CH-4-6 Values, Attitudes, and Work Behaviour – Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 4 to 6 CHAPTER 4 VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND WORK BEHAVIOUR CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 4 students should be able to: LO4.1 Define values and discuss the implications of cross-cultural variation in values for organizational behaviour. LO4.2 Define attitudes and explain how people develop and change attitudes. LO4.3 Explain the concept of job satisfaction and discuss some of its key contributors, including discrepancy, fairness, disposition, mood, and emotion. LO4.3 Explain the relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism, turnover, performance, organizational citizenship behaviour, and customer satisfaction. LO4.5 Differentiate affective, continuance, and normative commitment and explain how organizations can foster organizational commitment. CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES What Are Values? Values refer to a broad tendency to prefer for certain states of affairs over others. Values are motivational since they signal the attractive aspects of our environment that we seek and the unattractive aspects that we try to avoid or change. The words broad tendency mean that values are very general and that they do not predict behaviour in specific situations very well. People tend to hold values structured around such factors as achievement, power, autonomy, conformity, tradition, and social welfare. In the field of organizational behaviour, values are particularly relevant in the context of generational differences and cross-cultural differences. Generational Differences in Values There are four rather distinctive generations in the workplace today. These generations comprise what are often called the Traditionalists, the baby boomers, Generation X, and the Millennials (or Generation Y). These generations are of course demarcated by being of different ages, but they are also distinguished by having grown up under rather different socialization experiences. It has been argued that these contrasting experiences, in turn, have led to notable value differences between the generations. Such value differences might then underlie the differential workplace assets and preferences for leadership style. Recent research points to more similarities than differences in values across generations. However, there is some indication that Gen X and Y are more inclined to value money, status and rapid career growth than are boomers. There is also evidence that Gen Ys and Xers compared to Boomers, see work as less central, value leisure more, and are more inclined toward work-life balance. Research conducted by the Center for Creative Leadership concluded that all work generations share the same values but express them differently. Any generational differences in work values or in the way values are expressed is important because there is much evidence that good “fit” between a person’s values and those of the organization (person–organization fit) leads to positive work attitudes and behaviours, including reduced chances of quitting. Cultural Differences in Values Cross-cultural differences often contribute to failed business negotiations. As well, research shows that anywhere from 16 to 40 percent of managers who receive foreign assignments terminate them early because they perform poorly or do not adjust to the culture. At the root of many of these problems is a lack of appreciation of basic differences in work-related values across cultures. Work Centrality. Work is valued differently across cultures. Value differences across cultures are reflected in differences in the centrality of work in one’s life. Japan is the country where work is most central. People for whom work is a central life interest tend to work more hours. Cross-cultural differences in work centrality can lead to adjustment problems for foreign employees and managers. Hofstede’s Study. Geert Hofstede, a social scientist questioned over 116,000 IBM employees in 40 countries about their work-related values and added another 36 countries and regions in a subsequent study. His results show differences across cultures in four basic dimensions of work-related values: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity/femininity, and individualism/collectivism. Subsequent work that catered more to Eastern cultures resulted in a fifth dimension, the long-term/short-term orientation. Power distance. Power distance is the extent to which an unequal distribution of power is accepted by society members. In small power distance cultures, inequality is minimized, superiors are accessible, and power differences are downplayed. In large power distance societies, inequality is accepted as natural, superiors are inaccessible, and power differences are highlighted. Out of 76 countries and regions, Canada and the United States rank 15 and 16, respectively, falling on the low power distance side of the average, which is 38. Uncertainty avoidance. Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which people are uncomfortable with uncertain and ambiguous situations. Strong uncertainty avoidance cultures stress rules and regulations, hard work, conformity, and security. Cultures with weak uncertainty avoidance are less concerned with rules, conformity, and security, and hard work is not seen as a virtue. However, risk taking is valued. The United States and Canada are well below average (i.e., weak uncertainty) ranking 13 and 15, respectively, out of 76. Masculinity/femininity. Another cultural value that differs across cultures is known as masculinity/femininity. More masculine cultures clearly differentiate gender roles, support the dominance of men, and stress economic performance. More feminine cultures accept fluid gender roles, stress sexual equality, and stress quality of life. Canada ranks about mid-pack, and the United States is fairly masculine, falling about halfway between Canada and Japan. Individualism/collectivism. More individualistic cultures stress independence, individual initiative and privacy. More collective cultures favour interdependence and loyalty to family or clan. The United States, Australia, Great Britain, and Canada are among the most individualistic societies. Long-term/short-term orientation. Another cultural value that differs across cultures is known as long-term/short-term orientation. Cultures with a long-term orientation tend to stress persistence, perseverance, thrift, and close attention to status differences. Cultures with a short-term orientation stress personal steadiness and stability, face-saving, and social niceties. The United States and Canada are characterized by a short-term orientation. Hofstede has produced a number of interesting “cultural maps” that show how countries and regions cluster together on pairs of cultural dimensions. Cultures that are more individualistic tend to downplay power differences, while those that are more collectivistic tend to accentuate power differences. Implications of Cultural Variation Exporting OB Theories. An important message from the cross-cultural study of values is that organizational behaviour theories, research, and practices from North America might not translate well to other societies. For example, North American managers tend to encourage participation in work decisions by employees which corresponds to the fairly low degree of power distance. This leadership style might not translate to cultures that value high power distance. Importing OB Theories. As well, not all theories and practices that concern organizational behaviour are designed in North America or even in the West such as Japanese management techniques. Many of the Japanese-inspired means of organizing work are team-oriented. Understanding cultural value differences can enable organizations to successfully import management practices by tailoring the practice to the home culture’s concerns. Appreciating Global Customers. An appreciation of cross-cultural differences in values is essential to understanding the needs and tastes of customers or clients around the world. Appreciating the values of global customers is also important when the customers enter your own culture. Developing Global Employees. Given these differences in cultural values, it is important for managers to take care when exporting or importing OB theories and appreciating global customers. An awareness of cross-cultural differences in values can help managers better appreciate global customers and develop global employees. Companies need to select, train, and develop employees to have a much better appreciation of differences in cultural values and the implications of these differences for behaviour in organizations. What Are Attitudes? An attitude is a fairly stable evaluative tendency to respond consistently to some specific object, situation, person, or category of people. Attitudes are tendencies to respond to the target of the attitude and often influence our behaviour toward some object, situation, person, or group. Attitude  Behaviour However, attitudes are not always consistent with behaviour. Behaviour is most likely to correspond to attitudes when people have direct experience with the target of the attitude and when the attitude is held confidently. Where do attitudes come from? Attitudes are a function of what we think and what we feel. They are the product of a related belief and value. Belief + Value  Attitude  Behaviour What Is Job Satisfaction? Job satisfaction refers to a collection of attitudes that workers have about their jobs. There are two aspects to job satisfaction. Facet satisfaction is an employee’s satisfaction with various facets of the job. Examples of job facets are the work itself, compensation, promotions, career opportunities, recognition, benefits, working conditions, supervision, co-workers, and organizational policy. Overall satisfaction is a summary indicator of an employee’s attitude toward his or her job that cuts across the various facets. How is job satisfaction measured? A popular measure of job satisfaction is the Job Descriptive Index (JDI). Employees are asked to respond “yes,” “no,” or “?” (can’t decide) to particular words or phrases which describe five facets of satisfaction (people, pay, supervision, promotions, and the work itself). There is also a scale that provides an overall measure of satisfaction. Another measure of satisfaction is the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) in which respondents are asked to indicate how happy they are with various aspects of their job on a scale ranging from “very satisfied” to “very dissatisfied.” What Determines Job Satisfaction? When workers complete the JDI or the MSQ we often find differences in the average scores across jobs and by individuals performing the same job in a given organization. For example, two nurses who work side by side might indicate radically different satisfaction in response to the MSQ item “The chance to do things for other people”. How does this happen? Discrepancy Discrepancy theory is a theory of job satisfaction that asserts that satisfaction is a function of the discrepancy between the job outcomes wanted and the outcomes that they perceive they obtain. Employees who perceive that they have more of their job-related desires met will report more overall job satisfaction. Fairness Fairness is another strong determinant of job satisfaction. There are three basic kinds of fairness. Distributive fairness has to do with the outcomes we receive, procedural fairness concerns the process that led to those outcomes, and interactional fairness concerns how these matters were communicated to us. Distributive Fairness. Distributive fairness occurs when people receive the outcomes they think they deserve from their jobs, that is, it involves the ultimate distribution of work rewards and resources. The best known theory of distributive fairness is equity theory. Equity theory is a theory of job satisfaction that stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group. Equity will be perceived to exist when one’s outcome/input ratio is equal to a comparison other. Inputs refer to anything that people give up, offer, or trade to their organization in exchange for outcomes. Examples include education, training, seniority, hard work, and high quality work. Outcomes are factors that an organization distributes to employees in exchange for their inputs. Examples include pay, career opportunities, supervision, and the nature of the work. The “other” in the ratio might be a co-worker performing the same job, a number of co-workers, or even one’s conception of all the individuals in one’s occupation. Equity theory has implications for job satisfaction. First, inequity is a dissatisfying state especially when one is on the “short end of the stick” and so it is likely to prompt dissatisfaction. Second, equity considerations also can have an indirect effect on job satisfaction because they influence what people want from their jobs. For example, if an individual invests greater inputs than others, he or she expects greater outcomes. Thus, the equitable distribution of work outcomes contributes to job satisfaction by providing for feelings of distributive fairness. The equity concept suggests that outcomes should be tied to individual contributions or inputs. However, this corresponds with the individualistic North American culture. In other cultures, allocating outcomes according to equality and needs might provide for distributive fairness. Procedural Fairness. In addition to distributive fairness, procedural fairness can also contribute to job satisfaction. Procedural fairness occurs when the process used to determine work outcomes is seen as reasonable. Rather than involving the actual distribution of resources and rewards, it is concerned with how these outcomes are decided and allocated. Procedural fairness is particularly relevant to outcomes such as performance evaluations, pay raises, promotions, layoffs, and work assignments. Perceptions of procedural fairness are likely when consistent procedures are used over time and across people, accurate information is used and bias is absent, two-way communication occurs, and appeals are welcome. Procedural fairness is especially likely to provoke dissatisfaction when people also see distributive fairness as being low. Interactional Fairness. Interactional fairness (often called interactional justice) occurs when people feel that they have received respectful and informative communication about some outcome. Thus, it extends beyond the actual procedures used to the interpersonal treatment received when learning about the outcome. Interactional fairness is important because it is possible for fair outcomes or procedures to be perceived as unfair when they are inadequately or uncaringly explained. People who experience procedural unfairness tend to be dissatisfied with the “system.” People who experience interactional unfairness are more likely to be dissatisfied with their boss. Procedural and interactional fairness can to some extent offset the negative effects of distributive unfairness. Disposition According to the dispositional view of job satisfaction, some people are predisposed by virtue of their personalities to be more or less satisfied despite changes in discrepancy or fairness. Researchers have found that some personality characteristics originating in genetics or early learning contribute to adult satisfaction. People who are extraverted and conscientious tend to be more satisfied with their jobs, while those high in neuroticism are less satisfied. Also people, who are high in self-esteem and internal locus of control are more satisfied. In general, people who are more optimistic and proactive report higher job satisfaction. Mood and Emotion Affect is also a determinant of job satisfaction. Affect is a broad label for feelings. These feelings include emotions, which are intense, often short-lived, and caused by a particular event such as a bad performance appraisal. Common emotions include joy, pride, anger, fear, and sadness. Affect also refers to moods, which are less intense, longer-lived, and more diffuse feelings. Affective Events Theory explains how emotions and moods affect job satisfaction. The theory reminds us that jobs consist of a series of events and happenings that have the potential to provoke emotions or to influence moods, depending on how we appraise these events and happenings. For example, perceived unfairness can affect job satisfaction via emotion. Mood and emotion can also influence job satisfaction through emotional contagion, the tendency for moods and emotions to spread between people or throughout a group. People’s moods and emotions tend to converge with interaction. Mood and emotion can also influence job satisfaction through the need for emotional regulation. This is the requirement for people to conform to certain “display rules” in their job behaviour in spite of their true mood or emotions. This is also known as “emotional labour.” It can involve being perky and upbeat, whether one feels that way or not, thus exaggerating positive emotions, or remaining calm and civil even when hassled or insulted, thus suppressing negative emotions. Service roles such as waiter, bank teller, and flight attendant are especially laden with display rules. There is growing evidence that the frequent need to suppress negative emotions takes a toll on job satisfaction and increases stress. Some research suggests that the requirement to express positive emotions boosts job satisfaction. There is also some evidence that those in occupations with high cognitive demands tend to be paid more when the jobs are also high in emotional labour. On the other hand, occupations with low cognitive demands entail a wage penalty when emotional labour is higher. In summary, job satisfaction is a function of certain dispositional factors, discrepancy between the job outcomes wanted and received, and mood and emotion. People experience greater job satisfaction when they meet or exceed the job outcomes they want, perceive the job outcomes they receive as equitable compared with those others receive, and believe that fair procedures determine job outcomes Some Key Contributors to Job Satisfaction Although what determines job satisfaction is a highly personal experience, certain job facets contribute to job satisfaction for most workers. These include mentally challenging work, adequate compensation, career opportunities, and people who are friendly and helpful. Mentally Challenging Work. This is work that tests employees’ skills and abilities and allows them to set their own working pace. Employees generally perceive such work as personally involving and important. However, some employees prefer repetitive, unchallenging work that makes few demands on them. Adequate Compensation. Pay and job satisfaction are positively related although not everyone is equally desirous of money. Some people are willing to accept less responsibility or fewer working hours for lower pay. Career Opportunities. The availability of career opportunities contributes to job satisfaction. The opportunity for promotion is an important contributor to job satisfaction because promotions contain a number of signals about a person’s self-worth. Some of these signals are material while others are of a social nature. People. Friendly, considerate, good-natured superiors and co-workers contribute to job satisfaction, especially via positive moods and emotions. We also tend to be satisfied in the presence of people who help us attain job outcomes that we value. The friendliness of interpersonal relationships is most important in lower-level jobs. As jobs become more complex, pay is tied to performance, or promotion opportunities increase, the ability of others to help us do our work well contributes more to job satisfaction. Consequences of Job Satisfaction Many organizations have maintained a competitive advantage by paying particular attention to employee satisfaction which has consequences for employees and organizations. Absence from Work Absenteeism costs billions of dollars each year. Research shows that less-satisfied employees are more likely to be absent. Satisfaction with the content of the work is the best predictor of absenteeism. However, the absence-satisfaction connection is not very strong. Several factors constrain the ability of many people to convert their like or dislike of work into corresponding attendance patterns: - Some absence is simply unavoidable and some happy workers will occasionally be absent. - Some organizations have attendance control policies that can influence absence more than satisfaction does. - On many jobs, it might be unclear to employees how much absenteeism is reasonable or sensible. As a result, workers may look to the behaviour of their peers for a norm to guide their behaviour. Turnover Turnover refers to resignation from an organization and can be very expensive. There is a moderately strong connection between job satisfaction and turnover. Less-satisfied workers are more likely to quit. However, the relationship is far from perfect. Exhibit 4.8 in the text shows a model of employee turnover. The model shows that job satisfaction as well as commitment to the organization and various “shocks” can contribute to intentions to leave. Such intentions are very good predictors of turnover. On the other hand, reduced satisfaction or commitment can also stimulate a more deliberate evaluation of the utility of quitting and a careful job search and evaluation of job alternatives. There are a number of reasons why satisfied people sometimes quit their jobs or dissatisfied people stay: - Certain “shocks,” such as a marital break-up, the birth of a child, or an unsolicited job offer in an attractive location, might stimulate turnover despite satisfaction with the current job. - An employee’s dissatisfaction with his or her specific job might be offset by a strong commitment to the overall values and mission of the organization. - An employee might be so embedded in the community that he or she is willing to endure a dissatisfying job rather than move. - A weak job market might result in limited employment alternatives. Despite these exceptions, a decrease in job satisfaction often precedes turnover, and those who quit experience a boost in satisfaction on their new job. Some of this boost might be due to a “honeymoon effect” in which the bad facets of the old job are gone, the good facets of the new job are apparent, and the bad facets of the new job are not yet known. Over time, as these bad facets are recognized, a “hangover effect” can occur in which overall satisfaction with the new job decreases. Performance Research has confirmed what folk wisdom and business magazines have advocated for many years – job satisfaction is associated with enhanced performance. However, the connection between satisfaction and performance is complicated, because many factors influence motivation and performance besides job satisfaction. The most important facet has to do with the content of the work itself. Interesting, challenging jobs are most likely to stimulate high performance. Although job satisfaction contributes to performance, performance could also contribute to job satisfaction. When good performance is followed by rewards, employees are more likely to be satisfied. However, since many organizations do not reward good performance, contemporary research indicates that satisfaction is more likely to affect performance, rather than the reverse. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) is voluntary, informal behaviour that contributes to organizational effectiveness. Job satisfaction contributes greatly to the occurrence of OCB. The defining characteristics of OCB are as follows: - The behaviour is voluntary. - The behaviour is spontaneous. - The behaviour contributes to organizational effectiveness. - The behaviour is unlikely to be explicitly picked up and rewarded by the performance evaluation system since it is not part of the job description. OCB takes various forms including helping behaviour, conscientiousness to the details of work, being a good sport, and courtesy and cooperation. Fairness is important for understanding how job satisfaction contributes to OCB. Although distributive fairness (especially in terms of pay) is important, procedural and interactional fairness from a supportive manager seem especially critical. OCB is also influenced by employees’ mood at work. People in a pleasant, relaxed, optimistic mood are more likely to provide special assistance to others. OCB contributes to organizational productivity and efficiency and to reduced turnover. Research shows that there is sometimes a progression of withdrawal in response to job dissatisfaction (and to reduced commitment, discussed below). People withdraw their attention or work effort in an attempt to compensate for dissatisfaction, beginning with more subtle behaviours and progressing to more extreme, until some equilibrium is struck. A reduction of OCB is often the first withdrawal response and it may be followed, in turn, by coming to work late, then absenteeism, and ultimately turnover. Customer Satisfaction and Profit A growing body of evidence has established that employee job satisfaction is translated into customer or client satisfaction and organizational profitability. Organizations with higher average levels of employee satisfaction are more effective. The reasons for this include reduced absenteeism and turnover which contribute to the seamless delivery of service, as well as OCBs that stimulate good teamwork. As well, good mood among employees can be contagious for customers. What Is Organizational Commitment? Organizational commitment is an attitude that reflects the strength of the linkage between an employee and an organization. There are three types of organizational commitment: • Affective commitment is commitment based on identification and involvement with an organization. • Continuance commitment is commitment based on the costs that would be incurred in leaving an organization. • Normative commitment is commitment based on ideology or a feeling of obligation to an organization. Key Contributors to Organizational Commitment The causes of the three forms of commitment tend to differ. The best predictor of affective commitment is interesting, satisfying work of the type found in enriched jobs. Role clarity and and having one’s expectations met after being hired also contribute to affective commitment. Continuance commitment increases with the length of time an employee spends in an organization and when leaving an organization will result in personal sacrifice or the perception that good alternative employment is lacking. Building up “side bets” or being integrated into the community where the firm is located can lock employees into organizations even though they would rather go elsewhere. Normative commitment can be fostered by benefits that build a sense of obligation or loyalty to the organization such as tuition reimbursements. Strong identification with an organization’s product or service can also foster normative commitment as well as certain socialization practices. Consequences of Organizational Commitment There are a number of consequences of commitment. There is evidence that all forms of commitment reduce turnover intentions and actual turnover. Affective commitment is positively related to performance, but continuance commitment is negatively related to performance. An especially bad combination for both the employee and the organization is high continuance commitment coupled with low affective commitment. A downside to organizational commitment is that very high levels of commitment can also cause conflicts between work family life and work-life. High levels of commitment have also been implicated in unethical and illegal behaviour. High levels of commitment to a particular form or style of organization can cause a lack of innovation and lead to resistance when a change in the culture is necessary. Changes in the Workplace and Employee Commitment In an era of layoffs, downsizing, outsourcing, restructuring, and reengineering, there is evidence that employees are losing commitment to their organizations. John Meyer, Natalie Allen, and Laryssa Topolnytsky have suggested that changes in the workplace can impact employee commitment in three main areas: Changes in the nature of employees’ commitment to the organization. Changes in the workplace can have an impact on all three types of organizational commitment causing them to increase or decrease. Maintaining high levels of affective commitment will be particularly challenging. Changes that are detrimental to employees’ well-being are most likely to damage affective commitment. Changes in the focus of employees’ commitment. The focus of employee commitment might change and can include entities within the organization as well as entities outside of the organization such as one’s occupation, career, and union. As organizations increase in size, employees are likely to shift their commitment to smaller organizational units. Changes that threaten employees’ future in the organization might also result in a shift in commitment to entities outside the organization. The multiplicity of employer-employee relationships within organizations. Organizations need to be flexible enough to shrink or expand their workforce as they attempt to cope and adapt to rapid change. They also need a workforce that is flexible enough to get any job done. This creates a conflict as employees without job security may not be as flexible as the organization would like or have strong affective commitment. One solution is for the organization to have a group of core employees who perform key operations and whose affective commitment is fostered. Other employee groups might consist of contractual arrangements or individuals hired on a temporary basis who do not perform core tasks and whose commitment to the organization is not as important. MINI-LECTURE: BEHAVIOURAL COMMITMENT The text presents an attitudinal view of organizational commitment. However, it is possible to take a more behavioural view, in the spirit of changing behaviour to change attitudes. The question arises: Is it possible to help people develop attitudinal commitment to an organization or some course of action by making them act committed? Begin the lecture with the attention-getter “How to make anybody committed to anything.” Gerald Salancik has laid out the criteria for getting behavioural commitment, which should in turn translate into psychological commitment. These include: 1. The behaviour should be voluntary. When people choose to engage in some behaviour, they will be more committed to it. 2. The behaviour should be irrevocable, or nearly so. Behaviours that are hard or impossible to reverse foster commitment. 3. The behaviour should be public. When others have seen us engage in irrevocable action voluntarily, we will be especially prone to justify our actions with psychological commitment. Have the students think up examples of commitment that rely on these processes. Some examples of religious conversion use this process. Also, gangs are good at fostering behavioural commitment. Joining the volunteer armed forces often provokes a high degree of commitment to what is initially a pretty unpleasant experience by virtue of this process. People who experience this process in deciding to go to university should be more committed than those who succumb to parental pressure or make the decision in secret. Have the students think about how commitment to a new R&D project team could be bolstered using behavioural commitment. Cathy Cline and Lawrence Peters found that newly hired clerical employees who perceived their acceptance of the job to be more volitional, irrevocable, and public were more likely to remain on the job longer and exhibit less turnover. Sources: Salancik, G. (1977) Commitment and the control of organizational behavior and belief. In B. M. Staw & Salancik (Eds.), New Directions in Organizational Behavior Chicago: St. Clair: Cline, C.J., & Peters, L.H. (1991) Behavioral commitment to new employees. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 194-204 MINI-LECTURE: THE BENEFITS OF TURNOVER While most managers are aware of the costs associated with turnover, they are less likely to consider its potential benefits. This may be because these benefits are very difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, they should be considered in any complete analysis of turnover. Professor Barry Staw of the University of California at Berkeley has offered a wry observation: In the United States, some of the most notoriously unproductive organizations (the railroads, postal service, and federal government) are staffed with employees with a very high average tenure. This suggests that organizational effectiveness can be threatened by too little turnover. Staw argues that there may be a characteristic relationship between tenure and performance for various jobs. In those involving high physical demands, chronic stress, or rapid obsolescence of knowledge, performance may peak near mid-career and then gradually decline. In jobs that provoke burnout the decline may occur especially early and rapidly. Counselling, retraining, and alternative career paths may solve some of these problems. When these are not feasible, turnover may benefit both the organization and the person who leaves. Staw also points out that turnover may lead to a reduction of entrenched conflict. Especially in new or growing organizations, power factions may develop as the organization hammers out its identity. At some point, this process must be resolved so that stability can be reached, and it may be accomplished by the wholesale resignation of one faction or the other. Turnover can also be useful when management desires a work force reduction. Natural attrition through turnover may be preferable to lay-offs or terminations for maintaining community relations and the organization’s future recruiting image. A final potential benefit of turnover depends on whether an organization tends to promote from within or go outside to fill vacant positions. Except under expansion, a promotion-from-within policy requires regular turnover to ensure that higher level openings are available. Without this, employees may have their needs for growth and achievement frustrated. When firms go outside to fill vacancies, turnover offers the possibility of introducing “new blood” into the organization (especially with a modified recruiting strategy). Most rules, regulations, and policies foster conformity and homogeneity among organizational members. Thus, the new perspectives provided by outside recruits may be vital to organizational effectiveness. The potential benefits of turnover suggest that it is a phenomenon to be managed rather than necessarily reduced. Source: Staw, B.M. (1980). The consequences of turnover. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 1, 253-273. CHAPTER 5 THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 5, students should be able to: LO5.1. Define motivation, discuss its basic properties, and distinguish it from performance. LO5.2. Compare and contrast intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and describe self-determination theory, autonomous motivation, and controlled motivation. LO5.3. Explain and discuss the different factors that predict performance and define general cognitive ability and emotional intelligence. LO5.4. Explain and discuss need theories of motivation. LO5.5. Explain and discuss expectancy theory. LO5.6. Explain and discuss equity theory. LO5.7. Explain and discuss goal setting theory, goal orientation, and proximal and distal goals. LO5.8. Discuss the cross-cultural limitations of theories of motivation. LO5.9. Summarize the relationship among the various theories of motivation, performance, and job satisfaction. CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES Why Study Motivation? People may work because they have to; they may enjoy work; they may work to earn money, or they may want to meet people. In an ever increasingly competitive business environment, theories of motivation provide managers with the best insight into the manner in which human beings respond. Motivation has become even more important in contemporary organizations as organizations need to increase productivity to be globally competitive. What Is Motivation? Motivation can be formally defined as the extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal. There are several characteristics to this definition. Basic Characteristics of Motivation Effort. Effort is the strength of a person’s work-related behaviour or the amount of effort that a worker displays on the job. This can be reflected by a dock worker carrying heavier loads or by a researcher working twelve-hour shifts. It involves exerting effort in a manner that is appropriate to their jobs. Persistence. Persistence is related to effort in the quantity of energy that is directed toward meeting goals. This can be measured in the effort given throughout an eight-hour shift, or the effort that a top performer delivers throughout a career. A sports analogy, “He/she comes to play every night,” or “They had an off year...” can be used to illustrate this point. It has to do with being persistent in the application of effort. Direction. Direction refers to the manner in which workers channel their energies. Do workers channel persistent effort in a direction that benefits the organization? While some workers may seem productive, they may be working hard, but not smart. Motivation means working smart as well as working hard. While effort and persistence refer mainly to the quantity of one’s work, direction has more to do with the quality of one’s work and if it benefits the organization. Goals. Goals are the direction that all effort is directed. They can be official or stated goals, such as “You will increase your sales base by 8%,” or unofficial goals similar to the workers in the Hawthorne studies who maintained “unofficial” productivity quotas. Employee goals might include high productivity, good attendance, or creative decisions or they might be contrary to the objectives of the organization such as absenteeism, sabotage, and embezzlement. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination Theory Intrinsic motivation stems from the direct relationship between the worker and the task; it is usually self-applied. Examples include feelings of accomplishment and achievement. Extrinsic motivation stems from the work environment external to the task; it is usually applied by someone other than the person being motivated. Examples include pay and close supervision. Although some research has reached the conclusion that the availability of extrinsic motivators can reduce the intrinsic motivation stemming from the task itself, a review of research in this area reached the conclusion that the negative effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation occurs only under very limited conditions that are easily avoidable. Thus, both kinds of rewards are important and compatible in enhancing work motivation. Self-determination theory (SDT) has to do with whether motivation is autonomous or controlled. Autonomous motivation occurs when people are motivated by intrinsic factors and are in control of their motivation. Controlled motivation occurs when people are motivated to obtain a desired consequence or extrinsic reward and their motivation is controlled externally. Autonomous motivation facilitates effective performance, especially on complex tasks and is also associated with other work outcomes such as positive work attitudes and psychological well-being. Motivation and Performance Performance is the extent to which an organizational member contributes to achieving the objectives of the organization. The relationship between motivation and performance is not one-to-one. A number of factors intervene between the two, including general cognitive ability, emotional intelligence, personality, task understanding, and chance. Thus, even if a person is highly motivated, he or she may not be able to perform effectively. General Cognitive Ability. General cognitive ability refers to a person’s basic information processing capacities and cognitive resources. Research has found that general cognitive ability predicts learning, training, and career success as well as job performance in all kinds of jobs and occupations including those that involve both manual and mental tasks. It is an even better predictor of performance for more complex and higher-level jobs that require the use of more cognitive skills. Emotional Intelligence. Emotional intelligence (EI) has to do with an individual’s ability to understand and manage his or her own and others’ feelings and emotions. Peter Salovey and John Mayer have developed an EI four-branch model that consists of four interrelated sets of skills or branches. The four skills represent sequential steps that form a hierarchy. Beginning from the first and most basic level, the four branches are: 1. Perceiving emotions accurately in oneself and others 2. Using emotions to facilitate thinking 3. Understanding emotions, emotional language, and the signals conveyed by emotions 4. Managing emotions so as to attain specific goals Research on EI has found that it predicts performance in a number of areas including work performance and academic performance. EI has been found to predict job performance above and beyond cognitive ability and the Big Five personality variables. EI is particularly important for performance in jobs that require high levels of emotional labour. One study found that emotional intelligence is most important for the job performance of employees with lower levels of cognitive ability and of less importance for the job performance of employees with high levels of cognitive ability. The Motivation-Performance Relationship It is possible for performance to be low even when a person is highly motivated. This is because we cannot consider motivation in isolation; high motivation will not result in high performance if employees have low general cognitive ability and emotional intelligence, do not understand their jobs, or encounter unavoidable obstacles over which they have no control. Motivation interventions will not work if employees are deficient in important skills and abilities. Need Theories of Work Motivation Need theories of motivation attempt to specify the kinds of needs people have and the conditions under which they will be motivated to satisfy these needs in a way that contributes to performance. Needs are physiological and psychological wants or desires that individuals can satisfy by acquiring certain incentives or achieving particular goals. It is the behaviour stimulated by this acquisition process that reveals the motivational character of needs: NEEDS  BEHAVIOUR  INCENTIVES AND GOALS Need theories are concerned with what motivates workers (needs and their associated incentives or goals). Process theories on the other hand, are concerned with exactly how various factors motivate people. The remainder of this section describes three prominent need theories of motivation. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs According to Maslow, humans have five sets of needs that are arranged in a hierarchy, beginning with the most basic and compelling needs. These needs include: 1. Physiological needs. Needs that must be satisfied for the person to survive, including food and shelter. An organizational factor that satisfies these needs is minimum pay. 2. Safety needs. Needs for security, stability, and a structured and ordered environment. Relevant organizational factors include safe working conditions and job security. 3. Belongingness needs. Needs for social interaction, affection, love, and friendship. Relevant organizational factors include friendly and supportive supervision and opportunity for teamwork. 4. Esteem needs. Needs for feelings of adequacy, independence, and deserved appreciation and recognition by others. Relevant organizational factors include promotions and professional recognition. 5. Self-actualization needs. Needs for developing one’s true potential as an individual to the fullest extent and to express one’s skills, talents, and emotions in a manner that is most personally fulfilling. Relevant organizational factors include challenging jobs with potential for creativity and growth, and relaxation of structure to permit self-development and personal progression. The motivational premise of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is that the lowest-level unsatisfied need category has the greatest motivating potential. Once a need is satisfied, the individual turns his or her attention to the next higher level, implying that a satisfied need is no longer an effective motivator. It is only at the self-actualization level that needs become stronger as they are gratified. Individuals who are in the lower-level need categories are most susceptible to extrinsic motivation, while intrinsic motivation becomes important for people who are motivated by the higher-order needs. Alderfer’s ERG Theory Alderfer’s ERG theory streamlines Maslow’s need classification and makes some different assumptions about the relationship between needs and motivation. It is a three-level hierarchical need theory of motivation (existence, relatedness, and growth needs) that allows for movement up and down the hierarchy. 1. Existence needs. These needs are satisfied by some material substance or condition. They correspond to Maslow’s physiological needs and to those safety needs that are satisfied by material conditions. 2. Relatedness needs. These needs are satisfied by open communication and the exchange of thoughts and feelings with other organizational members. They correspond to Maslow’s belongingness needs and to those esteem needs involving feedback from others. 3. Growth needs. These needs are fulfilled by strong personal involvement in the work setting. They correspond to Maslow’s self-actualization needs and to some aspects of his esteem needs. Alderfer agrees with Maslow that as lower-level needs are satisfied the desire to have higher-level needs satisfied will increase and that the least concrete needs—growth needs—become more compelling and more desired as they are fulfilled. Alderfer’s theory differs from Maslow’s in two ways. 1. ERG theory does not assume that a lower-level need must be gratified before a less concrete need becomes operative. There is no rigid hierarchy of needs. Which needs are operative depends on the individual. 2. ERG theory assumes that if the higher-level needs are ungratified, individuals will increase their desire for the gratification of lower-level needs. Thus, an apparently satisfied need can act as a motivator by substituting for an unsatisfied need. This of course is not possible according to Maslow who argues that once a need has been satisfied it is no longer motivational. In other words, satisfied needs are no longer motivational according to Maslow. In summary, there are two major motivational premises of ERG theory. 1. The more lower-level needs are gratified, the more higher-level need satisfaction is desired. 2. The less higher-level needs are gratified, the more lower-level need satisfaction is desired. McClelland’s Theory of Needs McClelland’s theory of needs is a nonhierarchical need theory of motivation that outlines the conditions under which certain needs result in particular patterns of motivation. Needs reflect relatively stable personality characteristics and are the product of early life experiences and more recent social experience. McClelland was concerned with the behavioural consequences of needs and predicts that people will be motivated to seek out and perform well in jobs that match their needs. The three needs that McClelland studied most have special relevance for organizational behaviour – need for achievement, affiliation, and power. Need for achievement is a personality dimension characterized by a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well. People with a high need for achievement have a preference for situations in which personal responsibility can be taken for work outcomes, a tendency to set moderately difficult goals that provide for calculated risks, and a desire for performance feedback. Thus, individuals high in need for achievement (n Ach) have a special desire to perform challenging tasks well and to better their own performance or that of others. n Ach is an example of a growth or self-actualization need. Need for affiliation (n Aff) is characterized by a strong desire to establish and maintain friendly, compatible interpersonal relationships. People high in n Aff build social networks, communicate frequently with others, and avoid conflict and competition. n Aff is an example of a belongingness or relatedness need. People high in need for power (n Pow) have a strong desire to influence others, making a significant impact or impression. They act in a high profile manner in small groups and seek out situations where they can be influential. N Pow is a complex need because power can be used in a variety of ways, some of which serve the power seeker and some of which serve other people or the organization. n Pow corresponds closely to Maslow’s self-esteem need. McClelland predicts that people will be motivated to seek out and perform well in jobs that match their needs. High n Ach persons should perform better when placed in jobs that provide for personal responsibility, permit individual goal setting, and provide adequate feedback. They tend to gravitate into jobs and occupations that permit them to feel a strong sense of achievement, especially sales jobs and entrepreneurial positions. People high in n Aff seek out and are motivated by jobs such as public relations and social work that involve establishing good relations with others. Those with a high need for Pow seek out and are motivated by jobs such as management and journalism. McClelland has found that the most effective managers have low n Aff, high n Pow, and use their power to achieve organizational goals. Research Support for Need Theories Research results show that need theories are valid under certain circumstances. Support for Maslow’s main hypotheses is weak or negative. However, there is fair support for a simpler two-level need hierarchy comprising the needs toward the top and bottom of Maslow’s hierarchy. There is also support for several of the predictions of ERG theory especially confirmation that the frustration of relatedness needs increases the strength of existence needs. The simplicity and flexibility of ERG theory seems to capture the human need structure better than the greater complexity and rigidity of Maslow’s theory. Research on McClelland’s theory is generally supportive of the idea that particular needs are motivational when the work setting permits the satisfaction of these needs. Managerial Implications of Need Theories The managerial implications of need theories are as follows: Appreciate Diversity. Managers must be adept at evaluating the needs of individual employees and offering incentives or goals that correspond to these needs. Thus, it is important to survey employees to find out what their needs are and then offer programs that meet their needs. Appreciate Intrinsic Motivation. Managers must recognize the importance of higher-order needs. Creativity and innovation are basic conditions for organizational survival, and such behaviour is most likely to occur during the pursuit of higher-order need fulfillment. Also, the frustration of higher-order needs may prompt demands for greater satisfaction of lower-order needs, which can lead to a vicious motivational cycle. Organizations must take advantage of the intrinsic motivation inherent in strong higher order needs. To do this, lower-order needs must be reasonably gratified. Jobs can be enriched to be more challenging and career paths can be designed enabling interested workers to progress through a series of jobs that continue to challenge their higher-order needs. Process Theories of Work Motivation Need theories of motivation concentrate on what motivates individuals, while process theories concentrate on how motivation occurs. Three important process theories of motivation are expectancy theory, equity theory, and goal setting theory. Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory is a process theory that states that motivation is determined by the outcomes that people expect to occur as a result of their actions on the job. The basic components of Vroom’s expectancy theory are as follows: Outcomes are the consequences that follow certain work behaviours. First-level outcomes are of particular interest to the organization, for example, high productivity versus average productivity. Second-level outcomes are consequences that follow the attainment of a particular first-level outcome, and are more personally relevant to an individual worker and might involve amount of pay, sense of accomplishment, acceptance by peers, fatigue, and so on. Instrumentality is the probability that a particular first-level outcome will be followed by a particular second-level outcome. It is also known as the performance  outcome link. Valence is the expected values of outcomes; the extent to which they are attractive or unattractive to an individual. Thus, good pay, peer acceptance, or any other second-level outcome might be more or less attractive to particular workers. The valence of a particular first-level outcome is determined by: instrumentalities x second-level valences. In other words, the valence of a first-level outcome depends on the extent to which it leads to favourable second-level outcomes. Expectancy is the probability that a particular first-level outcome can be achieved. It is also known as the effort  performance link. Force represents the relative degree of effort that will be directed toward various first-level outcomes. It is the end product of the other components of the theory and is calculated as: Force = first-level valence X expectancy. The motivational premises of expectancy theory are as follows: 1. People will be motivated to engage in those work activities that they find attractive and feel they can accomplish. 2. The attractiveness of various work activities depends upon the extent to which they lead to favourable personal consequences. Note that expectancy theory is based on the perceptual perspective of the individual worker. Two workers doing the same job could report different expectancies, instrumentalities, and second-level outcomes and so they will likely exhibit different patterns of motivation. The remainder of this section of the text provides an example that considers Tony Angelas, a middle manager in a firm that operates a chain of retail stores. The example shows that even though Tony has a higher valence for high performance (5.1) versus average performance (1.7), Tony will probably perform at an average level because the force associated with average performance is higher (1.70) than it is for high performance (1.53) and this is due to his higher expectancy for average performance (1.0) compared to high performance (.3). It is worth concluding the discussion of expectancy theory by noting that people implicitly take expectancy, valence, and instrumentality into account as they go about their daily business of being motivated. Ask students to reflect for a moment on their behaviour at work or school and show them that they have certain expectancies about what they can accomplish, the chances that these accomplishments will lead to certain other outcomes, and the value of these outcomes for them. Research Support for Expectancy Theory Research has provided moderately favourable support for expectancy theory. In particular, there is especially good evidence that the valence of first-level outcomes depends on the extent to which they lead to favourable second-level consequences. Experts in motivation generally accept expectancy theory. Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory The managerial implications of expectancy theory involve “juggling the numbers” that individuals attach to expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences. Boost Expectancies. Managers should clarify the path to beneficial first-level outcomes so that employees expect to be able to achieve first-level outcomes that are of interest to the organization. Expectancies can usually be enhanced by providing proper equipment and training, demonstrating correct work procedures, explaining how performance is evaluated, and listening to employee performance problems. The main point is to clarify the path to beneficial first-level outcomes. Clarify Reward Contingencies. Managers should ensure that the paths between first- and second-level outcomes are clear. Employees should be convinced that first-level outcomes desired by the organization are clearly instrumental in obtaining positive second-level outcomes and avoiding negative outcomes. To ensure that instrumentalities are strongly established, they should be clearly stated and then acted on by the manager. Managers should also provide stimulating, challenging tasks for workers who appear to be interested in such work. Appreciate Diverse Needs. Managers should analyze the diverse preferences of particular employees and attempt to design individualized “motivational packages” to meet their needs. Equity Theory Equity theory states that motivation stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group. That is, workers compare their own job inputs and outcomes with those of other individuals or groups. Inequity occurs when these ratios are unequal. As described in Chapter 4, equity or a fair exchange contributes to job satisfaction. Inequity leads to the experience of job dissatisfaction. Equity theory is also a theory of motivation because individuals are motivated to maintain an equitable exchange relationship. Inequity is unpleasant and people will devote energy to reducing it and achieving equity. When inequity exists people may adopt the following tactics to reduce this inequity: • Perceptually distort one’s own inputs or outcomes; • Perceptually distort the inputs or outcomes of the comparison person or group; • Choose another comparison person or group; • Alter one’s inputs or alter one’s outcomes; • Leave the exchange relationship. The first three tactics for reducing inequity are essentially psychological, while the last two involve overt behaviour. The remainder of this section of the text consists of an example of Terry, a middle man in a consumer products company. Terry compares his inputs and outcomes to Maxine, a co-worker. In his view, he is underpaid and should be experiencing inequity. As a result, he is likely to engage in some of the psychological and/or behavioural tactics to reduce his inequity. Maxine might also experience inequity, however, her inequity is the result of overpayment. Equity theory is somewhat vague about when individuals will employ various inequity reduction tactics. Gender and Equity. Both women and men have some tendency to choose same-sex comparison persons when judging the fairness of the outcomes that they receive. This might provide a partial explanation for why women are paid less than men, even for the same job. Research Support for Equity Theory Equity theory has received research support when inequity stems from underpayment. Hourly underpayment results in a reduction of inputs, while piece rate underpayment results in a high volume of low quality work. There is also evidence that underpayment inequity leads to resignation. The theory’s predictions concerning overpayment have received less support. People perhaps tolerate overpayment more than underpayment or they use perceptual distortion to reduce overpayment inequity. Managerial Implications of Equity Theory Equity theory suggests that perceived underpayment will have negative motivational consequences for the organization such as low productivity, low quality, theft, or turnover. Managers must understand that feelings about equity stem from a perceptual social comparison process in which the worker “controls the equation”—that is, employees decide what are considered relevant inputs, outcomes, and comparison persons, and management must be sensitive to these decisions. Therefore, managers must develop a clear understanding of who employees choose for comparison persons. Awareness of the comparison people chosen by workers might suggest strategies for reducing felt inequity. If such choices are unrealistic, it may be necessary to mount an information campaign to correct misperceptions of the inputs and outcomes of comparison persons. Goal Setting Theory A goal is the object or aim of an action. Organizations have to transform organizational objectives into individual goals. However, personal performance goals are vague or nonexistent for many organizational members. Research has demonstrated when and how goal setting can be effective. What Kinds of Goals Are Motivational? Goal setting theory is a process theory that states that goals are motivational when they are specific, challenging, and when organizational members are committed to them and feedback about progress toward goal attainment is provided. The positive effects of goals are due to four mechanisms: direction, effort, persistence, and task strategies. Goal Specificity. Specific goals specify an exact level of achievement for people to accomplish in a particular time frame. Goal Challenge. Goals should be difficult but attainable and based on past performance. Thus, goal challenge depends on the experience and basic skills of the organizational member. Goal Commitment. Goals are not really goals unless they have been consciously accepted and committed to. Individuals must be committed to specific, challenging goals if the goals are to have effective motivational properties. The effect of goals on performance is strongest when individuals have high goal commitment, especially when the goals are challenging and difficult to achieve. Goal Feedback. Specific and challenging goals have the most beneficial effect when they are accompanied by ongoing feedback that enables the person to compare current performance with the goal. To be most effective, feedback should be accurate, specific, credible, and timely. Enhancing Goal Commitment Some of the factors that might affect commitment to challenging and specific goals are participation, rewards, and management support. Participation. Research results are mixed as sometimes participation in goal setting increases performance and sometimes it does not. If goal commitment is a problem, participation might be beneficial. Participation can often increase commitment when a climate of mistrust exists between supervisor and an employee. Also, participation can increase performance when competition or team spirit increase the difficulty of goals an employee is willing to attempt to reach. Research indicates that participation can improve performance by increasing the difficulty of the goals that employees adopt. Rewards. While there is little doubt that extrinsic rewards like money will increase goal commitment, there is also ample evidence that simply being challenged to do the job “right” can improve performance without monetary incentives. Thus, goal setting has led to performance increases without the introduction of monetary incentives for goal accomplishment. Nonetheless, goal setting should be compatible with any system that ties pay to performance. Supportiveness. There is considerable agreement that a coercive approach to goal setting on the part of supervisors will reduce commitment to a specific and challenging goal. For goal setting to work properly, supervisors must demonstrate a desire to assist employees in goal accomplishment and behave supportively if failure occurs, even adjusting the goal downward if it proves to be unrealistically high. Goal Orientation and Proximity Goal orientation refers to an individual’s goal preferences in achievement situations. It is a stable individual difference that affects performance. Individuals with a learning goal orientation are most concerned about learning something new and developing their competence in an activity by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations. Individuals with a performance-prove goal orientation are most concerned about demonstrating their competence in performing a task by seeking favourable judgments about the outcome of their performance. Individuals with a performance-avoid goal orientation are most concerned about avoiding negative judgments about the outcome of their performance. A learning goal orientation has been found to be positively related to learning as well as academic, task, and job performance, while a performance-avoid orientation is negatively related to learning and lower task and job performance. A performance-prove orientation is not related to learning or performance outcomes. Goals can also be distinguished in terms of whether they are distal or proximal goals. A distal goal is a long-term or end-goal, such as achieving a certain level of sales performance. A proximal goal is a short-term or sub-goal that is instrumental for achieving a distal goal. Proximal goals involve breaking down a distal goal into smaller, more attainable sub-goals that provide clear markers of progress toward a distal goal because they result in more frequent feedback. Research Support for Goal Setting Theory Goal setting has led to increased performance on a wide variety of tasks and occupations. Group goals have also been found to result in higher group performance when the goals are specific and the group members participate in setting goals. As well, the positive effects of goal setting appear to persist over a long enough time to have practical value. However, the effects of goals on performance has been found to depend on a number of factors. Research has also found that when individuals lack the knowledge or skill to perform a complex task effectively, a specific and challenging performance goal can decrease rather than increase performance relative to a do-your-best goal. When a task is straightforward, a specific, high performance goal results in higher performance than a do-your-best goal. Thus, a high-performance goal is most effective when individuals have the ability to perform a task. A specific, high learning goal is more effective than a specific, high performance goal or a do-your-best goal when individuals are learning to perform a complex task. Research has also found that proximal goals are important for novel and complex tasks and distal goals can have a negative effect unless they are accompanied with proximal goals. When distal goals are accompanied with proximal goals they have a significant positive effect on the discovery and use of task-relevant strategies, self-efficacy, and performance. Managerial Implications of Goal Setting Theory The managerial implications of goal setting theory are straightforward: Set specific and challenging goals and provide ongoing feedback so that individuals can compare their performance with their goals. However, special attention must be given to the nature of the task and the type of goal. For example, when a task is novel or complex and individuals need to acquire new knowledge and skills for good performance, setting a specific learning goal will be more effective than setting a high performance goal. High performance goals will be most effective for simpler jobs and when individuals already have the ability to perform a task effectively. Proximal goals should be set in conjunction with distal goals when employees are learning a new task or performing a complex one. Do Motivation Theories Translate Across Cultures? There is considerable question about how well motivation theories developed in North America translate across cultures. This is especially true of the need theories, all of which seem to be oriented toward more individualistic cultural values rather than collective values. Thus, need theories face some cultural limitations to their generality. Also, equity theory implies that people wish to be rewarded according to individual input rather than equally, an assumption that might not hold in collective cultures. Thus, the definition of “fairness” is likely to vary across cultures. In collectivist cultures there is a tendency to favour reward allocation based on equality rather than equity. Due to its flexibility, expectancy theory translates across cultures fairly well. Setting specific and challenging goals should also be motivational when applied cross-culturally. However, to be effective, careful attention is required to adjust the goal-setting process in different cultures. For example, individual goals are not likely to be accepted or motivational in collectivist cultures. One limitation to the positive effect of goal setting might occur in those (mainly Far Eastern) cultures in which saving face is important. That is, a specific and challenging goal may not be very motivating if it suggests that failure could occur and if it results in a negative reaction. As well, in the so-called “being-oriented” cultures where people work only as much as needed to live and avoid continuous work, there tends to be some resistance to goal setting. Thus, appreciating cultural diversity is critical in maximizing motivation. Putting It All Together: Integrating Theories of Work Motivation Each of the theories of motivation helps us to understand the motivational process and together they form an integrative model of motivation. For example, expectancy, instrumentality, and goals that are specific, challenging, and accompanied with feedback should lead to higher levels of motivation. Motivation along with the intervening factors of personality, general cognitive ability, emotional intelligence, task understanding, and chance will influence performance. When performance is followed up with rewards that satisfy workers needs and are positively valent, they will lead to higher levels of motivation and job satisfaction provided they are perceived as equitable. Also recall from Chapter 4 that job satisfaction can also influence performance. CHAPTER 6 MOTIVATION IN PRACTICE CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 6, students should be able to: LO6.1 Discuss how to tie pay to performance on production jobs and the difficulties of wage incentive plans. LO6.2 Explain how to tie pay to performance on white-collar jobs and the difficulties of merit pay plans. LO6.3 Understand how to use pay to motivate teamwork. LO6.4 Describe the details of the Job Characteristics Model. LO6.5 Discuss the motivational properties of job enrichment. LO6.6 Discuss work design characteristics and the relational architecture of jobs. LO6.7 Understand the connection between goal setting and Management by Objectives. LO6.8. Explain how alternative work schedules respect employee diversity. LO6.9 Describe the factors that organizations should consider when choosing motivational practices. CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES In this chapter, four motivational techniques are discussed: money, job design, Management by Objectives, and alternative working schedules. Money as a Motivator The money that employees receive in exchange for organizational membership is a package made up of pay and various other fringe benefits that have dollar values, such as insurance plans, sick leave, and vacation time. Employees and managers, however, seriously underestimate the importance of pay as a motivator. In general, motivation theories suggest that money can be a motivator to the extent that it satisfies a variety of needs, is highly valent, and it is clearly tied to performance. Research on financial incentives is consistent with the predictions of need theory and expectancy theory. Financial incentives and pay-for-performance plans have been found to increase performance and lower turnover. Research also suggests that pay may well be the most important and effective motivator of performance. In general, the ability to earn money for outstanding performance is a competitive advantage for attracting, motivating, and retaining employees Linking Pay to Performance on Production Jobs The prototype of all schemes to link pay to performance on production jobs is piece-rate. In a piece-rate system, individual workers are paid a certain sum of money for each unit of production completed. Various schemes that link pay to performance on production jobs are called wage incentive plans. Compared with straight hourly pay, the introduction of wage incentives usually leads to substantial increases in productivity. One of the best examples of the successful use of a wage incentive plan is the Lincoln Electric Company. However, not as many organizations use wage incentives as we might expect. Potential Problems with Wage Incentives Wage incentives have a number of problems when they are not managed with care. Lowered Quality. They might increase productivity at the expense of quality. Differential Opportunity. If workers have differential opportunities to produce at a high level, wage incentives may be difficult to establish. Reduced Cooperation. Wage incentives that reward individual productivity might decrease cooperation among workers. Workers might hoard raw materials or refuse to engage in peripheral tasks. Incompatible Job Design. The way jobs are designed can make it very difficult to implement wage incentives, such as on assembly lines. Wage incentive systems can be designed to reward team productivity, however, as the size of the team increases, the relationship between any individual’s productivity and his or her pay decreases. Reduction of Productivity. A chief psychological impediment to the use of wage incentives is the tendency for workers to restrict productivity. The artificial limitation of work output that can occur under wage incentive plans is known as restriction of productivity. Restriction of productivity occurs when workers come to an informal agreement about what constitutes a fair day’s work and artificially limit productivity accordingly. This may happen when workers feel that increased productivity due to the incentive will lead to reductions in the work force or when employees fear that if they produce at an especially high level, the rate of payment will be reduced to cut labour costs. Restriction is less likely when a climate of trust and a history of good relations exist between employees and management. Linking Pay to Performance on White-Collar Jobs Attempts to link pay to performance on white-collar jobs are often called merit pay plans. Periodically (usually yearly), managers are required to evaluate the performance of employees on some form of rating scale or by means of a written description of performance. Using these evaluations, managers then recommend that some amount of merit pay be awarded to individuals over and above their basic salaries. This pay is usually incorporated into the subsequent year’s salary. Most companies employ these plans and they are used with much greater frequency than wage incentive plans. However, despite the fact that merit pay can stimulate effective performance, many of these systems are ineffective. This is because many individuals who work under such plans do not perceive a link between their job performance and their pay. There is also evidence that pay is not related to performance under some merit plans. In most organizations, seniority, the number of employees, and job level account for more variation in pay than performance does. Potential Problems with Merit Pay Plans Merit pay plans can have a number of potential problems if employers do not manage them carefully. Low Discrimination. Managers might be unable or unwilling to discriminate between good and poor performers because subjective evaluations of performance are difficult to make and are often distorted by perceptual errors. If the performance evaluation system does not assist the manager in giving feedback about his or her decisions to employees, an equalization strategy may be employed to prevent conflicts with them or among the employees. If there are true performance differences among employees, this strategy will over-reward poor performers and under-reward better performers. Small Increases. Merit increases are often too small to be effective motivators. To overcome this visibility problem, some firms have replaced conventional merit pay with a lump sum bonus that is paid out all at one time and not built into base pay. However, when merit pay makes up a substantial portion of the compensation package, management has to take extreme care to ensure that it ties the merit pay to performance criteria that benefits the organization. Pay Secrecy. Another threat to the effectiveness of merit pay plans is the extreme secrecy that surrounds salaries in most organizations. This ensures that employees remain ignorant about merit pay plans even when they are fairly administered, contingent on performance, and generous because they have no way of comparing their own merit treatment with that of others. Such secrecy can severely damage the motivational impact of a well-designed merit plan. A pay secrecy policy forces employees to “invent” salaries for other organizational members and this invention seems to reduce both satisfaction and motivation. Managers have a tendency to overestimate the pay of their employees and their peers and to underestimate the pay of their superiors. These tendencies will reduce satisfaction with pay, damage perceptions of the linkage between performance and rewards, and reduce the valence of promotion to a higher level of management. However, it is worth noting that if performance evaluations systems are inadequate and poorly implemented, a more open pay policy will simply expose the inadequacy of the merit system and lead managers to evaluate performance in a manner that reduces conflict. Using Pay to Motivate Teamwork Pay can also be used to motivate cooperation and teamwork, despite some of the dysfunctional aspects of wage incentives that promote a highly individual orientation. Group-level incentive plans have been proposed to deal with problems of wage incentives targeted at individuals. These plans include profit sharing, employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs), gainsharing, and skill-based pay. Each of these plans has a somewhat different motivational focus. Organizations have to choose pay plans that support their strategic needs. Profit Sharing. Profit sharing is one of the most commonly used group-oriented incentive systems. In years in which the firm makes a profit, some of this is returned to employees in the form of a cash bonus or a retirement supplement. However, it is unlikely that these plans are highly motivational. Too many factors beyond the control of the workforce can intervene in the determination of a company’s profit no matter how well people perform their jobs. In a large firm it is also difficult to see the impact of one’s own actions on profits. Profit sharing seems to work best in smaller firms that regularly turn a handsome profit. Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs). Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) have also become a popular group-oriented incentive in recent years. These are incentive plans that allow employees to own a set amount of a company’s shares and provide employees with a stake in the company’s future earnings and success. Employees are often allowed to purchase shares at a fixed price and in some cases the organization will match employee contributions. Employee stock options are believed to increase employees’ loyalty and motivation because they align employees’ goals and interests with those of the organization and create a sense of legal and psychological ownership. However, like profit sharing, these programs work best in small firms that regularly turn a profit. In larger organizations, it is more difficult for employees to see the connection between their efforts and company profits because many other factors can influence the value of a company’s stock besides employee effort and performance. Furthermore, ESOPs lose their motivational potential in a weak economy when a company’s share price goes down. Gainsharing. Gainsharing plans are group incentive plans based on productivity or performance improvements over which the workforce has some control. They have the advantage of being based on cost reductions, including costs for labour, materials, and supplies. These are more under the control of employees, and when cost reductions occur, the gain is shared between the company and employees according to a predetermined formula. The Scanlon Plan is the best known gainsharing plan. The plan stresses participatory management and joint problem solving between employees and managers as well as using the pay system to reward employees for this cooperative behaviour. Thus, pay is used to align company and employee goals. Productivity improvements following the introduction of Scanlon-type plans support its motivational impact. Perception that the plan is fair is crtical. Skill-Based Pay. Skill-based pay (also called pay for knowledge) is a system in which people are paid according to the number of job skills they have acquired. Thus, it rewards employees to learn a variety of skills and work tasks irrespective of the job they might be doing at any one time. This encourages employee flexibility in task assignments and gives employees a broader picture of the work process. It is especially useful in self-managed teams. The more skills that are acquired, the higher the person’s pay. The idea is to motivate employees to learn a wide variety of work tasks. Skill based pay can provide incentives for a more flexible work force and can have positive consequences, however, training costs are high. Job Design as a Motivator The use of job design as a motivator represents an attempt to capitalize on intrinsic motivation. Job design refers to the structure, content, and configuration of a person’s work tasks and roles. The goal of job design is to identify the characteristics that make some tasks more motivating than others and to capture these characteristics in the design of jobs. Traditional Views of Job Design The traditional view of job design stressed job simplification. Job simplification contended that specialization was the key to efficient productivity. Frederick Taylor introduced his principles of scientific management which advocated extreme division of labour and specialization, and careful standardization and regulation of work activities and rest pauses. Jobs designed according to the principles of scientific management do not seem intrinsically motivating. The motivational strategies that were used consisted of close supervision and the use of piece-rate pay. Such simplification, however, helped workers who were mostly non-unionized and uneducated achieve a reasonable standard of living. Job Scope and Motivation Traditional views of job design were attempts to construct low-scope jobs. Job scope can be defined as the breadth and depth of a job. Breadth refers to the number of different activities performed on a job, while depth refers to the degree of discretion or control a worker has over how these tasks are performed. Jobs that have great breadth and depth are called high-scope jobs. High-scope jobs (both broad and deep) provide more intrinsic motivation than low-scope jobs, according to need theories. Expectancy theory suggests that high-scope jobs can provide intrinsic motivation if the outcomes derived from such jobs are attractive. One way to increase the scope of a job is to assign employees stretch assignments that offer employees challenging opportunities to broaden their skills by working on a variety of tasks with new responsibilities. Another approach for increasing the scope of an individual’s job is job rotation which involves rotating employees to different tasks and jobs in an organization. In addition to providing employees with a variety of challenging assignments, job rotation is also effective for developing new skills and expertise that can prepare employees for future roles. The Job Characteristics Model The Job Characteristic Model proposes that there are several “core” job characteristics which have psychological impact on workers. In turn, the psychological states induced by the nature of a job lead to outcomes that are relevant to the worker and the organization. Finally, several other factors (moderators) influence the extent to which these relationships hold true. Core Job Characteristics. There are five core job characteristics that have a strong potential to affect worker motivation. Higher levels of these characteristics should lead to more favourable outcomes. 1. Skill variety: The opportunity to do a variety of job activities using various skills and talents. This involves the use of a number of different skills and talents of the person. 2. Autonomy: The freedom to schedule one’s own work activities and decide work procedures. It involves the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. 3. Task significance: The impact that a job has on other people or the extent to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives of other people, whether those people are in the immediate organization or in the world at large. 4. Task identity: The extent to which a job involves doing a complete piece of work, from beginning to end. 5. Feedback: Information about the effectiveness of one’s work performance or the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job provides the individual with direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. A questionnaire called the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) is used to measure the core characteristics of jobs. Job holders indicate the amount of the various core characteristics contained in their jobs. The motivating potential score (MPS) measures the potential of a job to stimulate intrinsic motivation and can be calculated by the following formula: MPS = (Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance)/3 × Autonomy × Job feedback Critical Psychological States. The Job Characteristics Model argues that work will be intrinsically motivating when it is perceived as meaningful, when the worker feels responsible for the outcomes of the work, and when the worker has knowledge about his or her work progress. Skill variety, task identity, and task significance affect the meaningfulness of the job; autonomy affects responsibility; and feedback affects knowledge of results. Outcomes. The presence of the critical psychological states leads to a number of outcomes that are relevant to both the individual and the organization including high intrinsic motivation, high “growth” satisfaction, high general job satisfaction, and high quality productivity. Workers will report satisfaction with higher-order needs (growth needs) and general satisfaction with the job itself. This should lead to reduced absenteeism and turnover. Moderators. Jobs that are high in motivating potential do not always lead to favourable outcomes. Certain moderator or contingency variables intervene between job characteristics and outcomes. One of these is the job-relevant knowledge and skill of the worker which must be high if workers are to respond favourably to jobs that are high in motivating potential. Growth need strength refers to the extent to which people desire to achieve higher-order need satisfaction by performing their jobs. Generally, workers with high growth needs will be most responsive to challenging work. Finally, workers who are dissatisfied with the context factors surrounding the job (such as pay, supervision, and company policy) will be less responsive to challenging work than workers who are satisfied with context factors. Research Evidence. Tests of the Job Characteristics Model have been very supportive of the basic prediction of the model – workers tend to respond more favourably to jobs that are high in motivating potential. All five core job characteristics have been found to be positively related to the outcomes in the model as well as other outcomes. Some of the core job characteristics (e.g., autonomy and feedback from the job) have also been found to be related to behavioural and well-being outcomes. Experienced meaningfulness has been found to be the most critical psychological state. Where the model seems to falter is in its predictions about growth needs and context satisfaction. Evidence that these factors influence reactions to job design is weak or contradictory. Job Enrichment Job enrichment is the design jobs to enhance intrinsic motivation, the quality of working life, and job involvement. Job involvement refers to cognitive state of psychological identification with one’s job and the importance of work to one’s total self-image. Employees who have enriched jobs tend to have higher levels of job involvement. All of the core job characteristics have been shown to be positively related to job involvement, and job involvement is positively related to job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Employees who are more involved in their job are less likely to quit. In general, job enrichment involves increasing the motivating potential of jobs via the arrangement of their core characteristics. Some of the techniques include the following: Combining tasks. Assign tasks performed by different workers to a single individual. This strategy should increase the variety of skills employed and might contribute to task identity. Establishing external client relationships. Put workers in touch with those outside the organization who depend on their products or services. This strategy should involve the use of new interpersonal skills, increase the identity and significance of the job, and increase feedback about one’s performance. Establishing internal client relationships. Put workers in touch with people who depend on their products or services within the organization. This strategy should have the same effect on the job characteristics as those for establishing external client relationships. Reducing supervision or reliance on others. Increase autonomy and control over workers’ own work. Forming work teams. Employees’ work together to produce a product or provide a service that is too large or complex for one person to complete alone. This strategy should lead to the development of a variety of skills and increase the identity of the job. Making feedback more direct. Permit workers to be identified with their “own” product or service. If a customer encounters problems, he or she contacts the assembler directly. Potential Problems with Job Enrichment Job enrichment can encounter a number of challenging problems. Poor Diagnosis. Enrichment schemes may be implemented without careful diagnosis of the needs of an organization and the particular jobs in question. An especially likely error is increasing job breadth by giving employees more tasks to perform at the same level while leaving the other crucial core characteristics unchanged—a practice known job enlargement. Workers are given more boring, fragmented, routine tasks to do. Lack of Desire or Skill. Some workers do not desire enriched jobs or they may lack the skills and competence necessary to perform enriched jobs effectively. It might also be difficult to train some workers in certain skills required by enriched jobs, such as social skills. Demand for Rewards. Workers who experience job enrichment may ask that greater extrinsic rewards, such as pay, accompany their redesigned jobs. Union Resistance. Unions have not always been supportive of job enrichment and instead have focused more on easily quantified extrinsic motivators. However, faced with increasing global competition, the need for flexibility, and the need for employee initiative to foster quality, companies and unions have begun to dismantle restrictive contract provisions regarding job design which has created more opportunities for flexibility by combining tasks and using team approaches. Supervisory Resistance. Enrichment schemes may fail because of their unanticipated impact on other jobs or other parts of an organizational system and supervisor resistance. A key problem concerns supervisors of workers whose jobs have been enriched. This can “dis-enrich” the job of supervisor. Some organizations respond to this problem by doing away with direct supervision of workers performing enriched jobs while others use the supervisor as a trainer and developer of individuals in enriched jobs. New Developments in Job Design In recent years, more comprehensive models of job design have been developed that go beyond the core job characteristics and include other important aspects of job design. Two such examples are work design and relational job design. Work Design. Frederick Morgeson and Stephen Humphrey developed a work design model that consists of a wider variety of work design characteristics than the Job Characteristics Model. Work design characteristics refer to the attributes of the task, job, and social and organizational environment and consist of three categories: motivational characteristics, social characteristics, and work context characteristics. Motivational characteristics includes task characteristics, which are similar to the core job characteristics of the Job Characteristics Model as well as knowledge characteristics that refer to the kinds of knowledge, skill, and ability demands required to perform a job. Task variety involves the degree to which a job requires employees to perform a wide range of tasks on the job, while skill variety reflects the extent to which a job requires an individual to use a variety of different skills to perform a job. Social characteristics have to do with the interpersonal and social aspects of work and include social support, interdependence, interaction outside of the organization, and feedback from others. Work context characteristics refer to the context within which work is performed and consist of ergonomics, physical demands, work conditions, and equipment use. A scale called the Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) is used to measure the work design characteristics and is the most comprehensive measure of work design available. Research has found that the work design characteristics are related to work attitudes and behaviours and the social characteristics are even more strongly related to some outcomes (i.e., turnover intentions, organizational commitment) than the motivational characteristics. Work design characteristics have a large and significant effect on employee attitudes and behaviours. Relational Job Design. Adam Grant has developed a model to explain how jobs can be designed to motivate employees to make a difference in other’s lives. This is known as prosocial motivation and it refers to the desire to expend effort to benefit other people. Grant calls this approach to job design the relational architecture of jobs which refers to the structural properties of work that shape employees’ opportunities to connect and interact with other people. Jobs can be designed so that employees can see the impact of their actions on others. Re-designing and emphasizing the relational aspects of jobs and their social impact and value has been found to improve employee motivation and performance. In effect, this is done by designing jobs so that employees have contact with those who benefit from their work. Management by Objectives Management by Objectives (MBO) is an elaborate, systematic, ongoing program designed to facilitate goal establishment, goal accomplishment, and employee development. Objectives for the organization as a whole are developed by top management and diffused down through the organization through the MBO process. The nature of the interaction between managers and individual workers is a key part of the process. Most manager-employee interactions share the following similarities: 1. The manager meets with individual employees to develop and agree on employee objectives for the coming months. 2. Periodic meetings are held to monitor employee progress in achieving objectives. 3. An appraisal meeting is held to evaluate the extent to which the agreed upon objectives have been achieved. 4. The MBO cycle is repeated. Research Evidence. Although properly established and administered MBO programs can have a positive effect on performance and the research evidence shows clear productivity gains, there are a number of factors associated with the failure of MBO programs. Top management commitment is necessary for MBO to succeed or else managers at lower levels simply go through the motions of practicing MBO and the whole exercise just creates paperwork. Sometimes there is an overemphasis on measurable objectives at the expense of more qualitative objectives. Also, excessive short-term orientation can be a problem. Finally, MBO can be subverted if a performance review becomes an exercise in punishing employees for failing to achieve objectives. Alternative Working Schedules as Motivators for a Diverse Workforce Although most Canadian workers work a forty-hour, five-day week, many organizations have modified these traditional working schedules. The purpose of these modifications is to meet the diverse workforce needs and promote job satisfaction. Common forms of alternative working schedules include flex-time, the compressed workweek, job and work sharing, and telecommuting. Flex-Time Flex-time is an alternative work schedule in which arrival and quitting times are flexible. It allows workers an element of flexibility in choosing their working hours so long as they are present during certain core hours. It is well suited to meeting the needs of a diverse workforce as employees tailor arrival and departure times to their own transportation and child care situations. However, when jobs are highly interdependent, flex-time becomes an unlikely strategy. Also, flex-time may lead to problems in achieving adequate supervisory coverage. Thus, it is most frequently implemented in office environments. Research Evidence. Employees prefer flex-time to fixed hours. Work attitudes usually become more positive. Slight productivity gains are often reported. A review of research on flex-time concluded that it has a positive effect on productivity, job satisfaction, satisfaction with work schedule, and lowers employee absenteeism. Compressed Workweek The compressed workweek is an alternative work schedule in which employees work fewer than the normal five days a week but still put in a normal number of hours per week. It compresses the hours worked each week into fewer days, for example, the 4-40 system (four ten-hour days each week). Technical roadblocks to the implementation of the 4-40 workweek include reduced customer service and negative effects of fatigue which may accompany longer working days. Research Evidence. People seem to like the four-day system. Workers sometimes report an increase in fatigue following the introduction of the compressed week. A review of research on the compressed workweek concluded that it has a positive effect on job satisfaction and satisfaction with work schedule but no effect on absenteeism or productivity. Job and Work Sharing Job sharing is an alternative work schedule in which two part-time employees divide the work of a full-time job. Job sharing is particularly attractive to people who want to spend more time with small children or elders than a conventional five-day work routine allows. Work sharing involves reducing the number of hours employees work to avoid layoffs when there is a reduction in normal business activity. The Government of Canada has a work-sharing program that is designed to help employers and workers avoid temporary layoffs. Work sharing not only cuts costs, saves jobs, and avoids layoffs, but it allows organizations to retain highly skilled workers so they can quickly rebound when the economy and business improves Research Evidence. There is virtually no hard research on job and work sharing. However, anecdotal reports suggest that the job sharers must make a concerted effort to communicate well with each other as well as with superiors, co-workers, and clients. Such communication is greatly facilitated by contemporary computer technology and voice mail. Job sharing can result in coordination problems if communication is not adequate. Telecommuting Telecommuting is an alternative work schedule in which employees are able to work at home but stay in touch with their offices through the use of communications technology, such as a computer network, voice mail, and electronic messages. It provides workers with greater flexibility in their work schedules. When telecommuting is an option, companies can hire the best person for a job, regardless of where they live in the world or what is known as distant staffing. An interesting trend is telework centres that provide workers with the amenities of a home office in a location close to their home. Related to this is the emergence of distributed work programs, which involve a combination of remote work arrangements that allow employees to work at their business office, a satellite office, and a home office. Research Evidence. A recent review of research on telecommuting found that telecommuting has small but positive effects on perceived autonomy and lower work–family conflict as well as a positive effect on job satisfaction and job performance and results in lower stress and turnover intentions. A greater frequency of telecommuting (more than 2.5 days a week) was associated with a greater reduction in work–family conflict and stress. The positive effects of telecommuting are mostly due to an increase in perceived autonomy. Negative aspects of telecommuting can result from damage to informal communication such as decreased visibility when promotions are considered, problems in handling rush projects, and workload spillover for non-telecommuters. Frequent telecommuting has a negative effect on relationships with co-workers. Other potential problems include distractions in the home environment, feelings of isolation, and overwork. Many companies are hesitant to implement telecommuting programs because of concerns about trust and control and worries that employees will not be as productive. A strong perception of trust between employees and management must exist before an organization implements a telecommuting program and the program must be preceded by careful planning and accompanied by clear guidelines to govern the arrangement. Motivation Practices in Perspective When it comes to choosing motivational practices, the concept of fit is key. Motivational practices must fit into and be part of an organization’s culture and system of management practices. The most effective approach will depend on a combination of factors including employee needs, the nature of the job, characteristics of the organization, and the outcome that an organization wants to achieve. Ultimately, motivational systems that make use of a variety of motivators—such as performance-based pay and job enrichment—used in conjunction with one another are likely to be most effective. Instructor Manual for Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work Gary Johns, Alan M. Saks 9780133347500, 9780133951622