CH-4 The Analysis and Design of Work – Human Resource Management : Book Guide

Chapter 04 - The Analysis and Design of Work Please click here to access the new HRM Failures case associated with this chapter. HRM Failures features real-life situations in which an HR conflict ended up in court. Each case includes a discussion questions and possible answers for easy use in the classroom. HRM Failures are not included in the text so that you can provide your students with additional real-life content that helps engrain chapter concepts. Chapter Summary The first section of this chapter discusses the analysis of work process within a given work unit. Having provided an understanding of the broader context of jobs, the chapter discusses the need for and usefulness of both job analysis and the techniques for performing job analysis. Finally, the chapter concludes by presenting the various approaches to job design to provide managers with an understanding of the costs and benefits of emphasizing different characteristics of jobs when designing or redesigning them. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Analyze an organization’s structure and work-flow process, identifying the output, activities, and inputs in the production of a product or service. 2. Understand the importance of job analysis in strategic and human resource management. 3. Choose the right job-analysis technique for a variety of human resource activities. 4. Identify the tasks performed and the skills required in a given job. 5. Understand the different approaches to job design. 6. Comprehend the trade-offs among the various approaches to designing jobs. Extended Chapter Outline Note: Key terms appear in boldface and are listed in the "Chapter Vocabulary" section. Opening Vignette: Changes in Organizational Structure and Workflow Promote GM Revival GM faced some tough times and tougher decisions in the summer of 2009. Attempting to recover from bankruptcy, GM needed to alter its organizational structure to reduce redundancy, waste, and intramural feuds and its workflow if it had hopes of survival. The result was a reduction in the number of supported platforms from 30 to 14 and the number of models from 86 to 49. The financial results were equally astounding. Discussion Question Explain the resurgence of manufacturing in the United States, and then, offer some ways that Human Resource Managers can play a significant role in continuing and perhaps even accelerating this resurgence. Answer: The reason that manufacturing is making a comeback in the United States is because U.S. manufacturing companies are making good use of their existing resources, particularly equipment, in ways that create competitive advantage. Organizations are also working to improve governance issues, such as workflow and organizational structure to improve efficiencies to allow them to remain competitive with their overseas counterparts. Much of this success is in large part achieved by relying on employees to identify and suggest ways of working smarter. In this vignette, the efforts of restructuring illustrate how these efforts can pay off. There are many ways that HR professionals can play a part in this comeback. HR professionals can help to identify talent within the company, and they can offer and support mechanisms for cross training, for knowledge sharing, and for career development that benefit both employer and employee. HR professionals can serve as conduits for the internal expertise within a company, so that the intellectual capital, the knowledge, and skills are widely and strategically shared. This would also benefit employees, who may feel a stronger sense of engagement. I. Introduction—Designing the work to be performed is one of the first tasks of strategy implementation discussed in Chapter 2. The way a firm competes can have a profound impact on the way tasks are organized, and the way the tasks are designed may provide the company with a competitive advantage. Also, the way jobs are designed can, in fact, affect company work unit performance. There is no “one best way” to design jobs and structure organizations. The organization needs to create a fit between its environment, its competitive strategy and philosophy on the one hand, with its job and organizational design on the other. Job analysis and job design are interre¬lated. II. Work Flow Analysis and Organization Structure (Workflow analysis, analyzing work outputs, processes, and inputs; see text Figure 4.1) work-flow design – the process of analyzing the tasks necessary for the production of a product or service, prior to allocating and assigning these tasks to a particular job category or person. organization structure – the relatively stable and formal network of vertical and horizontal interconnections among jobs that constitute the organization. A. Work-flow Analysis The workflow process is useful because it provides a means for the managers to understand all the tasks required to produce a high-quality product as well as the skills necessary to perform those tasks. B. Analyzing Work Outputs 1. Work outputs are products of, or services provided by, a work unit, and within manufacturing realms like those discussed in our opening story, this is often an identifiable object. Examples: A jet engine blade, a forklift or a football jersey. 2. Once outputs have been identified, it is necessary to specify the standards for the quantity or quality of these outputs. 3. Promes (productivity measurement and evaluation system) is a productivity improvement technique that focuses attention on both identifying work unit outputs and specifying levels of required performance for different levels of efficiency. C. Analyzing Work Processes 1. Work processes are the activities that members of a work unit engage into produce a given output. Example: Work processes needed to produce an automobile include assembly, painting, and so forth. Every process consists of operating procedures that specify how things should be done to develop the product or service. Competing Through Technology: Robots Attack Okun’s Law Okun’s Law, named after economist Arthur Okun, states that there is a robust and steady relationship between productivity, on the one hand, and unemployment rates on the other hand. In general, the formula expressed in this law suggests that every 3% gain in output should reduce the unemployment rate by 1%. Recent unemployment data indicate that this trend is no longer accurate. One potential reason – the introduction of robots into the mix. Discussion Question Can you think of other common jobs that exist today that would have been inconceivable to your parents or grandparents when they were your age? Are these new lines of work relatively high paying jobs or low paying jobs?? Answer: Student responses may vary, but look for the demonstration that students have an understanding of the types of work robots may be involved in as well as the new types of work we find prevalent in today’s knowledge economy. Also, be sure that students can link the relationship between the example here, which presents work done by robots with the notion of job design. Jobs like social media manager, app developer, and data analyst would have been inconceivable to previous generations. These roles vary in pay: tech and data positions can be high-paying due to high demand and specialized skills, while some roles in social media and content creation might be lower-paying depending on the industry and experience level. D. Analyzing Work Inputs 1. Work inputs are the "ingredients" that go into the work processes and can be broken down into three categories (text Figure 4.1). Raw materials consist of the materials, data, and informa¬tion that will be converted into the work unit's products. Equipment refers to the technology, machinery, facilities, and systems necessary to transform the raw materials into the product or service. Example: Raw materials for the assembly of automobiles include various parts (steering wheels, tires, door panels, etc.) and equipment used, including robotic welding machines. Human skills refer to the worker's knowledge, skills, abil¬ities, and efforts necessary to perform the tasks. III. Organization structure – provides a cross-sectional overview of the static relationship between individuals and units that create the outputs. A. Two of the most important dimensions of structure are centralization and departmentation. 1. Centralization is the degree to which authority resides at the top of the organizational chart. 2. Departmentalization refers to the degree to which work units are grouped based upon functional similarity or similarity of workflow. B. Two types of Structural Configuration of organizational structure tend to emerge in organizations: 1. A functional structure (See Fig. 4.2 in the text) employs a functional departmentation scheme with high levels of centralization. Functional structures are very efficient. However, they tend to be inflexible and insensitive to subtle differences across products, regions, or clients 2. A divisional structure (see Figures 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 in the text) employs a workflow departmentation and low levels of centralization. Because of their workflow focus, their semi-autonomous nature, and their proximity to a homogenous consumer base, divisional structures tend to be more flexible and innovative. However, they are not very efficient. Competing Through Globalization: Is it Time to Slow Down Fast Fashion? Low cost, high speed, and flexibility – the primary means of achieving competitive advantage today are illustrated well in this case of “fast fashion”. However, some believe that the only way to achieve these ends in this industry is though exploitation of workers in Third-World labor markets. Plant managers in these emerging economies often attempt to take short-cuts in safety measures when rapid changes in production demands are made in order to maintain profitability. Nike recently publically claimed that when these factories are asked to make such changes in style and production runs midstream that it results in one of the largest contributors to overtime and accidents. Discussion Question How does one balance the potential for backlash against Western firms that outsource work to countries that exploit workers against the potential cost savings associated with outsourcing to these countries? Answer: Student responses may vary, but look for an indication that they are thinking in terms of solutions rather than excuses. By implementing standards for these workers, Western firms can not only have a ready-made justification for dealing with such factories, but can also begin to contribute to a change in the way they are administered. Balancing potential backlash and cost savings involves implementing ethical sourcing practices, such as ensuring fair labor conditions and compliance with international standards. Firms can also invest in transparency and stakeholder communication to address concerns. This approach helps mitigate reputational risks while maintaining cost efficiency. In underdeveloped countries that have extremely high rates of unemployment, how does one balance the need to provide workers better working conditions against the potential for losing all of those jobs to workers in more developed countries? Answer: Student responses may vary, but look for an indication that they are thinking about making positive changes to the economies in these countries – not only economic change, but change in terms of recognizing the need to value human lives. As the Commerce Minister in Bangladesh indicated, having an entire country branded as not caring about workers does to help anyone in the long run. To balance improving working conditions with maintaining job opportunities in underdeveloped countries, firms can focus on gradual enhancements to labor standards while providing skills training and development programs. Collaborating with local governments and organizations to create sustainable economic growth can also help ensure job retention and development. This approach helps improve conditions without jeopardizing employment. C. Structure and the Nature of Jobs 1. Jobs in functional structures need to be narrow, highly specialized, and people need to work alone. 2. Jobs in divisional structures need to be more holistic, team-based structure with greater decision making authority. IV. Job analysis – the process of getting detailed information about jobs. A. The Importance of Job Analysis 1. Job analysis has been called the building block of everything that the personnel department does. 2. Some of the human resource activities that use job analysis information includes selection, performance appraisal, training and development, job evaluation, career planning, work redesign, and human resource planning. Work redesign – a firm will seek to redesign work to make it more efficient or effective. Human resource planning – planners analyze an organization’s human resource needs in a dynamic environment and develop activities that enable the firm to adapt to change. Selection – identifying the most qualified applicants for employment. Training – trainer identifies the tasks performed in the job. Performance appraisal – getting information about how well each employee is performing. Career planning – matching an individual’s skills and aspirations with opportunities that are or may become available in the organization. Job evaluation – assessing the relative dollar value of each job to the organization to set up internally equitable pay structures. B. The Importance of Job Analysis to Line Managers 1. Managers must have detailed information about all the jobs in their work group to understand the work flow process. 2. Managers need to understand the job requirements to make intelligent hiring decisions. 3. Since the manager is responsible for ensuring that each indi-vidual is performing his or her job satisfactorily, the manager must clearly understand the tasks required in every job. C. Job Analysis Information 1. A job description is a list of the tasks, duties, and responsibili¬ties (TDRs) that the job entails. (Text Table 4.1) 2. A job specification is a list of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) that an individual must have to perform the job. Example: Job specifications for an employment assistant would include: (1) a four year college degree with major course work in human resources or an equivalent combination of experi¬ence, education, and training; (2) considerable knowledge of principles of employee selection and assignment of personnel; (3) the ability to express ideas clearly in written and oral communication; (4) the ability to independently plan and orga¬nize one's own activities. Ethics in Action: Running Right While Running Coal Coal company Massey Energy has the worst worker fatality record of any coal company in the United States. This is partly related to an organizational culture that became accepting of wrongdoing and forsaking worker safety for lower costs and higher profits. New leadership through being acquired may change this situation. The company’s new owner, Alpha Natural Resources has vowed to run the company in a responsible way and to lead by example. Discussion Question In what ways, other than higher than average turnover, does having an unsavory ethical reputation harm an organization’s competitive advantage? Answer: Student responses may vary, but look for an indication that they are thinking in terms of a balanced scorecard approach to organizational performance. An unsavory ethical reputation can harm an organization's competitive advantage by damaging brand trust and customer loyalty, leading to decreased sales and revenue. It can also deter top talent from joining the company, negatively impact investor confidence, and increase regulatory scrutiny, all of which undermine long-term success and growth. 3. Sources of Job Analysis Information In general, it will be useful for the manager to go to the job incumbents to get the most accurate information about what is actually done on the job. However, the incumbents might exaggerate their job duties. Managers should ask others familiar with the job, such as the supervisor, to look over any information received from the incumbents. Research has shown greater agreement between supervisors and subordinates when rating general job duties than when rating specific tasks. Also, incumbents may be the best source for accurate estimates of time spent on job tasks, but supervisors may be more accurate on the importance of job duties. Research is somewhat inconclusive about the relationship between the performance level of the job analyst and the job-analysis information he or she provides, but recent research has shown that effective and ineffective managers tend to give the same job-analysis ratings despite their performance level. D. Job Analysis Methods 1. Position Analysais Questionnaire (PAQ) a. The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a standardized job analysis questionnaire containing 194 items representing work behaviors, work conditions, or job characteristics that are generalizable across a wide variety of jobs. b. The 194 items are organized into six sections, and the job analyst is asked to rate each item on six scales. A computer program generates a job report based on the ratings. The six sections are: information input mental processes work output relationships with other persons job context other characteristics c. Research has indicated that the PAQ measures 13 overall dimensions (text Table 4.2). Knowing the dimension scores provides some guidance regarding the types of abilities that are necessary to perform the job. d. One of the main problems with the PAQ is that it requires the reading level of a college graduate to complete the ques¬tionnaire. The Occupational Information Network (O*NET) a. The U.S. Department of Labor replaced the Dictionary of Occupational Titles in 1998 with O*NET because jobs in the new economy were so qualitatively different from jobs in the old economy, and the DOT no longer served its purpose. b. Instead of relying on fixed job titles and narrow task descriptions, the O*NET uses a common language that generalizes across jobs to describe the abilities, work styles, work activities, and work context required for various occupations that are more broadly defined. c. Although it is still being developed, the O*NET is already being used by many employers and employment agencies. It is also designed to help job seekers. E. Dynamic Elements of Job Analysis Although we tend to view jobs as static and stable, in fact, jobs tend to change and evolve over time. The job analysis process must also detect changes in the nature of jobs. Advances in technology have made it hard to keep up with some of the major changes in jobs, and automation has led to the elimination of certain jobs or the offshoring of tasks or even shifting the tasks from the worker to the customer. V. Job design is the process of defining the way work will be performed and the tasks that will be required in a given job. Job redesign refers to changing the tasks or the way work is performed in an existing job. Jobs can also be characterized on different dimensions of job design (Table 4.3 in the text). A. Mechanistic Approach 1. The mechanistic approach to job design has its roots in classical industrial engineering and focuses on designing jobs around the concepts of task specialization, skill simplification, and repetition. 2. Scientific management, one of the earliest mechanistic approaches, sought to identify the one best way to perform the job through the use of time and motion studies. 3. The scientific management approach was built upon in later years and resulted in a mechanistic approach that calls for the job to be designed very simply. The organization reduces its need for high ability individuals, and workers are easily replaceable (a new employee can be trained to perform the job quickly and inexpensively). B. Motivational Approach 1. The motivational approach to job design focuses on the job characteristics that affect the psychological meaning and moti-vational potential, and it views attitudinal variables as the most important outcomes of job design. 2. The prescriptions of the motivational approach focus on increasing job complexity through job enlargement, job enrich¬ment, and the construction of jobs around sociotechnical systems. 3. A model of how job design affects employee reaction is the “Job Characteristics Model”. a. According to this model, jobs can be described in terms of five characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feed¬back. b. These five job characteristics determine the motivating potential of a job by affecting three psychological states: experienced meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results. c. When the core job characteristics are high, individuals will have a high level of internal work motivation, higher quan¬tity and quality of work, and higher levels of job satisfac¬tion. d. Much of the work on job enlargement, job enrichment, and self managing work teams has its roots in the motivational approach to job design (Table 4.3 in the text). However, most of the research shows these interventions increase employee satisfaction and performance quality, but not necessarily increase quantity of performance. Example: Alston & Bird of Atlanta have designed the paralegal job so that it entails a great deal of autonomy and clear communication channels between attorneys and paralegals. The result: In an industry where turnover among paralegals averages 20 percent per year, turnover at Alston & Bird averages 7 percent per year. The firm also receives 15,000 applications for the 200 positions available per year. C. Biological Approach 1. The biological approach to job design comes primarily from the sciences of biomechanics (the study of body movements), and it is usually referred to as ergonomics, or the concern with examining the interface between individuals' physiological characteristics and the physical work environment. The goal of this approach is to minimize the physical strain on the worker by structuring the physical work environment around the way the body works. Example: At Toyota's high tech Tahara No. 4 line, new electric vehicle carriers were installed to minimize stress on the workers' bodies. They adjust a car's height at every workstation. Toyota reports a major reduction in turnover during the plant's first year of operation. 2. The biological approach focuses on outcomes such as physical fatigue, aches and pains, and health complaints. 3. The biological approach has been applied in redesigning equip-ment to reduce the physical demands so women can perform the jobs and to reduce occupational illnesses such as carpal tunnel syndrome. D. Perceptual-Motor Approach 1. The perceptual-motor approach to job design has its roots in the human factors literature and focuses on human mental capabilities and limitations. The goal is to design jobs in a way that ensures that they do not exceed people's mental capabilities. 2. This approach generally tries to improve reliability, safety, and user reactions by designing jobs in a way that reduces the information processing requirements of the job. 3. This approach, similar to the mechanistic approach, generally has the effect of decreasing the job's cognitive demands. 4. Recent changes in technological capabilities hold the promise of helping to reduce job demands and errors, but in some cases, these developments have actually made the problem worse. This is referred to as “absence presence” Example: An example of absence presence is talking on a cell phone while driving a car. E. Trade-offs among Different Approaches for Job Design 1. One research study found job incumbents expressed higher satisfaction with jobs scoring highly on motivational approach. However, the motivational and mechanistic approaches were negatively related, suggesting that designing jobs to maximize efficiency is likely to result in a lower motivational component to those jobs. 2. Jobs redesigned to increase the motivating potential result in higher costs in terms of ability requirements, training, and compensation. 3. In designing jobs, it is important to understand the trade offs inherent in focusing on one particular approach to job design. Competing Through Sustainability: Concussions Threaten Viability of an American Institution Under its current course, professional football, the most popular sport in the United States, may not exist within 30 years – according to the prediction of Bernard Pollard, a safety for the Baltimore Ravens. He believes this will result from an increase in rules to reduce violence and promote safety for players, which will ultimately result in a decrease in interest among fans. One major issue of concern is new scientific evidence concerning chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) – the formation of abnormal proteins in the brain resulting from repeated concussions. The NFL is facing legal action on behalf of more than 4,000 players who claim the league covered up the dangers. Discussion Question If it is true that CTE can be caused by “routine head jostling” that accumulates over a number of years, what other types of jobs other than professional football player might be susceptible to long-term problems in this area? Answer: Student responses can vary but should illustrate that they understand the nature of the jobs they are naming. Jobs with frequent head impacts or vibrations, such as construction workers using heavy machinery, or those in contact sports like hockey or rugby, might also be susceptible to long-term issues like CTE. Additionally, roles involving repetitive head movements, such as certain types of factory work or agricultural jobs, could pose similar risks over time. What might be done in terms of ergonomics to reduce problems in these jobs? Answer: Student responses here will likely vary also, but should show evidence of creative thinking in terms of ways to reduce this type of trauma. To reduce problems in jobs prone to ergonomic issues, employers can implement ergonomic assessments to design workspaces that minimize strain, provide adjustable equipment to accommodate different body types, and offer training on proper posture and techniques. Regular breaks and ergonomic tools, like supportive chairs and ergonomic keyboards, can further help prevent injuries and improve comfort. A Look Back The chapter opened with a vignette that illustrated how General Motors U.S. was making a comeback, despite the fact that wages in the U.S. are higher than in many other countries to which work might be outsourced. Questions 1. The analysis of workflow design traditionally starts at the end of the process, with the final product or service that is to be rendered. One then works back to determine the best process for this, and then determining the appropriate inputs. If an employer is totally committed to a specific type of input, like high wage labor or existing equipment or easy access to certain raw materials, how could the process of workflow design play out and how might the results be different? Answer: Student answers may vary. Answers should show that students are mindful that things like process redesign and enhanced training of key human resources can also have an impact on the outcomes. The results of such an analysis may also result in different metrics of success that are more in line with a balanced scorecard approach. If an employer is committed to specific inputs, such as high-wage labor or existing equipment, workflow design must adapt to optimize these resources. The process would involve tailoring the workflow to make the best use of these inputs while achieving the desired output. This might lead to a design that prioritizes efficiency with the given inputs but may limit flexibility or innovation in the final product or service. 2. Although there are advantages and disadvantages to different structural configurations, why might it be more difficult to change one’s structure in some directions than others? Specifically, how are the HR challenges associated with moving from centralized and functional structures to decentralized and divisional different from the challenge of moving one’s structure in the alternative direction? Answer: Moving from a centralized and functional structure to a decentralized and divisional structure by necessity requires employees to act with more self-direction and autonomy. It likely creates opportunities for employees to make exercise judgment and decision making. These conditions are likely to lead to higher levels of engagement. However, moving in the opposite direction—to centralization—takes decision making ability away from employees, and the move from division to functional likewise reduces or eliminates that self-determining ability. These are likely to be unattractive for employees, because it reduces their ability to be creative or to use independent judgment. It might also result in inflexibility. 3. We have seen through this chapter that many ways of reducing the cost of getting jobs done, often comes at some price to workers who have to do those jobs. What can be done to promote a more just, fair, humane and sustainable workforce in all corners of the world? Does the competitive nature or product or labor markets mean that “nice guys always finish last? Answer: Student answers may vary. However, this is likely to be an “energetic” discussion about labor practices around the world. One point that could be made is that the public outcry against unsafe labor practices creates a policing mechanism over them. However, it might be impossible to monitor all unsafe factories where workers are expected to perform monotonous tasks in unpleasant conditions. Encourage students to spend time grappling with this very important question, in order to generate an array of possibilities. To promote a more just, fair, humane, and sustainable workforce globally, companies can adopt ethical labor practices, ensure fair wages, and prioritize worker safety and well-being. Implementing and adhering to international labor standards and fostering transparency in supply chains are also crucial. While competitive markets can present challenges, a commitment to ethical practices can enhance long-term success and reputation, proving that fairness and responsibility can coexist with competitiveness. Chapter Vocabulary These terms are defined in the "Extended Chapter Outline" section. Centralization Departmentation Job analysis Job description Job specification Job design Job redesign Ergonomics Discussion Questions 1. Assume you are the manager of a fast food restaurant. What are the outputs of your work unit? What are the activities required to produce those outputs? What are the inputs? Answer: Some examples of outputs for a fast food restaurant include the food orders and the service provided. Activities required to produce these outputs include cooking, cleaning, preparing orders, taking orders, and so forth. The inputs include the raw materials (the ingredients for the food orders), the equipment (stove, cash register), and the human resources (the ability to cook, the knowledge of what ingredients go into a menu item). 2. Based on question 1, consider the cashier's job. What are the outputs, activities, and inputs for that job? Answer: Inputs for the cashier's job include the raw inputs (food ordered, prices, tax), equipment (cash register), and human resources (the skill to operate the register, the knowledge of the prices of the menu items, and the ability to answer customers' questions). 3. Consider the "job" of college students. Perform a job analysis on this job. What are the tasks required in the job? What are the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to perform those tasks? What environmental trends or shocks (like computers) might change the job, and how would that change the skill requirements? Answer: Tasks would include attending class, completing homework assignments, and participating in-group assignments. Some examples of the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed are knowledge of prerequisite course material, college level reading skills, and ability to work together with others. Some environmental trends that might change the job would result from changes in the job market, such as new knowledge that employers would expect college students to learn. An example might be knowledge of sexual harassment guidelines or ADA legislation. 4. Discuss how the following trends are changing the skill requirements for managerial jobs in the United States: (a) increasing use of computers, (b) increasing international competition, (c) increasing work family conflicts. Answer: Students should have no trouble discussing how these trends are changing the skill requirements for managerial jobs in the United States. Managers are increasingly expected to be computer literate. Managers are also expected to be knowledgeable about other cultures, and knowledge of a second language is more commonly preferred. Managers are also expected to be more sensitive to work-family conflicts (day care and elder care issues for example) and to be knowledgeable about various legislation that deals with such situations (such as the FMLA). (a) The increasing use of computers requires managers to be tech-savvy and adept at data analysis. (b) Increasing international competition demands cross-cultural skills and global strategic thinking. (c) Rising work-family conflicts necessitate managers to implement flexible policies and support work-life balance to retain talent and enhance productivity. 5. Why is it important for a manager to be able to conduct a job analysis? What are the negative outcomes that would result from not understanding the jobs of those reporting to the manager? Answer: The chapter has a section on the importance of job analysis to both HR managers and line managers. The students' answers will probably reflect information in these sections as well as possible reasons of ¬their own. The negative outcomes of a manager not understanding the jobs of his or her subordinates are that the manager may not make intelligent hiring decisions, may not be able to adequately evaluate the performance of subordinates, and will have trouble understanding the work flow process if individual jobs are not understood. Conducting a job analysis is crucial for managers to ensure accurate role definitions, effective performance evaluations, and targeted training. Without understanding the jobs of their reports, managers may face inefficiencies, misalignment of expectations, and decreased employee satisfaction, leading to lower productivity and higher turnover. 6. What are the trade offs between the different approaches to job design? Which approach do you think should be weighted most heavily when designing jobs? Answer: As discussed in the chapter, the trade offs appear to be between increased satisfaction and motivation and reduced efficiency due to increased costs. For example, the motivational approach that increases satisfaction results in lower utilization levels and increased training time. Table 4.5 in the text summarizes the positive and negative outcomes of each approach. Students' answers may vary as to which approach they think should be weighted most heavily depending on their value of the various outcomes for each approach. Different job design approaches, such as job enrichment, job enlargement, and job rotation, offer various trade-offs: job enrichment enhances motivation but may require more training, job enlargement reduces boredom but can increase workload, and job rotation promotes skill development but can disrupt team dynamics. Job enrichment often should be weighted most heavily, as it directly enhances employee motivation and satisfaction, leading to higher productivity and engagement. 7. For the cashier in question 2, which approach to job design was most influential in designing that job? In the context of the total work-flow process of the restaurant, how would you redesign the job to more heavily emphasize each of the other approaches? Answer: Students' answers may vary. All of the approaches could be used to design the cashier's job. To redesign the job to emphasize the mechanistic approach, students should discuss concepts such as more specialization. To redesign the job to emphasize the motivational approach, students should discuss making the job more complex. To redesign the job to emphasize the biological approach, students should discuss adjusting or making changes in the equipment or job environment. To redesign the job to emphasize the perceptual/motor approach, students should discuss ways to make the job less demanding mentally. For a cashier, the most influential approach to job design is typically job specialization, focusing on efficiency and speed in processing transactions. To redesign the job using other approaches: • Job Enrichment: Introduce tasks like inventory management or customer service responsibilities to enhance skill variety and autonomy. • Job Enlargement: Expand the role to include duties like stocking shelves or handling promotions, increasing the scope of responsibilities. • Job Rotation: Rotate the cashier between different positions, such as food preparation or customer service, to develop a broader skill set and reduce monotony. Self-Assessment Exercise: Refer to the self-assessment exercise in the text. Manager’s Hot Seat Exercise: Virtual Workplace: Out of Office Reply-Please refer to the Asset Gallery on the OLC for Hot Seat videos and notes. I. Introduction Telecommuting is a flexible working option that many companies have embraced. The advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting are highlighted in this scenario. Instructors of Management or Human Resources may use this situation to discuss managing teleworkers and the need for clear and consistent policies. II. Learning Objectives To assess students’ understanding of the challenges of telecommuting. To analyze and evaluate managerial actions related to telecommuting. III. Scenario Description: Overview: Three months ago, Ralph Ramos assigned a number of employees to work as telecommuters to alleviate the lack of space in their office building. Among them was Angela Zononi, an employee and friend for over four years, who was delighted to work from home since her commute to the office was particularly time-consuming. Although things went relatively smoothly for the first six weeks, since then communication and performance have taken a steady downturn. Angela has biweekly meetings with Ralph in his office. Lately they have had unprecedented arguments and frequent misunderstandings. Profile: Ralph Ramos is the Senior Manager of Claims, managing a 75 employee department, at Saber Union Insurance, an international insurance company. Angela Zanoni is a Claims Investigator at Saber Union. She has handled very large accounts, including insurance fraud cases, resulting in multi-million dollar recoveries for her company. References: The references included in the DVD are: Advantages and Challenges for Employees (PPT 12-3) Advantages and Challenges for Employer (PPT 12-5) Telework Assessment Tool (PPT 12-7) Supervisor Checklist for Telecommuters (PPT 12-9) Back History: Angela was one of five employees that moved to home offices three months ago. She had volunteered right off the bat because she could spend more time with her family if she eliminated all that commuter time [on a bad day she was losing over three hours roundtrip!] The telecommuting has had it’s ups and downs but her relationship with Ralph is going downhill. They’ve been having frequent misunderstandings, and a few small arguments. Angela feels that Ralph’s operating on an out of sight out of mind mentality. He doesn’t even seem to read the email reports very closely. They do meet every two weeks at the office as a check-in but it’s a pure formality. To make matters worse, a colleague who works in the office told her about all the high stakes claims another investigator, Bob, has been working on. Angela hasn’t had anything ‘hot’ in weeks. Ralph is happy with the way things are working out. The office is no longer over-crowded or disturbingly noisy. The telecommuters are doing their work and reporting regularly. He is having more trouble staying on top of their reports and their projects but that’s probably because he’s so busy. Scene Set-up: Ralph and Angela are meeting to discuss their recent miscommunications and Angela reveals her dissatisfaction with her recent treatment. Scene Location: Ralph’s Office The Meeting - Summary: Ralph brings up the missed deadline and Angela says she was not informed that the deadline had been moved. Ralph explains how the information was conveyed. She says she feels that she is out of sight, out of mind and that since she began telecommuting it has hurt her career. She notes that Bob has received more high-stakes claims than her recently. Ralph explains that assignments to employees are based on their talents and experience and that Bob had experience with one client which is why he chose him. Ralph says he didn’t realize she was feeling this way and wasn’t prepared. He suggests they meet later. Two weeks later – Angela misses an appointment with Ralph and deliberately fails to provide work on time. Ralph wants to understand what has happened to change the good working relationship they had. Angela threatens to resign, but Ralph maintains his composure and urges her to try to work out a solution with him. They decide that for the next two weeks they will talk on the phone every day. Then, they will decide if Angela should come back to the office rather than telecommute. Afterthoughts – Summary: Ralph states his strategy was to listen to Angela. He notes that he often has issues with people working from home because it’s difficult to keep track of what is going on. He feels voicemail and email are impersonal. He drafts written plans with employees who want to work from home that outlines goals. The plans are executed on a temporary basis until it is clear that they will work and then he gives final approval. Dossier: The specific artifacts included in the DVD are: Emails between Ramos and Zanoni Voicemail from Sorento to Zanoni Ramos’ Assistant’s Voicemails to Zanoni IV. Discussion Questions: The References and related Discussion Questions may be found in PowerPoint slides 12-1 to 12-9 on the instructor’s side of the text’s Website. Learning Objective #1: To assess students’ understanding of the challenges of telecommuting. What advantages and disadvantages to telecommuting is Angela experiencing? See PPT 12-3. Answer: Angela enjoys not having to commute and likes to be closer and more available for her family. The voicemail from her friend indicates that she may be losing the personal relationships she enjoyed at work because of decreased interaction. She clearly feels left out of certain decisions and is concerned her career may be impeded.  1. How should Ralph respond [when Angela says “since I’ve been working from home, I’m out of sight”]? Compassionately Clarify issues Debate point Ralph attempts to clarify the issues to calm Angela down. What advantages and disadvantages to managing a telecommuter is Ralph experiencing? See PPT 12-5. Answer: His intention was to improve moral and job satisfaction of Angela by cutting down her commuting time. In actuality, the opposite result has occurred. He blames this on the difficulty coordinating and controlling staff and monitoring their performance. He is clearly frustrated by not being able to reach Angela readily when important work-related matters arise.  2. What is Ralph’s strategy? Emphasize strengths Hide biases Change topic Ralph tries to emphasize Angela’s strengths and explains that Bob was chosen for the higher stakes assignment because of is past experience, not because he is in the office more regularly.  3. How was this [initial] meeting? Successful A failure A good start It appeared that the meeting was a good start, but Angela’s actions in between the two meetings indicates that she is very upset and feels discriminated against because of her working arrangement. Learning Objective #2: To analyze and evaluate managerial actions related to telecommuting. What should Angela have done to prepare herself for telework? Refer to PPT 12-7. Answer: Angela needed to really assess whether her work style was suited for telecommuting. While there are obvious advantages (shorter commute time), there are some less obvious disadvantages. One needs to assess themselves on the degree that the reality of telework will impact them. The questions found in PPT 12-7 would be a good start in this assessment.  4. Angela is dejected. Ralph should focus on: Her value Her poor performance His mistakes Ralph should help Angela realize her value to the organization and explain that he did not intend to make her feel left out. What should Ralph have done to prevent this problem from occurring? Refer to PPT 12-9. Answer: Completing the Checklist provided in the slide would be effective. Specifically, for their situation, a more formalized communication process needs to be created.  5. What should Ralph do [when Angela says she want to resign]? Accept resignation Try new approach End meeting Because Angela is a valuable and long-time employee he should try a new approach with her to urge her to work out this problem.  6. What’s Ralph’s next step? Find replacement Communication often Reassign work load Ralph’s next step is to communicate more frequently with Angela to see if performance improves and if the telecommuting arrangement will work in the future. Exercising Strategy: Serving Up Speed, Flexibility and Innovation Questions In what way is small size a source of competitive advantage in this industry? Answer: Small size in this industry, especially when servicing web based companies who have a need for speedy reaction time, is a big advantage due to its contribution to flexibility and responsiveness to customer demands. Large corporate giants like HP and IBM are so big that their reaction time is slowed down. 2. In what way is close proximity to customers a source of competitive advantage in this industry? Answer: Similar to the answer for question 1, speed of response to the demands of the customer is the answer here. If production was based in Asia, time to make changes in products or specifications, production time, shipping time, etc. would all render the changes obsolete before they were ever made. Being close to the customer allows better reaction time to changes the customer might have. Close proximity to customers offers a competitive advantage by enabling personalized service, quicker response times, and a better understanding of local preferences. This can lead to increased customer satisfaction and loyalty, as well as the ability to adapt quickly to market changes and customer feedback. In what way is the use of small cross-functional teams a source of competitive advantage in this industry? Answer: By using smaller cross-functional teams, companies like Sea Micro have made themselves a very dynamic and fast reacting producer in the industry. With the increase in web based companies in the marketplace, this is a critical attribute for success. Managing People: Stretching the Job Description Questions In what way does stretching the job description like that described here both strengthen and weaken job incumbents? Answer: Student responses should vary but will be indicative of their thoughts on how job incumbents can more readily acclimate to changes such as increased task variance and workload. Hey should also be mindful of the negative mental impacts these changes can have on workers as well such as increases in stress and potentially workplace safety issues. Stretching the job description strengthens incumbents by broadening their skills, increasing job satisfaction, and providing growth opportunities. However, it can weaken them if the expanded responsibilities lead to role overload, stress, or a lack of clear focus, potentially reducing overall job performance and satisfaction. In what way does stretching the job description like that described here both strengthen and weaken the competitive position of companies that engage in this practice? Answer: Responses here will vary but should reflect thought on the issues such as increases in efficiency, productivity and profitability as well as mental costs that may result in increases in errors, accidents, and misplaced priorities. Stretching job descriptions can strengthen a company's competitive position by enhancing employee skills, flexibility, and innovation. However, it may weaken the position if role overload leads to decreased productivity, higher turnover, or reduced employee morale, which could impact overall performance and customer satisfaction. In what way does stretching the job description like this negatively affect society and the larger economy? Answer: Issues here may include the fact that traditionally, increases in consumer demand meant decreases in unemployment. That is no longer the case which spells out a number of issues for the economy such as longer periods of higher unemployment and difficulties in spurning economic growth even when consumer demand shows increases. Stretching job descriptions can negatively affect society and the larger economy by contributing to job dissatisfaction, burnout, and reduced work-life balance. This can lead to higher turnover rates and decreased productivity, ultimately impacting economic stability and increasing the burden on social support systems. HR In Small Business: Inclusivity Defines BraunAbility’s Products and Its Jobs Questions In what ways is work at BraunAbility motivating? What other features of motivating work might BraunAbility be able to offer its employees? Answer: Answers here should reflect the idea that workers have the opportunity to express their true creative self through their work. Other motivating features would include the opportunity to contribute to society through their work and to feel respected. Work at BraunAbility is motivating due to its focus on meaningful outcomes, such as improving mobility for individuals with disabilities, which fosters a sense of purpose. To enhance motivation further, BraunAbility could offer features like career development opportunities, recognition programs, flexible work arrangements, and increased autonomy in job roles. What place would efficient job design have in a company like BraunAbility? How could BraunAbility improve job efficiency in a way that is consistent with the company’s emphasis on inclusiveness and flexibility? Answer: The nature of the work done at BrausAbility (creating products for people living with disabilities) requires an eye for efficiency. Designing jobs such that they can be completed by people with disabilities would certainly be reflective of the company’s inclusive and flexible values Efficient job design at BraunAbility would streamline processes and enhance productivity while maintaining a focus on inclusiveness and flexibility. To improve job efficiency, the company could implement flexible work structures, use technology to automate repetitive tasks, and design roles that accommodate diverse employee needs and promote collaboration. Imagine that you work with the HR director at BraunAbility, and she has asked you to suggest some ways to reinforce employees’ sense that their jobs have an important positive impact on others. What would you suggest? Answer: Answers should involve the opportunity for workers to see first-hand the impact their work has on the lives of people living with disabilities. Perhaps providing workers with the opportunity to interact with customers would allow for this. I would suggest implementing regular employee feedback sessions showcasing the positive impact of their work, sharing customer testimonials and success stories, and organizing events where employees can meet the individuals they've helped. Additionally, incorporating impact metrics into performance reviews can reinforce the significance of their contributions. Additional Activities In Class Activity 1 Many students are or have been employed. Ask students to choose a company for which they have worked and analyze the corporate culture at that company. Answers may include some of the following: Did a sense of teamwork and cooperation prevail? Was employee morale high? Who was primarily responsible for the attitudes that dominated in the workplace? Was the company successful? Was the company a good one to work for? Why? Why not? What could have been done differently to improve the culture? In Class Activity 2 Invite students to discuss their experiences traveling by air. Have any of them flown Southwest Airlines? If yes, does the airline measure up to everything that is being said about it? Do they have a favorite airline? Why? What, in their opinion, are the most important reasons for choosing an airline? HRM Failures Top Case 4: When Job Analysis Goes Awry Yaire Lopez, a bakery truck driver, delivered cakes, bread, bagels, and muffins on her route. When she became pregnant and was diagnosed with diabetes, her health care provider certified that she could continue to work during the pregnancy as long as she observed some lifting and climbing restrictions. After Lopez provided this medical information to her employer, an HR staff person analyzed the job requirements of three or four open positions to see if one of them would be a suitable alternative for Lopez during her pregnancy. However, because the open jobs also required some physical activity, the HR staff member erroneously concluded that Lopez was ineligible for all the openings. Without documenting the analysis or discussing the findings with Lopez, the HR department sent Lopez home and by the next day had assigned a relief driver to her route. Through a series of misunderstandings that followed, Lopez believed her employer had discharged her. Yet, under her union’s collective bargaining agreement, Lopez was eligible to receive a year of maternity leave upon request. Neither her employer nor her union informed her of this opportunity. After being barred from working as a driver and being denied an accommodation to a less strenuous position, Lopez sued her employer. The court ruled that Lopez was in fact able to perform the duties of one of the open positions—that of bakery outlet store clerk, a position Lopez had held before becoming a driver. The court awarded her compensatory damages of $340,700 and $2 million in punitive damages. Under the law, when an employee’s pregnancy requires a job with less strenuous or less hazardous activities, an employer should attempt to reasonably accommodate the employee for the duration of her pregnancy, if possible. Question If you were the employer, how would you handle such a request from a pregnant employee? Possible answers Implement a carefully written process for handling such requests. Communicate with the employee (and, as needed, her health care provider) to confirm your understanding of the restrictions, if any, that apply to the employee during her pregnancy. Document all findings, analyses and decisions regarding the employee’s request and the ultimate determination. As an employer, I would handle a request from a pregnant employee by: 1. Reviewing the Request Thoroughly: Consult with the employee to understand her specific needs and obtain relevant medical documentation. 2. Evaluating Accommodation Options: Assess the job requirements and available positions to identify any that can accommodate the employee’s restrictions without compromising operational needs. 3. Communicating Clearly and Documenting: Maintain open communication with the employee, document all findings and decisions, and ensure the employee is informed of available options and their rights under company policies and relevant laws. Case: Yaire Lopez v Bimbo Bakeries USA, Inc., A119263, A119720, 2009 Cal. App. 1st Dist, Div 4, Lexis 3171. Solution Manual for Human Resource Management Raymond Noe, John Hollenbeck, Barry Gerhart, Patrick Wright 9780077164126