CH-5-6 Delegating Authority and Empowering Employees – Supervisory Management: The Art of Inspiring, Empowering and Developing People : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 5 to 6 Chapter 5 Delegating Authority and Empowering Employees Valve Corporation, SEI Investments, and Sun Hydraulics–Empower Human Capital Companies are increasingly empowering their employees by creating decentralized structures, however, the degree to which decentralization takes place varies from company to company. Valve Corporation, SEI Investments, and Sun Hydraulics are a few companies that achieved success by adopting this strategy. Valve is a private video gaming company. It takes advantage of the employees’ creativity and innovation by giving them the freedom to utilize their talents in their way. The company believes that team management is about facilitating and coaching rather than directing. This process of “self-selection” results in strong employee-project fit, motivation, and professional decision making. SEI is a financial services provider that has also adopted decentralization. SEI aimed at creating a work environment that emphasized innovation and creativity. New employees are provided with more facilities than most companies would provide, and are even permitted to sit next to the CEO if they wish. SEI instills a sense of ownership into its employees which makes them intellectually productive. It embraces change and believes in planned progression which has given the company a competitive advantage. Sun Hydraulics is another company that has a flat structure to empower employees to ensure operations are efficient and effective. Although, it has adopted the same approach as the above mentioned companies its mission and scope are very different. The company has no job titles, no hierarchy, no formal job descriptions, organizational charts or departments. The environment encourages innovation and helps develop a spirit of entrepreneurship throughout the organization, and the workforce is inspired to satisfy every customer. Sun Hydraulics proves that the empowerment through decentralization strategy works not only with high-tech companies, but it is as applicable in traditional manufacturing companies. I. Concepts and Definitions • Mastering the art of delegation and empowerment is essential to a leader’s growth, development, and effectiveness, ultimately translating into team and/or organizational success. A. Role of Delegation • Delegation is the process by which leaders distribute and entrust activities and related authority to other people in the organization. Three key aspects of delegation are listed below: ○ Granting authority ○ Assigning duties and responsibilities ○ Requiring accountability • Authority is the right to do something. When authority is delegated, an individual or team is given the power or right to act in a specified manner in order to reach organizational objectives. • Assigning duties and responsibilities occurs when key tasks associated with a particular job are specified. ○ In mid- to large-size organizations, job descriptions provide information to employees about the important job-related tasks. • Accountability is the obligation that is created when an employee accepts the leader’s delegation of authority—the process by which leaders distribute and entrust activities and related authority to other people in an organization. ○ Accountability flows upward, such that the delegate is responsible to the next higher level of management to effectively carry out the assigned duties and responsibilities. B. Decentralization • Decentralization is broader than delegation—it refers to the extent to which authority is delegated from one level or unit of the organization to another, rather than from one individual to another. II. The Role of Authority • Authority is the right to do something or to tell someone else to do it, in order to reach organizational objectives. • Without a system of authority, an organization could not function. A. Sources of Authority 1. Formal Authority View • According to the formal theory of authority, authority is conferred; authority exists because someone was granted it. ○ This view traces the origin of authority upward to its ultimate source, which for business organizations is the owners or stockholders. 2. Acceptance of Authority View • The acceptance theory of authority disputes the idea that authority can be conferred. ○ Acceptance theorists (chiefly behaviorists) believe that a manager’s authority originates only when it has been accepted by the group or individual over whom it is being exercised. ○ Acceptance of the directive becomes the basis of action. • Disobedience of this directive by an employee is a denial of its authority for him or her. III. The Role of Power • Possession of authority by a leader is not always sufficient in itself to assure that subordinates will respond as the leader’s desires. In such cases, a leader must use some other approach. • Power is the ability to influence individuals, groups, events, and decisions and is closely related to leadership. ○ The use of power is essential to effectively accomplish individual, organizational, and social goals. • Interest in power has also been generated by David McClelland’s research showing that a high need for power is an important characteristic of successful managers. A. How Power is Obtained • Power can be obtained from many sources; six of these sources have been translated into types of power. ○ Reward power arises from the number of positive rewards (money, protection, etc.) that a leader is perceived as controlling. ○ Coercive power results from people’s perceived expectation that punishment (being fired, reprimanded, etc.) will follow if they do not comply with the orders of a leader. • Coercive power can be a necessary and effective means of influence, when used appropriately, but overreliance on this source of power can actually be detrimental and result in a leader’s total power diminishing over time ○ Legitimate power develops from internalized values that dictate that a leader has an inherent right to influence subordinates. ○ Control-of-information power derives from the possession of knowledge that others do not have. ○ Referent power is based on people’s identification with a leader and what that “leader” stands for or symbolizes. ○ Expert power results from a leader’s expertise or knowledge in an area in which that leader wants to influence others. • More effective leaders draw more on referent power and expert power, and practice more open communication in information sharing. B. How Power Can Be Used • Some leaders believe that if a manager has power and shares it with others (delegates it), it is diminished. ○ The best way to expand power is to share it, for power can grow, in part, by being shared. • Effective leaders have a high need for power, but that need is directed toward the benefit of the organization as a whole. ○ The need for power is stronger than the need to be liked by others. ○ A leader must be willing to play the influence game in a controlled way. • Power-motivated leaders make their subordinates feel stronger rather than weaker. IV. The Role of Empowerment • Empowerment essentially is the granting of authority to employees to make key decisions within their enlarged areas of responsibility. • The driving idea of empowerment is that individuals closest to the work and to customers should make the decisions. • Empowerment can be considered as a continuum with one end representing low levels of empowerment and the opposite end reflecting high levels. V. Why Leaders Fail to Delegate • Many good and intelligent people have difficulty delegating authority when in leadership positions, particularly in the early stages of their careers. • In the formative years, success depends primarily on the individual’s efforts. • The following are some of the reasons why many leaders have difficulty delegating: ○ Many leaders like to control, but feel that when they delegate they surrender some of their power and authority. ○ Some leaders don’t delegate because of a lack of trust in others. ○ Because leaders are being held accountable for results, they don’t delegate out of fear employees will make mistakes. ○ Others do not delegate because they are insecure and are afraid that their employees will do so well that they will be recognized and promoted ahead of the leader. ○ A legitimate reason why some leaders don’t delegate is they correctly assess that employees need more training, coaching, and experience in certain assignments. A. Why Employees May Not Welcome Delegation • Reasons why employees may not welcome delegation are as follows: ○ Ambiguous or unclear duties and responsibilities. • The manager must clearly communicate to the employee the duties and responsibilities, the need and importance of the assignment, and why the employee was selected. • There is always a chance that newly delegated responsibilities and duties will be poorly communicated, which can lead to negative outcomes. ○ Fear of failure. • Many managers may diagnose the job maturity level of their employees and assign them tasks that are too difficult. This mistake may result in the employee being unfairly criticized during their performance review or perhaps even fired ○ Increased stress. • Increased delegation can mean increased stress on employees. • Management efforts to downsize or restructure the organization to be more competitive can lead to employee role overload. • Some employees prefer not to be empowered. Managers must assess the employee’s job maturity level and need for growth when selecting an employee for delegation. B. Facing Adaptive Challenges • Companies today face adaptive challenges. • Changes in societies, markets, customers, competition, and technology around the globe are forcing organizations to develop new strategies and learn new ways of operation. • Often the toughest task for leaders in effecting change is mobilizing people throughout the organization to do adaptive work. • Solutions to adaptive challenges reside not in the executive suite, but in the collective intelligence of employees at all levels, who need to use one another as resources, often across boundaries, and learn their way to those solutions. 1. Reframing and Training • Reframing and training is one way to face adaptive challenges at work. It helps organizations and individuals to change values and behaviors and to identify new approaches and strategies. • The essence of reframing is examining the “situation from multiple vantage points to develop a holistic picture. • Effective leaders change lenses when they don’t make sense or aren’t working VI. Achieving Effective Delegation and Empowerment • Experience and, especially, mistakes are the best learning tools. ○ The key to learning from experience, including both successes and failures, is to go through a disciplined reflection on that experience. • The experiential learning model highlights the importance of using feedback to gain insights in learning from experience. ○ The use of this model, particularly in a coaching or mentoring environment, is very helpful for achieving successful delegation, empowerment, and results. A. Coaching and Teaching • Two of the most significant ways of empowering and developing people are coaching and teaching. • There are many different ways to coach and teach. B. Benefits of Delegation • Employee development. ○ Through delegation employees can learn from their experiences. ○ When managers enable their employees to succeed and/or make mistakes on their own, a valuable learning opportunity is created. • Improved control. ○ Managers who delegate effectively emphasize results, not specific actions, and provide feedback when appropriate. • Improved time management. ○ Managers who effectively delegate tasks to their subordinates have more time to spend on planning and trouble shooting. • Enhanced power. ○ When employees are empowered, the environment created results in more people being knowledgeable and concerned about the organization’s objectives. This concern leads to a sense of responsibility or ownership in the work itself. VII. Seven Habits of Unsuccessful Executives • The seven habits of unsuccessful executives are as follows: ○ They see themselves and companies as dominating their environment. ○ They identify so completely with the company that there is no clear boundary between their personal interests and the corporation’s interests. ○ They think they have all the answers. ○ They ruthlessly eliminate anyone who isn’t 100% behind them. ○ They are consummate spokespersons obsessed with the company image. ○ They underestimate obstacles. ○ They stubbornly rely on what worked for them in the past. VIII. Chapter Review The PowerPoint slides correlated with the Lecture Outline above are available on the Instructors CD-ROM and on the product support website. PowerPoint Slide 5-1 Chapter 5 Title PowerPoint Slide 5-2 Learning Objectives PowerPoint Slide 5-3 Learning Objectives (cont’d) PowerPoint Slide 5-4 Delegation of Authority PowerPoint Slide 5-5 Delegation of Authority (cont’d) PowerPoint Slide 5-6 Role of Authority PowerPoint Slide 5-7 Power PowerPoint Slide 5-8 Power (cont’d) PowerPoint Slide 5-9 Power (cont’d) PowerPoint Slide 5-10 Authority-Power Combination (Text Exhibit 5-1) PowerPoint Slide 5-11 Empowerment PowerPoint Slide 5-12 Why Leaders Fail to Delegate PowerPoint Slide 5-13 Why Employees May Not Welcome Delegation PowerPoint Slide 5-14 Facing Adaptive Challenges PowerPoint Slide 5-15 The Experiential Learning Model (Text Exhibit 5-3) PowerPoint Slide 5-16 Benefits of Delegation PowerPoint Slide 5-17 Important Terms 1. Discuss four reasons delegation is important. Delegation is important for the following reasons: • Delegation is vital in developing employees since they can’t grow if they are over- or under-supervised and if there is no trust in the management structure. People learn by doing, and by making mistakes. • Delegation allows the supervisor to do other things, such as planning and coordinating with other departments. • Delegation also allows more work to be accomplished and expands the basis of power. More people become knowledgeable about what the priorities are and are given meaningful assignments in getting the job done. • Finally, delegation improves control. The supervisor focuses on how well standards and objectives are being met, not on the specific details of how they are being met. 2. Describe the process of delegation. There are three key aspects in the process of delegation: granting authority, assigning responsibility, and requiring accountability. Authority is the right to do something or to tell someone else to do it, in order to reach organizational objectives. Granting authority involves giving employees part of this right and power in order to get the job done. Assigning duties and responsibilities occurs when key tasks associated with a particular job are specified. Finally, accountability means that an obligation is created when a person accepts delegation of authority. 3. Explain the interrelationships among authority, responsibility, and accountability. In the delegation process, authority is passed downward from one organizational level to the next. Responsibility is created when a worker accepts these duties—it flows up from lower to higher levels. The obligation that is created, accountability, also is focused upward and is an important part of the control process. Thus, each of these aspects ties together supervisory management to middle management to top management. 4. Why do some supervisors fail to delegate effectively? If this situation were a common problem in an organization, what could be done to increase supervisors’ skills in delegating effectively? Supervisors fail to delegate effectively because of their previous experience in non-leadership positions, which sometimes gives them a false notion of how a supervisor should function. It is natural to want to stay on top of everything, although it invariably causes resentment. Supervisors also fear that employees will make mistakes for which the supervisor will be held accountable. Some supervisors feel that delegating will decrease their authority. Other bosses have a personality that makes them want to dominate things completely. Others fail to delegate because they are insecure and afraid that their employees will outperform them. Finally, some supervisors realize that their employees do not have the ability or maturity to handle things without close supervision. Supervisors’ knowledge and skills may be increased through management seminars and proper coaching and counseling from their bosses. 5. What are the roles played in effective delegation? In effective delegation, three important parties play roles. Higher management affects the overall atmosphere and some important factors. The supervisor’s most important role is to train employees to ensure that they do their jobs without the supervisor stepping in to do them. Finally, the employee has a vital role in accepting delegation and using delegated authority properly. 6. In what way or ways can higher management affect the delegation process? A fault-finding atmosphere, where higher management is quick to criticize and fails to offer positive feedback for good results will negate the process of effective delegation. Either overcontrol or under control by higher management can hinder the delegation process. Other factors controlled by higher management that could hinder the process would be a lack of objectives, a lack of policies, not sharing information with lower levels, and slow decision making. 7. In what way or ways can employees affect the delegation process? Employees can play a role in effective delegation in a number of ways: • Take the initiative. • Relate to the supervisor. • Be sure the delegation is realistic. • Determine and give feedback regarding results. • Report periodically to the supervisor. • Carry out the delegated assignments effectively. 8. Do you think Commander Abrashoff’s approach and philosophy would be successful in the private sector? Why or why not? Many elements of Commander Abrashoff’s approach would be equally successful in the private sector. Listening to employees and trusting their input is a key element of any good management style. His emphasis on quality is also universal to successful management. It should be pointed out, however, that Commander Abrashoff’s improvement program occurred in the highly structured environment of the U.S. military. In the real workplace, people don’t salute and obey on command. 9. Do you agree or disagree with McClelland that power is the great motivator? Support your position. This should be the basis for a great class discussion. Does power motivate your students? Do they understand what power is? It should be interesting to note whether there are differences between the opinions of younger students and older non-traditional students. 10. How does a firm set boundaries to create autonomy and empowerment? It is one thing to say that employees should be empowered to make decisions that affect their jobs. It is quite another to live with some of the decisions that actually get made. How far should an organization go in encouraging creative decision making? Will bad decisions be viewed as a learning experience or as a mistake? Are there some types of decisions that should not be made at lower levels? Should there be a monetary limit on creative decisions and suggestions? These type of questions need to be answered before beginning a program of empowerment. Skill Assessment 5.1 Delegating Tasks to Subordinates Works with SCANS competencies: Information This Skill Assessment presents eight situations and asks the student whether they “usually,” “sometimes,” or “seldom” act in a certain way. The exercise provides a scoring key in which points (1 to 3) are awarded for specific answers. When the points are totaled, a score of 20 or higher suggests superior delegation skills. A score of 15 to 19 indicates a need for improvement. A score below 15 suggests a need for substantial improvement. Skill Assessment 5.2 Do You Delegate As Much As You Can? Works with SCANS competencies: Information Most supervisors believe that they involve their employees and listen to suggestions. However, specific questions such as those presented in this Skill Assessment can uncover subconscious resistance to delegation. Management is not an eight-hour-a-day occupation. Most managers work overtime and take work home. However, when a manager works overtime every day and takes home work every evening, it is time to analyze one’s delegation approach. If nine or more questions are answered in the affirmative, it is likely that the person is not delegating enough. Five common reasons for not delegating are provided: lack of patience, insecurity, inflexibility, inadequacy, and occupational hobby. Skill Builder 5.3 Delegating Simulation Works with SCANS competencies: Interpersonal Skill, Information, Resources, Systems This Skill Builder is about Mary Manager who is challenged by her lack of ability to delegate. Although Mary has determined six responsibilities that she can delegate, she has been unable to do so for various reasons. Each student is asked to decide which one of the six responsibilities is the most critical activity for Mary Manager to delegate, the next second critical activity, and so on. Next, students are to assemble into groups of five to six members to reach a consensus regarding a team list of priorities. Groups are to present their results to the class. Skill Builder 5.4 Developing a Delegation Action Plan Works with SCANS competencies: Interpersonal Skill, Information, Resources, Systems Students are to think of an actual delegation having to do with their job or at school that they presently perform. The delegation should be one that can be assigned to one or more of the student’s group members. Case 5-1 Joyce Wheat’s Problem Meet in groups of six or seven people. Make a diagnosis of what the problem is, and identify the critical issues involved. Select one member of your team to present what the team thinks Wheat should do. After all teams have presented, the class should vote on which approach offers the best solution. The critical issue appears to be that Joyce Wheat is using too close supervision. Instead of delegating authority, letting people do their jobs, and following up afterward, she is looking over their shoulders, trying to supervise them too closely. People have the perception that she is a “driver” and that she has a lack of interest in people, but is more interested in the results. She needs to develop understanding of the problem of supervising through people, particularly those older, more experienced. Wheat should probably ask these more experienced workers for their cooperation and suggestions as to how to get the work done. Case 5-2 The Autocratic Manager 1. Why do you think the autocratic approach worked effectively for four years in this situation? The autocratic approach is very structured and centralized. Resources were carefully allocated, and the gains from efficient use of resources resulted in several years of successful performance. It might also be that the previous management was so uncoordinated that employees were grateful for the structure and security of the autocratic approach. 2. Diagnose the problems and/or issues facing this mill. The mill, specifically top management, needs to reevaluate its approach to decision making. Currently there is a general lack of trust and breakdown in communication between all levels of management. The employees who are closest to the mill’s central activities are not being involved in searching for solutions to problems. As the current management has learned, you can’t force employees to be more productive. You can only create an environment in which they feel comfortable making suggestions and thinking creatively. 3. a. Develop a PowerPoint presentation and present your consulting team’s set of recommendations to the class. b. Develop a set of recommendations that you or your consulting team will present to the mill manager. Include suggestions regarding his leadership styles. (Role-play the presentation, keeping in mind that the manager is paying your consulting fee.) Once top management has given its support, a company-wide empowerment program should be undertaken. This first step may be the hardest. Current management doesn’t believe the problem is theirs; they blame the difficulties on lower level management. How can the consulting team change this basic philosophy without antagonizing the very people paying them? What data could be used to change this mindset? Can it be changed? This should be an interesting discussion. Chapter 6 Communication Alan X: Leader and Communicator This preview focuses on Alan X (not his real name), a paper machine superintendent for a 1000 plus employee newsprint producer. Alan’s company had been highly centralized, and the new CEO was determined to change this approach in an effort to upgrade employee motivation and commitment. He has relied upon his own communication skills to help his employees and co-workers cope with the changes. Alan had other skills and traits that contributed to his effective performance as a manager, including his strong technical expertise, his planning skills and his ability to manage his time effectively. But his leadership and communication skills in particular, were exceptional. I. What is Communication? A. Communication Process Model • Communication process model has five elements: ○ Message encoding ○ The channel ○ Message decoding ○ Feedback ○ Noise B. The Sender Encodes the Message • Encoding is the process by which a sender converts ideas into symbols, such as words or gestures that are capable of communicating. ○ The sender originates a message. • The message consists of words and/or nonverbal expressions that transmit meaning. 1. The Channel • The channel is the means used to pass the message. • Channels include face-to-face communication, the phone, written forms (such as e-mails, memos, reports, or newsletters), and group meetings. C. The Receiver Decodes the Message • Decoding is the process by which the receiver converts into an idea(s) the communication symbols encoded by the sender. • Just as a sender’s skill at encoding is important to effective communication, so also is the receiver’s skill in decoding the sent message. • Receivers give meaning to a message based on such factors as their interpretation of words, familiarity with the subject matter, perception of the sender’s intent, ability to listen, and the meaning they attribute to the sender’s nonverbal signals. D. Feedback • The message that is sent in response to someone else’s communication is called feedback. • An advantage of the face-to-face communication channel is its immediate feedback and the number of feedback cycles allowed. • Supervisor’s decision about the feedback needed to achieve the communication goal determines the appropriateness of the communication channel used. E. Noise • Noise consists of the potential barriers to effective communication in each phase of the communication process model. • The nonspecific use of language is one form of noise. II. Electronic Communication Technology • Communication practices at the supervisory level are being greatly impacted by advancements in electronic communication technology. • Supervisors use electronically linked computer networks within their organization (intranets) and external to their organization (the Internet) to access and transfer information, and, importantly, to communicate through e-mail. Intranets are networks within the organization. • E-mail refers to messages and documents created, transmitted, and usually read on a computer. • An instant message (IM) uses intranet or Internet technology that allows people to receive messages in real time. • A text message (TM) is a written message sent by cell phone; it typically uses abbreviations to be concise and save space. • Advances in voice communication technology have also considerably affected supervisory communication. ○ Regardless of location, cellular phones enable a supervisor to keep in touch with employees and others. III. Importance of Nonverbal Messages • Nonverbal messages are a rich communication source. ○ Studies show that only about 10 percent of emotional meaning is communicated verbally; the other 90 percent is communicated nonverbally. • Supervisors must be careful that their verbal and nonverbal signals are consistent and do not give the wrong impression. • Nonverbal signals fall into seven categories: ○ Voice signals can be given out by placing emphasis on certain words, pauses, or tone of voice. ○ Body signals are communicated by body action, such as slumped posture, clenched fist, the act of kicking an equipment etc. ○ Facial signals are nonverbal messages sent by facial expression, such as a smile, frown, raised eyebrow, smirk, or degree of eye contact. ○ Object signals are nonverbal messages sent through office furniture, such as desks or chairs, plus carpet, plaques and awards on the wall, or clothing or jewelry worn. ○ Space signals are nonverbal messages sent through actions like huddling close, being distant, or sitting beside someone. ○ Time signals are nonverbal messages sent by time actions, such as being on time, being available, or saving time. ○ Touching signals are nonverbal messages sent by body contact, such as shaking hands, sympathetic pat on the back, or touching someone to gain attention. IV. Flows of Communication • Communication flows in several directions: downward, upward, and laterally or diagonally. ○ A fourth flow is the flow of informal communication, commonly known as the grapevine. A. The Vertical Flows: Downward and Upward Communication • Downward communication originates with managers and supervisors and passes down to employees. Tremendous amounts of communication constantly flow in this direction. ○ Examples of downward communication include announcements of goals and objectives, policies, decisions, procedures, job assignments, and general information. ○ Employees consistently rate their direct supervisor as their preferred choice of communication channel. • Upward communication flows from lower to upper organizational levels. ○ Examples include progress reports on a job, requests for help, and ideas and suggestions for improvement ○ Many supervisors do not seek upward communication from their employees. ○ Japanese managers have a much better reputation than American managers for being receptive to workers’ needs and opinions ○ In addition to requesting oral or written progress reports, other means of encouraging upward communication from employees include suggestion systems, an open-door policy, attitude and morale surveys, group or individual meetings at which employees are encouraged to speak up, and hotlines where employees can anonymously solicit answers to questions or report unethical practices. 1. Managerial Communication Style Grid • The Managerial Communication Style Grid is a supervisor’s basic communication with team members consisting of disclosing information (downward communication) and receiving information from them (upward communication). ○ A supervisor can be considered high as an information discloser and high as an information receiver, high in one but not the other, or low in both. ○ Low disclosers tend to be less visible, communicating less openly. • High information receiving supervisors are accessible and maintain an environment that encourages feedback from employees. ○ They are apt to spend much of their time listening to employees’ discussions about performance progress, problems being experienced, ideas and feelings about organizational and personal issues. • Low information receiving supervisors are less accessible and tend to create a less encouraging upward-communication environment. • About 90% of managers prefer working for a high disclosure, high receiver. C. Lateral–Diagonal Flows • Lateral-diagonal communication takes place between individuals in the same department or in different departments. ○ As organizations become more specialized, lateral communication becomes more important. ○ Staff personnel interact regularly with line supervisors and managers to coordinate, advise, or even give orders. ○ Cross functional problem-solving teams, with personnel from different departments, address problems that cut across organizational lines. D. Informal Communication • The upward, downward, and lateral-diagonal communication flows are examples of formal communication. • Informal communication is that which exists separately from the formal, established communication system. 1. The Grapevine • The grapevine, the “rumor mill,” is the best-known informal communication. • Some surveys have found the grapevine is the employees’ major source of information about their company. • The grapevine is also surprisingly accurate; one source found that the grapevine was accurate 75% of the time. 2. Purposes Served by Informal Communication • Informal communication accomplishes a number of purposes. ○ Providing a source of information not ordinarily available ○ Reducing the effects of monotony ○ Satisfying personal needs such as the need for relationships or status 3. Living with Informal Communication • Informal communication serves important purposes. • Keeping employees well informed is the best way to manage the grapevine, although it can never be eliminated. V. Barriers to Effective Supervisory Communication A. Organizational Barriers 1. Layers of Hierarchy • When a message goes up or down the organization, it passes through a number of “substations” at each layer. ○ Each layer can add to, take from, qualify, or completely change the original message. ○ At higher levels of management, messages are broad and general; at lower levels, these broad messages must be put into terms that are more specific. • Loss of information accuracy does not only occur as messages pass downward; losses that are even more serious occur in upward communication. ○ Poor performance, grievances, and issues at lower levels may not be accurately conveyed. ○ The stops along the way are subject to different interpretations, addition or elimination of parts of the message, or often, discontinuation of the intended flow. 2. Authority and Status • The very fact that one person is a boss over others creates a barrier to open communication. ○ Accordingly, there is a built-in tendency for information that the supervisors are most likely to welcome; unfavorable information tends to be withheld. 3. Specialization and its Related Jargon • The principle of specialization states that employees are more efficient when each performs just one task or only certain aspects of the task. ○ But specialization also creates problems because specialists have their own technical language or jargon, interests, and narrow view of the organization. B. Interpersonal and Language Barriers 1. Differing Perceptions • Perception is the process by which one selects, organizes, and gives meaning to the world. • The different perceptions of the diverse workforce area results in a major communication barrier. • One factor limiting perception is a person’s inability to grasp the whole of a situation at a given time. Greater attention is paid to some aspects of the situation, while some receive none at all. • When people go about interpreting things around us, they have a tendency to put similar things in the same category, to make them easier to handle. This tendency is called stereotyping. • As a supervisor, one must be aware that his or her and the employees’ attitudes, biases, and prejudices—both positive and negative—strongly influence communications with others. C. Language-Related Factors • A primary communication barrier is posed by the lack of a common primary language. • Growing diversity in the United States results in differing linguistic styles that can be barriers for successful communication. Supervisors need to be aware of these differences to manage their employees effectively. • Even when people speak the same language, language is still a major communication barrier. ○ The fact that people interpret words differently can be traced to a lack of precision in the use of language. • Supervisors often use imprecise language when more precise language is necessary. • Another language barrier is that words have multiple meanings and not all people have the same level of language skill. 2. Linguistic Styles • Linguistic style refers to typical patterns in speech, being direct or indirect, and using body language. • Differences in linguistic styles are important communication barriers, especially among different cultures, where the styles vary greatly. • Linguistic style may also vary among subcultures. Important differences exist between linguistic styles of American males and females. VI. Improving Supervisory Communications • Improving skills in communication will help accomplish “tasks” and “people” goals. ○ Some specific things that can be done are as follows: • Set the proper climate with your employees • Plan your communication • Use repetition to reinforce key ideas • Encourage the use of feedback • Become a better listener A. Set the Proper Communication Climate • Communications take place within the entire supervisor–employee or supervisor–group relationship. • A supervisor and his or her workers each bring a store of experiences, expectations, and attitudes which influences the meaning each person assigns to the message sent and received. 1. Establish Mutual Trust • Trust helps communication in two ways. ○ If an employee trusts a supervisor, he or she is more willing to communicate honestly and openly. ○ Employees are also less likely to distort supervisor’s motives and make negative assumptions about his or her communications. 2. Minimize Status Barriers • Status barriers consist of those factors that call attention to the fact that the supervisor ranks higher than his or her employees. • Status barriers may be such things as dress, formality, office arrangement, and so forth. • Generally, the best communication occurs in a setting where people are relaxed and comfortable and status differences are reduced. B. Plan for Effective Communication 1. Anticipate Situations • Although many of a supervisor’s contacts will occur without warning and may not allow much planning, many situations can be anticipated. • Supervisors should put themselves in their employees’ shoes and try to see things from their viewpoint. 2. Select the Proper Channel • Part of communication planning involves determining the appropriate communication channel, or medium, that will be used to convey the message. • Generally, supervisors and managers prefer face-to-face communication because that channel is high in information richness—the amount of verbal and nonverbal information that a communication channel carries. ○ Face-to-face communication is the richest channel because it enables nonverbal messages and offers spontaneous feedback. • The one-on-one, face-to-face setting is the richest communication form, followed by small-group meetings and telephone messages. ○ Lower information richness channels include the written communication forms: e-mails, memos, and letters. • These channels lack nonverbal communication, and they do not provide a direct opportunity for spontaneous feedback. • If one must communicate a personal, sensitive message where empathy and listening are required, such as one involving discipline, transfer, promotion, or performance coaching, face-to-face communication is likely called for. ○ On the other hand, if the message is straightforward or routine, involves much data or detail, or must serve as a record, then written communication is called for. ○ A very important message may even call for both written and spoken channels to be jointly used. 3. Consider the Receiver’s Frame of Reference • Effective communication requires people to step into the shoes of others and visualize situations from their perspective. • The only way to discover employees’ different motives, needs, attitudes, and ways of interpreting things is to interact with them directly, be sensitive to these differences, and use effective feedback and listening techniques. C. Reinforce Key Ideas through Repetition • Repeating a message plays an important part in communicating effectively. This is especially true when certain parts of a message may be more important than others. • Repetition, or redundancy, improves the reader’s recall and reduces the chance that incorrect assumptions will be made by the receiver. D. Encourage the Use of Feedback 1. Create a Relaxed Environment • A relaxed setting is needed to encourage feedback from employees. • Supervisors should not look down on employees for asking questions or for openly stating their opinions, suggestions, or feelings on a subject. A defensive attitude on their part discourages feedback. 2. Take the Initiative • The supervisor must take the initiative in getting responses from the work group. • A participative leadership style relies heavily on good two-way communication, a form of feedback. • Feedback can also help you learn to send better messages in the future. E. Become a Better Listener • Managers spend a larger percentage of their workday (60%) on listening than in other forms of communication. 1. Active Listening Techniques • A particular listening technique that is essential for good listening is called active listening (also known as feeling listening, reflective listening, and nondirective listening). ○ Active listening is a technique for understanding others and encouraging open feedback from them. • Attending skills are an essential part of active listening. ○ They include a wide range of actions that a listener takes to facilitate the speaker’s freedom of expression. • The reflective statement is a form of active listening in which one repeats the gist of the sender’s message as he or she understands it. ○ An effective reflective statement summarizes what the supervisor feels is the intended meaning. 2. Other Listening Fundamentals • In addition to attending skills and reflective statements, a number of other important techniques can help listening effectiveness. ○ Good listening is hard work, but it is an essential tool for the supervisor. VII. Chapter Review The PowerPoint slides correlated with the Lecture Outline above are available on the Instructors CD-ROM and on the product support website. PowerPoint Slide 6-1 Chapter 6 Title PowerPoint Slide 6-2 Learning Objectives PowerPoint Slide 6-3 Learning Objectives (cont’d) PowerPoint Slide 6-4 Communication Process Model (Text Exhibit 6-1) PowerPoint Slide 6-5 Components Involved in the Communication Process Model PowerPoint Slide 6-6 Components Involved in the Communication Process Model (cont’d) PowerPoint Slide 6-7 Electronic Communication Technology PowerPoint Slide 6-8 E-mail Tips (Text Exhibit 6-3) PowerPoint Slide 6-9 How Nonverbal Communication Impacts Verbal Communication (Text Exhibit 6-4) PowerPoint Slide 6-10 Types of Nonverbal Signals PowerPoint Slide 6-11 Types of Nonverbal Signals (cont’d) PowerPoint Slide 6-12 Flow of Formal Communication in an Organization (Text Exhibit 6-5) PowerPoint Slide 6-13 Flows of Communication PowerPoint Slide 6-14 Communications Employees Like to Receive from Their Supervisor PowerPoint Slide 6-15 Communications Employees Like to Receive from Their Supervisor (cont’d) PowerPoint Slide 6-16 The Managerial Communication Style Grid (Text Exhibit 6-7) PowerPoint Slide 6-17 Informal Communication PowerPoint Slide 6-18 Barriers to Effective Supervisory Communication PowerPoint Slide 6-19 Organizational Barriers PowerPoint Slide 6-20 Communication and the Chain of Command (Text Exhibit 6-8) PowerPoint Slide 6-21 Interpersonal and Language Barriers PowerPoint Slide 6-22 Linguistic Styles of Men and Women (Text Exhibit 6-10) PowerPoint Slide 6-23 Improving Supervisory Communications PowerPoint Slide 6-24 Communication Channel Richness (Text Exhibit 6-12) PowerPoint Slide 6-25 Improving Supervisory Communications PowerPoint Slide 6-26 Improving Supervisory Communications (cont’d) PowerPoint Slide 6-27 Tips About Feedback PowerPoint Slide 6-28 Tips About Feedback (cont’d) PowerPoint Slide 6-29 Tips for Better Listening (Text Exhibit 6-15) PowerPoint Slide 6-30 Important Terms 1. What are the five components of the basic communication process model? Define each. Identify some of the important forms of electronic communication discussed in the text. Students’ answers may vary. The communication process model is a model of the five components of communication and their relationship. The sender, the first component of the communication process, encodes the message. The second component, the message, consists of words and nonwords that are capable of transmitting meaning. The third component, the channel, is the means used to pass the message. The fourth component is the receiver who decodes the message. The fifth component is feedback, consisting of the receiver’s responses to the sender’s message. Some of the important forms of electronic communication are e-mail, instant messages, text messages, mobile phones, digital pagers, voicemail, teleconferencing, and videoconferencing. E-mail refers to messages and documents created, transmitted, and usually read on computer. An instant message (IM) uses intranet or Internet technology that allows people to receive messages in real time. A text message (TM) is a written message sent by cell phone; it typically uses abbreviations to be concise and save space. 2. Explain the six different ways in which nonverbal signals influence supervisory communication. Nonverbal signals are important in that they transmit the vast majority of emotional meanings. Supervisors have to be careful that their verbal and nonverbal signals are consistent and do not give the wrong impression. Supervisors can also obtain information from the nonverbal signals of employees and others. Nonverbal signals fall into seven categories: • Voice signals involve emphasis on certain words, pauses, or voice tones. • Body signals are nonverbal signals communicated by body action, such as posture, clenched fist, raised eyebrows etc. • Object signals are messages sent by physical objects such as furniture, clothing, room decor. • Facial signals are nonverbal messages sent by facial expression, such as a smile, frown, raised eyebrow, or degree of eye contact. • Space signals, such as huddling close, being distant, or sitting beside someone, are nonverbal messages sent by physical objects. • Time signals are nonverbal signals sent by time actions, including being on time, being available, or saving time. • Touching signals are nonverbal messages sent by body contact, shaking hands, sympathetic pat on the back, or touching someone to gain attention. 3. Identify the three major flows of communication in an organization. Following are the three major flows of communication: • Downward communication originates with managers and supervisors and passes down to employees. Examples include announcements of goals and objectives, job assignments, and general information. The downward flow of communication is from managers to lower-level employees. • Upward communication flows from lower-level employees to their superiors. Examples: progress reports on a job, requests for help, and ideas and suggestions for improvement. • Lateral-diagonal flows of communication are flows that take place between individuals in the same department or in different departments. 4. Explain the managerial communication style grid. What are some purposes served by informal communication? The managerial communication matrix is a supervisor’s basic communication with team members consisting of disclosing information (downward communication) and receiving information from them (upward communication).The managerial communication style matrix consists of four categories. The first category includes supervisors who are low in disclosing information and low in receiving information from team members. Category two includes supervisors with moderate communication, high in disclosing while low in receiving and vice versa in category three. Category three supervisors are low disclosers and high receivers. Category four is the most highly visible supervisor, high in both disclosing and receiving information. Informal communication serves the following purposes: • Providing a source of information not ordinarily available • Reducing the effects of monotony • Satisfying personal needs such as the need for relationships or status Some surveys have found the grapevine to be employees’ major source of information about their company. One expert has shown that in normal work situations more than 75% of grapevine information is correct. 5. What are some examples of linguistic style communication differences that you have experienced? Explain. Students’ answers may vary. In the U.S. more than 47 million Americans age 5 years or older speak a language other than English at home. People interpret words differently due to lack of precision in the use of language. Linguistic style refers to patterns in speech, being direct or indirect, and body language. Differences in linguistic styles are important communication barriers, especially among different cultures. Important linguistic differences also exist between American males and females. 6. How does planning aid communication effectiveness? Can you give a personal example? Students’ answers may vary. A supervisor can anticipate situations by planning. Being ready for particular situations, such as performance evaluations and disciplining employees, is a form of planning that a supervisor can perform that will aid in communication. Planning also involves selecting the proper channel or medium to use to convey the message. Some communication channels are high in information richness and are appropriate for personal, sensitive messages. Written communication is appropriate if the message is straightforward or routine. Planning should also consider the receiver’s frame of reference, being sensitive to differences and using effective feedback. Knowing that barriers exist and trying to minimize their effects will also help the supervisor. 7. Explain how a supervisor can use feedback to improve communication. Students’ answers may vary. Feedback helps develop a favorable setting for communication. The supervisor shows the employees that he or she is open to suggestions and encourages their input, thereby promoting the strength of communication. Also, feedback helps the supervisor to know whether the communication has been received intact. If misunderstandings exist, they can be clarified. 8. Define and give an example of active listening. Students’ answers may vary. Active listening is a listening technique for understanding others and encouraging open feedback. Attending skills are an essential part of active listening. They include a wide range of actions that a listener takes to facilitate the speaker’s freedom of expression. The reflective statement is a technique in which the gist of the message is repeated. The probe is more specific. It directs attention to a particular aspect of the speaker’s message. Skill Builder 6-1 Communication Effectiveness Exercise Works with SCANS competencies: Interpersonal Skill, Information For this exercise, two-person teams will be used. One will be the supervisor, the other the subordinate. 1. The subordinate will turn his chair so that his/her back faces the supervisor. 2. The supervisor will draw on a sheet of paper a designated design (the master) which is to consist of five geometric figures. a. The only figures allowed in the master design are circles, rectangles, triangles. b. The master design must include at least one circle, one rectangle, and one triangle. For example, the master design could include two circles, one rectangle, and two triangles. c. All figures used in the master design must touch one or more of the other four figures at only a single point. d. The supervisor may create his/her own design or your instructor may provide an identical design for all supervisors. 3. The supervisor’s objective is give verbal instructions to the subordinate such that he/she will draw the master design accurately. Note that only a spoken message by the supervisor is allowed. 4. The supervisor should not receive feedback from the subordinate during the exercise. This means the subordinate may not speak, such as interrupting to say “Slow down,” “OK, I’m following you,” or “Speak louder.” Nor should the subordinate respond nonverbally, as in holding a cupping an ear as a signal to the supervisor to speak more loudly, or raising a hand that means “Slow down.” 5. After the supervisor completes the message, the parties turn their chairs face to face, and examine the results of their communication. 6. Respond to the following discussion points: a. What might account for differences in the two parties’ designs? b. What might the supervisor have done differently to assure better understanding? Skill Builder 6-2 Choosing the Appropriate Communication Channel Works with SCANS competencies: Interpersonal Skill, Information The exercise gives students a practice of choosing the appropriate communication channel to convey messages effectively. The instructions to students are: Put yourself in the supervisor’s shoes while reading each of the situations given below. a. For each situation, identify what you feel is the most appropriate communication channel, and explain why. b. For each situation, identify what you feel is the least appropriate communication channel, and explain why. c. Within teams of 3–5 classmates, compare your answers. Skill Builder 6-3 Listening Skills Practice Works with SCANS competencies: Interpersonal Skill, Information This exercise gives students practice for using active listening and the reflective statements. For this exercise, three person teams will be used. One person will be the sender, another will be the listener, and the third an observer. 1. The sender speaks to the listener for 30 to 45 seconds on one of the following subjects: a. How I most like to spend my spare time b. What I plan to be doing five years from now c. What I most like about my job, school, or life (select one) d. The type of person I best get along with e. What I think the ideal job would be and why f. Other topics selected by speaker 2. The listener responds, making a statement that reflects accurately the main ideas communicated by the sender. 3. The observer gives his/her critique of the listener’s reflective statement, and the listener’s nonverbal behavior while listening. 4. Sender, listener and observer jointly discuss steps 1, 2, and 3. 5. The three parties rotate roles and repeat steps 1, 2, 3, and 4. This should be done until each party has served at least once in each role. Skill Builder 6-4 Using Repetition as a Communication Tool Works with SCANS competencies: Interpersonal Skill, Information, Technology This exercise is a study in the use of repetition as a communication tool. Dr. Martin Luther King’s speech, “I Have a Dream” is used to show the effectiveness of repetition. Students are to write an analysis of Dr. King’s strategic use of repetition and bring their analysis to class to discuss with classmates. Case 6-1 Room 406 This case presents the tragic consequences of poor communication. At a medical center, the day head nurse gives the evening nurse specific information about the patients on the floor. One patient, Mr. Henry Youstra, has died. 1. Explain how “noise” impeded accurate communication between Shift Supervisors Fleming and Simmons in this incident. Noise consists of the potential barriers to effective communication in each phase of the communication process model. As the sender, Nurse Fleming failed to properly encode the message. Nonspecific language failed to communicate the urgency of dealing with Mr. Youstra’s death. 2. What barriers to communication existed in the situation? Nurse Fleming’s communication is anything but clear. “406 is ready” could mean many things. The imprecise use of language creates confusion and unclear direction. 3. How might this miscommunication have been avoided? Students will have individual ideas as to how this situation could be avoided. One suggestion would be to use active listening techniques to make certain the message has been understood. Instructor Manual for Supervisory Management: The Art of Inspiring, Empowering and Developing People Donald C. Mosley, Paul H. Pietri 9781285063003