity in interpersonal environments because of the high “kin composition” of the networks, which had many ties bridging generations and many cross-sex links to spouses, siblings, parents, and children. A higher proportion of kin is associated with greater age, educational, and sexual heterogeneity. If these networks had been composed only of nonrelatives, they would have been substantially less heterogeneous in these respects than the detailed findings indicated. “Kin composition” does, however, tend to decrease racial and ethnic heterogeneity. Overall, these descriptive figures suggest that interpersonal environments in which Americans discuss important matters are “core” networks, as the choice of a relatively intense name generator implies. They are small, centered on relatives, comparatively dense, and homogeneous. See Peter Marsden, “Core Discussion Networks of Americans,” American Sociological Review 52 (February 1987): 122–131; “Social Network Theory.” In Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (eds.). Encyclopedia of Sociology, vol. 4. New York: Macmillan, 1992, pp. 1887–1994. 5-7: Daily Life in a Hunting-and-Gathering Society Looking at daily life in a hunting-and-gathering society can give some perspective on the range of variation in social structure in human societies. A close examination of life in the most famous of contemporary hunting-and-gathering societies—the Kalahari San—also suggests some interesting comparisons to life in an industrialized society, particularly when it comes to gender inequality. The Kalahari San are clustered in the country of Botswana, but can also be found throughout Southern Africa. Unfortunately, in recent decades they have been forced to give up their nomadic lifestyle, as other African populations began to encroach upon traditional San living areas. But the nomadic San lifestyle prior to the 1970s has been well documented in a number of studies. Prior to becoming stationary, the San typically lived together in bands of 10-85, who traveled seasonally within a specific geographical territory. For much of the year, the band moved camp every few weeks, once the food sources in a given area had been depleted. During the dry season—when it was difficult to extract water from plant sources—the band might camp for several months near a large water resource. Despite the common assumption that these bands were analogous to households, there were actually distinct nuclear families within each band. To some extent, each nuclear family within a band was economically independent from the others. On another level, the sharing of resources across bands was far more common than it is in industrial societies. The social processes through which meat was distributed illustrates the extent of interdependence across families. Technically, the spoils of a large-animal hunt belonged to just two or three people; the man who shot the animal, if applicable, the man who lent him the arrow, and the man who accompanied him on the hunt. In practice, though, meat was shared much more widely. Once a portion for his nuclear family was secured, the owner of a carcass would often give some of the meat to married children or to in-laws, who would then distribute the meat further. Ultimately, nearly everyone in the band could expect to eat part of the carcass. As in industrial societies, gender was often the basis for assigning work among members of the band. Although both genders engaged in a variety of activities, a primary activity for women was to gather plant foods for their families, and a primary activity for men was to hunt large animals with a bow and arrow. Does this imply that women were considered inferior to men, or that women’s work was considered less important than men’s work? This is definitely not the case. It is clear that plant food gathered by women was far more central to the diet of the San than meat. Depending on the season, band members might go for long periods without meat—as long as two months—and total annual meat consumption was not high. Ethnographic evidence also suggests that San society was fairly gender equitable, in the sense that women had substantial autonomy and political power. They were often influential in the band as a whole, and had a strong voice in important family decisions. Sources used for this essay and additional reading ideas include: Marjorie Shostak. Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman. New York: Vintage Books, 1983; George B. Silberbauer. Hunter and Habitat in the Central Kalahari Desert. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981; Jiro Tanaka. The San Hunter-Gatherers of the Kalahari. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1980; Elizabeth Marshall Thomas. The Harmless People. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 5-1. Stimulating Classroom Discussions about Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Philip Zimbardo’s study of “prison behavior” might include: Based on Zimbardo’s study, what would you conclude about the impact of social structure on social interaction? Is it valid to generalize from a small experiment like the one conducted by Zimbardo? Based on the sociological code of ethics that you learned about in Chapter 2, do you believe that Zimbardo was ethical in conducting this experiment and in ending it when he did? Does Zimbardo’s experiment explain the behavior of real-life prison guards and prisoners? Can the findings of Zimbardo’s experiment be generalized to other, non-prison social structures? 5-2. Alternative Social Structure: As a starting point for emphasizing the importance of structure, outline the island social structure and subsequent breakdown of social control presented in William Golding’s Lord of the Flies (London: Farber and Farber, 1954). Note that sociologists make a distinction between a slum (a deteriorated urban community) and a ghetto (an urban community that is home to a particular ethnic group). A ghetto, as originally discussed by Herbert Gans and later by Elliot Liebow and others, may be a highly organized community, although it may not appear that way to outsiders. See Herbert Gans. The Urban Villagers. New York: Free Press, 1962. See also Elliot Liebow. Tally’s Corner. Boston: Little, Brown, 1967. 5-3. Social Statuses and Social Roles: Most students in the class have probably never thought much about their social statuses or social roles. For this exercise, they will need to do so. Have them use Figure 5-1 as a guide, and diagram their social statuses. Underneath their diagrams, have them list their social roles. Divide the class into small groups and have them share their findings about their social statuses and social roles with other group members. 5-4. Physical Attractiveness as a Social Status: See Murray Webster, Jr., and James E. Driskell, Jr., “Beauty as Status,” American Journal of Sociology 89 (July 1983): 140–165. 5-5. Using Humor: Joseph E. Faulkner has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated into lectures associated with Chapter 5. See Chapter 4 in Faulkner, Sociology Through Humor. New York: West, 1987. This book is out of print, but used copies are readily available. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to spend a few days testing social reality by facing toward the rear wall in an elevator, or continually talking with others while in the elevator. Have them record the general reaction of their observers. Discuss how social reality is shaped by perceptions, evaluations, and definitions. 2. Using Figure 5-1 as an example, have students make a diagram of their own statuses. Add several role expectations for each status. Have students examine their diagrams for instances of role conflict and/or role strain. Discuss. Or, ask students to differentiate, in writing, between role conflict and role strain and summarize instances of each that they see in their own diagrams. 3. Ask students to charities or organizations to which they or their families have donated money. Compare this to the amount of money they have given to homeless people on the street. Discuss the impact of master statuses in producing any differences. 4. Ask students to view the movie Kindergarten Cop, and discuss the implications of role conflict. 5. Ask students to find various evidentiary indicators used by society to encourage older workers to retire, and discuss the four stages of role exit as developed by Helen Rose Fuchs Ebaugh. 6. Ask students to discuss how affirmation of patriotism in the aftermath of 9/11 has redefined the roles of police and fire personnel. Consider the view of all three major perspectives in your discussion. 7. Ask students to research the various advantages and disadvantages of learning college curriculum via the Internet, and discuss the social implications of virtual classrooms. CHAPTER 6 GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS CHAPTER OUTLINE UNDERSTANDING GROUPS Types of Groups Studying Small Groups UNDERSTANDING ORGANIZATIONS Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies Characteristics of a Bureaucracy Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture THE CHANGING WORKPLACE Organizational Restructuring The Postmodern Job SOCIAL POLICY AND ORGANIZATIONS: The State of the Unions Worldwide Boxes Research Today: The Drinking Rape Victim: Jury Decision Making Trend Spotting Box: Joining Up: Voluntary Associations in the United States Sociology in the Global Community: McDonald’s and the Worldwide Bureaucratization of Society Taking Sociology to Work: Sarah Levy, Owner, Sarah’s Pastries & Candies LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 6 1. Define and discuss the impact of McDonaldization on social life. 2. Identify and define the various types of groups. 3. Discuss the association between group size and social relationships. 4. Describe the features of a formal organization. 5. Describe the various characteristics of a bureaucracy. 6. Describe how today’s workplace is changing. 7. Discuss the nature of unions in the United States today. • Use Your Sociological Imagination Exercise • Discussion of small-group behavior among the Chilean miners trapped below ground in 2010, with photo • Key term coverage of focus groups, with photo • Trend Spotting Box, “Joining Up: Voluntary Associations in the United States” • Discussion of Toyota’s recent organizational restructuring • Summing Up Table: “Telecommuting: The Pros and Cons” • Taking Sociology to Work Box: Sarah Levy, Owner, Sarah’s Pastries & Candies • Discussion of recent attempts by state and local government to curtail retirement benefits and rights to collective bargaining CHAPTER SUMMARY McDonaldization, a concept developed by sociologist George Ritzer, refers to the process whereby the principles of the fast food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as global markets. A group is any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who regularly and consciously interact. Groups should be distinguished from aggregates as well as from categories. Groups play an important part in a society’s structure. Much of our social interaction takes place within groups and is influenced by their norms and sanctions. Sociologists have made distinctions between the various types of groups. A primary group is a small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation. Primary groups play a pivotal role both in the socialization process and the development of roles and statuses. Secondary groups are formal, impersonal groups in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding. In-groups are groups to which people feel they belong, whereas out-groups are groups to which people feel they do not belong. A reference group is used as the standard by which individuals evaluate themselves or their own behavior. A coalition is a temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal. Some coalitions are intentionally short-lived. A small group refers to a group small enough for all members to interact simultaneously or at least be acquainted with one another, such as families, small working environments, or street gangs. Group size has noticeable social implications for members of a group. In a larger group, each member has less time to speak, more points of view to absorb, and a more elaborate structure in which to function. Georg Simmel (1858-1918) emphasized the importance of interactions within groups. A dyad, or two-member group, is the simplest of all social groups. The introduction of a third member to a dyad forms a triad and changes the dynamics of the group interactions. As groups grow in size coalitions may develop. Group members are sometimes subject to the phenomenon of groupthink—uncritical acceptance of the prevailing viewpoint—which can have disastrous consequences. A focus group is a carefully selected discussion group led by a trained moderator. They are used to collect qualitative data on opinions, feelings, and attitudes. A formal organization is a group designed for a special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency. Organizations are structured to facilitate the management of large-scale operations. A bureaucracy is a component of a formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency. Max Weber developed an ideal type of bureaucracy to serve as a standard for evaluating a bureaucracy, which consisted of five basic characteristics: (1) division of labor; (2) hierarchy of authority; (3) written rules and regulations; (4) impersonality; and (5) employment based on technical qualifications. Sociologists have used the term bureaucratization to refer to the process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic. The iron law of oligarchy describes how a democratic organization will develop into a bureaucracy ruled by a few (oligarchy). According to the scientific management approach, workers in an organization are motivated almost entirely by economic rewards. By contrast, the human relations approach emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation within a bureaucracy. Sociological research on formal organizations today is focusing on several new sources of change, including more women and minority group members in high-level management, changes in organization structure that lead to broader involvement of employees in decision making, the effects of outsourcing, and the role of the Internet and virtual worlds in influencing business and consumer preferences. The workplace has been undergoing rapid and profound change, including organizational restructuring and technological advances. Organizational restructuring has included collective decision making (active involvement of employee problem-solving groups in corporate management); a reliance on minimal hierarchy (replacing the traditional bureaucratic hierarchy with a flatter organizational structure); and the use of work teams. The common purpose of these efforts has been to empower workers. Post-modern societies have given rise to telecommuting positions. Technology has transformed the nature of the working environment. Telecommuters are employees who work full-time or part-time at home rather than in an outside office and who are linked to their supervisors and colleagues through computer terminals, phones, and fax machines. Critics are concerned about the linking of workers to their offices on a continuous, round the block, basis. Interactionists view this transformation as restricting face-to-face social opportunities while others have suggested that telecommuting pulls fathers and mothers back into the home rather than pushing them out. Electronic communication has many advantages but it has also generated criticism. Email does not convey body language. Further, electronic communication has contributed significantly to the fragmentation of work, and multitasking can be very stressful for workers. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources 1. What are the various types of groups? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: group, primary group, secondary group, in-group, out group, reference group, coalition Visual Support: Photo of pizza delivery team; Table 6-1 Primary and Secondary Groups; Cartoon about in-groups; Photo of drum circle; Photo of “Survivor: Redemption Island” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 6-3 Classroom Discussion Topics: 6-1, 6-2 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Primary Groups among Subcultures; Reference Group Theory; Street Gangs Video Resources: 2. What is the relationship between group size and group dynamics? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: small group, dyad, triad, group think, focus group Boxes: Research Today, “The Drinking Rape Victim: Jury Decision Making” Visual Support: Photo of miners raising flag; photo of focus group through one-way mirror IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-6, 6-7 3. What are the characteristics of a bureaucracy? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: formal organization, bureaucracy, ideal type, alienation, trained incapacity, goal displacement, Peter principle, bureaucratization, iron law of oligarchy, classical theory, scientific management approach, human relations approach Boxes: Sociology in the Global Community: McDonald’s and the Worldwide Bureaucratization of Society Visual Support: Photo of cutting red tape; photo of accountant at work; Table 6-2 Characteristics of a Bureaucracy; Photo of office workers IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 6-1; 6-2 Classroom Discussion Topics: 6-1; 6-2; 6-5 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Labor Unions as Organizations Video Resources: Formal Organizations; Formal Organizations and Bureaucracy; Peter Principle REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Groups 4. What are some recent changes in the workplace? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: Telecommuter Boxes: Research in Action, “Entrepreneurship, Japanese Style” Taking Sociology to Work: Sarah Levy, Owner, Sarah’s Pastries & Candies Visual Support: Photograph of work teams; Table 6-3 Telecommuting: Pros and Cons IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 6-2 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Labor Unions as Organizations Video Resources: Diversity at Work; The Labor Movement in America; Organizing America; Sexual Harassment; The Workday; Working World LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • McDonaldization refers to the process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society and the rest of the world. I. Groups • Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. Examples: sports team, college sorority, hospital business office, symphony orchestra. • Groups play a key role in transmitting culture. A. Types of Groups 1. Primary and Secondary Groups • Charles Horton Cooley coined the term primary group to refer to a small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation. • Primary groups include family members and those instrumental in a person’s day-to-day life. • The term secondary group refers to a formal, impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy. See Table 6-1. 2. In-Groups and Out-Groups • An in-group is any group to which people feel they belong. Regarded as anyone viewed as “we” or “us.” • An out-group is any group to which people feel they do not belong. • Conflict between in-groups and out-groups can be violent. Example: Columbine High School in 1999. • David Stevenson and Barbara Schneider found that young people spend an average of about three to three and one half hours alone each day. 3. Reference Group • Any group that an individual uses as a standard for evaluating himself or herself and his or her own behavior. • Two basic purposes: 1) serves a normative function by setting and enforcing standards of conduct and belief, and 2) performs a comparison function by serving as a standard against which people can measure themselves and others. 4. Coalition • A temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal. Can be broad-based or narrow and take on many different objectives. • Coalitions can be short-lived. Examples: popular TV shows or political groupings for elections or legislative agendas. B. Studying Small Groups • Small group refers to a group small enough for all members to interact simultaneously. Families and street gangs can be considered small groups. 1. Size of a Group • Group size can alter the quality of social relationships. In larger groups, each member has less time to speak, more points of view to absorb, and a more elaborate structure in which to function. It is easier to disregard someone in a larger group than it is in a smaller group. • Georg Simmel (1858-1918) first studied group dynamics. The dyad is a two-member group. The addition of a third member creates a triad and changes the group’s dynamics and interactions. 2. Groupthink • Membership in a group can lead to faulty decisions, through an uncritical acceptance of the prevailing viewpoint known as groupthink. • Researchers have found ways to help minimize the tendency toward groupthink. II. Understanding Organizations A. Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies • Formal organization: a group designed for a special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency. Examples: United States Postal Service, McDonald’s, and colleges. • Formal organizations fulfill a variety of personal and social needs. • Ascribed factors such as gender, race, and ethnicity influence how we see ourselves within formal organizations. Example: female lawyers. B. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy • A component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency. • Max Weber viewed bureaucracy as being different from a family-run business. He developed an ideal type of bureaucracy to serve as a standard for evaluation, having these five characteristics: division of labor, hierarchy of authority, written rules and regulation, impersonality, and employment based on technical qualifications. Not every formal organization will possess all five. • Through McDonaldization, bureaucratization has reached new heights. The McDonald’s organization provides an excellent illustration of Weber’s concept of bureaucracy. 1. Bureaucratization as a Process • Refers to the process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic. May take place in small or large organizations. 2. Oligarchy: Rule by a Few • Robert Michels originated the idea of the “iron law of oligarchy,” which describes how even a democratic organization will eventually develop into a bureaucracy ruled by a few (an oligarchy). Example: labor union leaders becoming unresponsive to members. C. Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture • Classical theory of formal organizations (scientific management approach) suggests workers are motivated by economic rewards. Only physical constraints limit worker productivity; therefore, workers may be treated as a resource. • Use of scientific planning, performance standards, and careful supervision. Planning involves efficiency studies, not worker attitudes or satisfaction. • Human relations approach emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation within a bureaucracy. Directed toward concerns of the workers. • Research today is following new developments, including the arrival of women and minorities in upper echelons, outsourcing, and the influence of the Internet. III. The Changing Workplace A. Organizational Restructuring • Workplace innovations since the late twentieth century have significantly altered the experience of work. • Collective decision making is a practice that involves employee groups in corporate management. • Minimal hierarchy flattens the structure of an organization, giving employees more of a voice in the organization. • Work teams have also been implemented in many organizations. • As a result of globalization, today’s organizations are less likely to be self-contained. B. Telecommuting • Employees who work full-time or part-time at home rather than in an outside office, and who are linked to supervisors and other colleagues through computer terminals, phones, and fax machines. • Moving of society from a Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft. • Telecommuting may pull fathers and mothers back into the home, rather than pushing them out. C. Electronic Communication • Email does not convey body language as in face-to-face communication. • Easy to transmit thoughtless or insensitive messages. • Leaves a permanent record. IV. Social Policy and Organizations: The State of the Unions Worldwide A. The Issue • The diminishing importance of organized labor. B. The Setting • Unions first emerged in England in the 1700s to extract concessions from employers. Frequently limited entry to occupations based on gender, race, ethnicity, citizenship, age, and skill levels. • Power of unions varies widely from country to country. • Today membership is declining, because of: 1) changes in the type of industry, 2) growth in part-time jobs, 3) the legal system, 4) globalization, 5) employer offensives, and 6) union rigidity and bureaucratization. • Current economic downturn may cause more workers to look to unions for stability and security. C. Sociological Insights • Marxists and functionalists both view the emergence of unions as a response to the development of large-scale impersonal organizations. • Labor union leaders more concerned with maintaining positions of power. • Union employees encounter role conflict in carrying out their duties. D. Policy Initiatives • Right-to-work laws in 22 states create a barrier to union formation. • Anti-union sentiment is seen in the Department of Homeland Security regulations precluding workers from collective bargaining rights and prohibiting airport security screeners from unionizing. • Campaign finance reform also affects labor unions. • Globally, the form and function of unions varies from country to country. KEY TERMS Alienation A condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society. Bureaucracy A component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency. Bureaucratization The process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic. Classical theory An approach to the study of formal organizations that views workers as being motivated almost entirely by economic rewards. Coalition A temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal. Dyad A two-member group. Formal organization A group designed for a special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency. Goal displacement Overzealous conformity to official regulations of a bureaucracy. Group Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. Groupthink Uncritical acceptance of or conformity to the prevailing viewpoint. Human relations approach An approach to the study of formal organizations that emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation in a bureaucracy and tends to focus on the informal structure of the organization. Ideal type A construct or model for evaluating specific cases. In-group Any group or category to which people feel they belong. Iron law of oligarchy A principle of organizational life under which even a democratic organization will eventually develop into a bureaucracy ruled by a few individuals. Labor Union Organized workers who share either the same skill or the same employer. McDonaldization The process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world. Out-group A group or category to which people feel they do not belong. Peter principle A principle of organizational life according to which every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence. Primary group A small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation. Reference group Any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior. Scientific management approach Another name for the classical theory of formal organizations. Secondary group A formal, impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding. Small group A group small enough for all members to interact simultaneously—that is, to talk with one another or at least be well acquainted. Telecommuter An employee who works full-time or part-time at home rather than in an outside office, and who is linked to supervisor and colleagues through computer terminals, phone lines, and fax machines. Trained incapacity The tendency of workers in a bureaucracy to become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems. Triad A three-member group. Voluntary association An organization established on the basis of common interest, whose members volunteer or even pay to participate. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 6-1: Organizational Variables How do sociologists study the wide range of formal organizations found in American society? Sociologist Dean Champion has arranged the variables that have been studied under four headings: 1. Organizational structure a. Size: payroll or clientele b. Complexity: differentiation of duties c. Formalization: written rules or codes 2. Organizational control a. Size of administrative component b. Bureaucratization: degree of specialization and dependence on written rules c. Centralization: power retained by the central organizational hierarchy d. Level of authority: numbers of layers of different positions 3. Organizational behavior a. Climate: feelings of workers toward the organization b. Effectiveness: ability of an organization to achieve its goals c. Goals: intentions and activities 4. Organizational change a. Labor turnover: percentage of people who leave in the course of a year b. Conflict: tension, interference, and disagreements c. Flexibility: degree to which an organization is adaptable to external and internal changes d. Growth: change in number of employees, assets, departments, new product markets, and so forth e. Administrative succession: turnover among administrative heads in an organization f. Technology: mechanisms or processes, including automation This model of variables for study is only one of many ways of examining organizations. Owing to the complexity and importance of this subject, there are many interpretations of organizational structure, control, behavior, and change. See Dean Champion. The Sociology of Organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. 6-2: Reforming Socialist Work Organizations Among the reforming socialist economies of Eastern Europe and Asia, China has been a standout success story. Although still ruled by a socialist government, China’s economy has seen sustained economic growth for decades, and its state-owned work organizations are now much more profit-oriented than before. How is it that China has experienced such a smooth road to capitalism, when so many other post-socialist economies have faltered? Much of the secret lies in the techniques used to revamp its system of government-owned work organizations. Prior to 1978, provincial and municipal governments, work organizations, and workers were all linked hierarchically to the national government through a centralized system of resource distribution. State-owned enterprises—for-profit industrial firms incorporated into the national budget—were the centerpiece of this system. They operated under soft budget constraints, receiving funds from the national government for labor costs and production, and benefiting from low, state-set prices on factor resources. In return, they were required to fulfill production plans set by the government, adhere to low, state-set wages for employees, sell goods at state-set prices, and turn over the bulk of their profits to municipal and provincial governments. These governments in turn handed profits over to the state. Such a system minimized opportunities and risks for local governments, state enterprises, and individuals. Urban residents were limited in employment opportunities to public enterprises in which wages were uniformly low and not linked to performance. This was due in part to the fact that local governments and firms lacked the autonomy, responsibility, and profit incentives required to create substantial wage differentials. Municipal and provincial governments had few rights to profit from the state enterprises that dominated industrial output, and could not develop private businesses within their territories. State enterprises were not held responsible for their losses, faced little competition, and had no autonomy to funnel profits into investments or wages. However, in the late 1970s, new laws legalizing private firms and foreign investment, coupled with fiscal reforms granting greater autonomy and responsibility to local governments, gave provincial and municipal governments strong incentives to encourage the emergence of economic growth. Fiscal reforms allowed provincial governments to pay a fixed-sum tax from enterprise profits each year, and retain the rest. Reforms implemented in state-owned enterprises paralleled these fiscal reforms, making state firms more autonomous of the government. Government-owned firms were allowed to retain a far greater share of their profits than before, and to sell commodities on the open market, setting their own prices for them. Firm managers were allowed greater autonomy in controlling the day-to-day operations of their companies. At the same time, firms were now expected to operate under hard budget constraints, risking bankruptcy if they failed to do so. Faced for the first time with profit incentives, harder budget constraints, and new competition from private and collectively owned businesses, state-owned firms have responded by increasingly allocating wages on the basis of worker performance, and bonuses on the basis of firm profitability. In other words, they now operate much more like capitalist firms. Sources used for this essay and additional reading ideas include: Doug Guthrie. Dragon in a Three-Piece Suit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999; Gary Jefferson and Inderjit Singh, (eds.). Enterprise Reform in China: Ownership, Transition, and Performance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999; Xiaobo Lu and Elizabeth Perry. Danwei: The Changing Chinese Workplace in Comparative and Historical Perspective. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1997; Barry Naughton. Growing out of the Plan. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995; Andrew Walder. Communist Neo-Traditionalism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. 6-3: Profile: Little People of America Most of us have heard of the Arnold or the Roloff families on the reality television shows “The Little Couple” and “Little People, Big World.” Unlike these famous television personalities, most midgets and dwarfs receive no fanfare; instead, they have significant social problems. As a result, the Little People of America organization (LPA) was established in 1957 to meet the special needs of our nation’s “little people.” Little people include two distinct groups: midgets and dwarfs. Midgets are perfectly proportioned miniatures who generally bear normal-sized children. Dwarfs, by contrast, have short arms and legs, normal-sized trunks, and large heads. They are likely to pass their physical characteristics on to their children. Little people in the United States must make a number of psychological and social adjustments that people of average height never face. They are frequently seen as unemployable outside of the world of entertainment. Dating presents a special problem for little people who are isolated from others of similar stature. Our culture perpetuates many prejudices about people who look different from the norm, and little people can face unjustified fear, ridicule, hostility, and prejudice solely because of their appearance. The LPA has instituted a number of programs to solve these problems. For example, the organization maintains contacts with adoption agencies and alerts members when dwarfed children are available for adoption from normal-sized parents. The LPA provides information on how to modify automobiles and homes to make them more comfortable and practical for midgets and dwarfs. In addition, its meetings and annual conventions provide a pleasant way for the organization’s 4,000 members to meet other little people and share experiences. The LPA does not attempt to engulf its members; rather, it encourages people to live meaningful lives within the dominant culture. At the same time, members of the organization know that they have at least one place to turn to for assistance, understanding, and support. At a meeting of Little People of America, a midget or dwarf can expect that his or her size—and problems—will genuinely be seen as “normal.” Weinberg (1968) asked a number of members what they had gained through association with the LPA. One replied, “I have learned not to be afraid of other people because they are bigger than you.” Another answered, “Friends, happiness, and a million dollars worth of living.” See Denise S. Askey (ed.). Encyclopedia of Associations. Detroit: Gale Research, 1983, p. 857. See also Judith Fagan Burbank, “Roundup of Current Research: Little People of America,” Transaction 6 (March 1969): 6–7; Ann Japenga, “Suicide Spotlights Problems of Small People,” International Herald Tribune (July 21–22, 1984); Martin S. Weinberg, “The Problem of Midgets and Dwarfs and Organizational Remedies: A Study of Little People of America,” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 9 (March 1968): 65–71. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 6-1. Stimulating Classroom Discussions about The McDonaldization of Society: These questions can stimulate a classroom discussion about the excerpt from George Ritzer’s book, The McDonaldization of Society. Determine whether any students have worked in fast-food restaurants and have them give examples of the routine nature of their work. How are they expected to greet customers? How are they expected to respond to customers who keep changing their order? How are they expected to create a hamburger? Determine whether students working in non–fast food settings have experienced the same “McDonaldization” of their work. How has the McDonaldization of work affected their work experience? Is their work easier or harder? More or less satisfying? What is the purpose of McDonaldization? What types of jobs are or are not McDonaldized? Why? Has the advent of the computer led to the McDonaldization of many other jobs? 6-2. Using the Holocaust to Teach about Groups and Organizations: The author describes ways to use discussions of the Holocaust to illuminate sociological ideas about group dynamics and bureaucracies. Deborah A. Abowitz, “Bringing the Sociological into the Discussion: Teaching the Sociology of Genocide and the Holocaust.” Teaching Sociology 30 (January 2002): 26-38. 6-3. Effects of Dynamite Charge: Judges often deliver a supplemental instruction that urges jurors to rethink their views in an effort to reach a unanimous verdict. See Vicki L. Smith and Saul M. Kassin, “Effects of the Dynamite Charge on the Deliberations of Deadlocked Mock Juries,” Law and Human Behavior 17 (December 1993): 625–643. 6-4. Group Behavior: What aspects of small-group behavior may develop in a highly charged situation? Two sociologists look at the summit conference at Camp David from a functionalist perspective to see how the group progressed through various phases. See Paul Hare and David Nareh, “Group Development at Camp David Summit, 1978,” Small Group Behavior 15 (August 1984): 299–318. 6-5. Nepotism: Employment of relatives is based on the ascriptive characteristic “relationship”; however, prohibiting nepotism often serves to prevent women from gaining access to jobs for which they qualify. Discuss examples of nepotism and cases in which it may have been wrongly tolerated or inappropriately denied. 6-6. Volunteers and Volunteer Experience: Ask for a show of hands from students who are active volunteers in some association. Encourage them to share their experiences with the class. As an extra credit project, you might arrange for students to volunteer at a homeless shelter or some other social service agency. 6-7. Using Humor: Joseph E. Faulkner has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated into lectures associated with Chapter 5. See Chapter 4 in Faulkner, Sociology Through Humor. New York: West, 1987. This book is out of print, but used copies are readily available. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to search magazines for examples of American culture influencing foreign nations, and discuss George Ritzer’s concept of McDonaldization. 2. Ask students to observe the various patterns of dyads and triads around their college campus, and discuss how group size affects the nature of social relationships. 3. Ask students to find examples of how written rules and regulations concerning their behavior at college may stifle their initiative or imagination, and discuss the various vices associated with bureaucracies. 4. Ask students to research the various types of voluntary organizations in the community, and discuss their roles in sustaining the community. 5. Ask students to research the various advantages and disadvantages of recent innovations in the workplace, and discuss how students might react to working in these environments. Instructor Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669