CH-4-6 Socialization and the Life Course – Sociology in Modules : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 4 to 6 Chapter 4 Socialization and the Life Course ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the role of the neighborhood family in Charisse’s socialization in the excerpt from “Black Picket Fences”. Answer: In the excerpt from Black Picket Fences, the role of Charisse's neighborhood family is pivotal in her socialization process. The neighborhood family serves as an extension of her primary family, providing additional support, guidance, and reinforcement of social norms. This extended network helps shape Charisse's values, behavior, and identity by exposing her to diverse role models and communal expectations. The collective influence of the neighborhood family enriches her socialization, offering a broader support system and integrating her into the community's social fabric. 2. What do the case histories of Isabelle and Genie tell us about the importance of socialization? Answer: The case histories of Isabelle and Genie highlight the critical importance of socialization in human development. Isabelle, isolated with her deaf-mute mother, faced significant developmental delays but showed remarkable improvement upon being introduced to social interactions and language. Similarly, Genie’s severe isolation resulted in profound deficits in language and social skills. These cases illustrate that socialization is essential for normal cognitive, emotional, and social development. Without adequate social interaction, individuals may struggle with fundamental aspects of human functioning and interpersonal relationships. 3. What do the Romanian orphanage studies tell us about the importance of social interaction in the socialization process? Answer: The Romanian orphanage studies underscore the crucial role of social interaction in the socialization process. These studies revealed that children raised in institutions with minimal personal contact suffered from severe developmental delays, emotional issues, and impaired cognitive abilities. The lack of individualized attention and social stimulation in the orphanages led to significant deficits in social and emotional development. The findings emphasize that consistent, responsive interactions with caregivers and peers are vital for healthy socialization and overall development. 4. How do the studies of animals raised in isolation support the importance of socialization on development? Answer: Studies of animals raised in isolation, such as those involving rhesus monkeys, provide compelling evidence for the importance of socialization. Animals raised in isolation from their peers exhibited abnormal behaviors, difficulties in social interaction, and impaired emotional regulation. For example, monkeys reared in isolation often showed signs of severe anxiety and aggression when later exposed to other monkeys. These studies support the notion that socialization is crucial for developing social skills, emotional health, and adaptive behaviors, reinforcing the idea that early and consistent social interaction is essential for proper development. 5. What do the twin studies tell us about the nature versus nurture argument? Answer: Twin studies provide valuable insights into the nature versus nurture debate by comparing the similarities and differences between identical twins (who share nearly all their genetic material) and fraternal twins (who share about half their genetic material). These studies reveal how much of an individual's traits and behaviors can be attributed to genetic inheritance (nature) versus environmental influences (nurture). For example, studies have shown that while identical twins often exhibit more similar personalities and tendencies than fraternal twins, environmental factors such as upbringing, education, and social experiences also play a significant role in shaping an individual's development. Thus, twin studies demonstrate that both genetic and environmental factors are crucial in understanding human behavior and development. 6. How did Charles Horton Cooley approach the socialization process? Answer: Charles Horton Cooley approached the socialization process through his concept of the "looking-glass self." He proposed that individuals develop their self-concept and self-identity through social interactions and the perceptions of others. According to Cooley, people form self-views based on how they believe others perceive them, how they imagine others judge them, and how they experience feelings of pride or shame in response to these perceptions. This process of reflecting and internalizing others' views helps shape one's self-identity and social behavior, emphasizing the importance of social feedback in the development of the self. 7. How did George Herbert Mead approach the socialization process? Answer: George Herbert Mead approached the socialization process through his theory of the development of the self, focusing on how individuals learn to understand themselves and others through social interactions. Mead argued that socialization involves a process of role-taking, where individuals learn to see themselves from the perspective of others. He emphasized that the self develops through social interaction, where individuals internalize societal norms and expectations. Mead's approach highlights the importance of social communication and the internalization of roles in forming one's self-concept and social behavior. 8. Identify and explain George Herbert Mead’s three distinct stages in childhood socialization. Answer: George Herbert Mead identified three distinct stages in childhood socialization: the "preparatory stage," the "play stage," and the "game stage." In the preparatory stage, children mimic the actions of others without understanding the meanings behind them, which helps them learn basic social skills. In the play stage, children start to take on roles of significant others, such as parents or superheroes, and begin to understand the expectations and behaviors associated with these roles. Finally, in the game stage, children learn to understand and adhere to the rules of organized games and the roles of multiple others simultaneously, leading to a more complex understanding of social roles and the concept of the generalized other. These stages reflect the progression from simple mimicry to a sophisticated grasp of societal norms and roles. 9. Distinguish between significant and generalized others, and note their importance to George Herbert Mead. Answer: In George Herbert Mead’s theory of socialization, significant others are individuals who have a profound impact on a person's development, such as parents, close friends, or mentors. These people influence one's self-concept and behaviors through direct and meaningful interactions. Generalized others, on the other hand, represent the broader society and its expectations and norms. They are the collective attitudes and viewpoints that individuals learn and internalize over time. Mead emphasized that while significant others are crucial in the early stages of socialization for shaping one's self-concept, the generalized other helps individuals understand how they fit into and are judged by society at large. Both concepts are essential for understanding how individuals develop their self-identity and navigate social interactions. 10. How can Erving Goffman’s conceptualization of impression management be used to understand social behavior? Answer: Erving Goffman’s conceptualization of impression management helps us understand how individuals actively shape and control the perceptions others have of them. According to Goffman, people engage in various strategies to present themselves in ways that align with social expectations and desired impressions. This process involves managing one's appearance, behavior, and interactions to influence how others perceive their identity and intentions. For example, someone might dress formally and speak professionally in a job interview to create a positive impression on potential employers. Impression management is crucial for navigating social contexts, as it helps individuals achieve personal and professional goals by influencing how they are perceived. 11. Define and offer an example you have observed of impression management and facework. Answer: Impression management involves the strategic presentation of oneself to create a specific image in the minds of others. An example observed might be a student who dresses formally and speaks confidently during a job interview to make a favorable impression on the interviewer. Facework refers to the efforts individuals make to maintain a positive self-image and manage the impressions others form of them. For instance, during a social gathering, a person might downplay their recent job loss and focus on discussing their hobbies to avoid negative judgments and maintain a positive social image. Both impression management and facework are crucial for maintaining social relationships and achieving personal objectives by carefully managing how one is perceived by others. 12. How do college students use impression management after examinations? Answer: College students often use impression management after examinations to shape how others perceive their academic performance. For example, a student who performed poorly on an exam might downplay their concerns or make light of their performance when discussing the test with peers, perhaps saying, "It wasn't as bad as I thought" or "I didn't study much, so I'm not surprised." Conversely, a student who did well might emphasize their effort and preparation, saying things like, "I studied for weeks and really understood the material." These strategies help students manage their self-image and maintain social standing among their peers, reflecting Goffman's idea that people constantly engage in impression management to align with social expectations and preserve their desired identity. 13. What do psychological approaches tell us about the self? Answer: Psychological approaches to understanding the self often focus on individual development and internal processes. For example, Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind and internal conflicts in shaping the self. Freud posited that the self is formed through interactions between the id (instinctual desires), ego (rational thought), and superego (moral standards). Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory outlines a series of stages where individuals face and resolve conflicts that shape their identity. Carl Rogers’ humanistic theory stresses the importance of self-concept and self-actualization, suggesting that individuals strive for congruence between their self-image and their ideal self. These psychological perspectives contribute to understanding how the self develops and evolves through internal dynamics and personal growth. 14. Contrast the role played by rites of passage in the United States and in nonindustrial societies. Answer: In the United States, rites of passage often involve formal or informal ceremonies marking transitions such as graduation, marriage, or retirement. These rituals may be less elaborate but still hold significant personal and social meaning. In contrast, nonindustrial societies often have more structured and traditional rites of passage, such as initiation ceremonies, coming-of-age rituals, or elaborate communal events. These rites are deeply embedded in the cultural fabric and often involve significant communal participation, symbolizing a transition from one social role or status to another. The differences reflect varying levels of social complexity and the role of tradition in shaping social identities and community cohesion. 15. What is the difference between anticipatory socialization and resocialization? Answer: Anticipatory socialization refers to the process where individuals adopt the behaviors and attitudes of a role they anticipate occupying in the future. For example, a college student might learn and practice the behaviors expected of a future professional by seeking internships or joining related clubs. Resocialization, on the other hand, involves the process of discarding old behaviors and adopting new ones, often occurring in institutional settings like the military or rehabilitation programs. For example, someone entering a correctional facility undergoes resocialization to adapt to new norms and roles within that environment. While anticipatory socialization prepares individuals for future roles, resocialization transforms individuals to fit new roles or settings. 16. What is meant by the degradation ceremony, and how does it relate to socialization? Answer: A degradation ceremony is a social ritual used to strip an individual of their former identity and publicly denounce their previous status. This concept, developed by sociologist Harold Garfinkel, often occurs in contexts like military boot camps or correctional institutions where individuals are subjected to rituals that mark their transition from one social role to another. For instance, when someone is convicted of a crime, the public trial and sentencing process serves as a degradation ceremony, stripping them of their previous status and enforcing a new social identity as a criminal. This process is related to socialization as it helps integrate individuals into new roles by reshaping their self-concept and aligning it with societal expectations. 17. What are the significant forces in childhood socialization? Answer: Significant forces in childhood socialization include family, peers, schools, and media. The family is the primary agent, shaping early values, norms, and behaviors through direct interaction and emotional support. Peers influence social skills and norms as children engage in group activities and form friendships. Schools contribute by providing structured education and reinforcing societal expectations and norms. Media, including television, internet, and social media, exposes children to diverse cultural norms and influences their perceptions of the world. Each of these forces interacts to help children learn societal roles, expectations, and behaviors, contributing to their overall social development and identity formation. 18. What part do gender roles play in socialization? Answer: Gender roles play a crucial part in socialization by influencing how individuals learn to behave according to societal expectations for their gender. From a young age, children are exposed to gender-specific behaviors and norms through various agents of socialization such as family, media, and peers. For example, toys and activities are often marketed according to gender, with certain colors and themes reinforcing traditional gender roles. Parents might encourage boys to be assertive and girls to be nurturing, perpetuating stereotypes. These gender roles shape individuals' self-concepts, aspirations, and interactions, reinforcing societal norms about masculinity and femininity and contributing to the persistence of gender inequalities. 19. What is the role of schools in gender role socialization? Answer: Schools play a significant role in gender role socialization by reinforcing societal norms and expectations related to gender. Through curriculum choices, teacher interactions, and extracurricular activities, schools often perpetuate traditional gender roles. For instance, boys may be encouraged to pursue sports and STEM subjects, while girls might be steered towards arts and humanities. Teachers and peers can also contribute to reinforcing gender stereotypes through their expectations and interactions. Sex-segregated activities and gendered language further reinforce these roles, shaping students' self-perceptions and career aspirations according to societal norms about what is deemed appropriate for each gender. 20. What is the significance of television in the socialization process of children? Answer: Television has a significant impact on the socialization process of children by providing them with a wide array of cultural messages and role models. Television programs often depict gender roles, family dynamics, and social norms that children internalize and emulate. Characters in television shows can reinforce stereotypes by portraying traditional gender roles, behaviors, and attitudes. For example, shows may depict women primarily in domestic roles and men in professional roles, thus shaping children's expectations about gender roles. The representation of diverse groups and issues on television can also impact children's understanding of social diversity and inclusion. Overall, television serves as a powerful medium for transmitting cultural values and norms to young audiences, influencing their perceptions and behaviors. 21. What impact, if any, has access to new technology (email, cell phones, etc.) had on the socialization process? Answer: Access to new technology, such as email and cell phones, has significantly impacted the socialization process by altering communication patterns and expanding social networks. Digital communication tools enable individuals to maintain relationships across distances, fostering connections with peers, family, and colleagues regardless of physical location. Social media platforms further facilitate the formation of virtual communities and interest groups, allowing individuals to engage in diverse social interactions and access varied viewpoints. However, these technologies also introduce new dynamics, such as cyberbullying and digital identity management, which can affect socialization outcomes. Technology influences how people interact, share information, and develop relationships, shaping social norms and behaviors in a digitally connected world. 22. In what way does the workplace play a role in socialization? Answer: The workplace plays a crucial role in socialization by shaping employees' behaviors, attitudes, and interactions within a professional context. Organizational culture influences how individuals adapt to their roles, adhere to norms, and engage with colleagues. Onboarding and training programs introduce new hires to company values, expectations, and social dynamics. Workplace hierarchies and social structures also affect how employees navigate power relations and group dynamics. Additionally, interactions with supervisors and peers contribute to the development of professional identity and skills. The workplace serves as a site for ongoing socialization, influencing individuals' professional growth and integration into the broader work culture. 23. How does religion play a role in socialization? Answer: Religion plays a significant role in socialization by imparting values, norms, and practices that shape individuals' beliefs and behaviors. Religious institutions often serve as primary agents of socialization, teaching moral codes, rituals, and community norms. Religious teachings influence social behavior, shaping attitudes towards issues like family, morality, and social responsibility. Religious communities also provide social support and reinforce group identity through shared practices and beliefs. For children, religious socialization occurs through participation in religious education, ceremonies, and community activities. Overall, religion contributes to the formation of personal values and societal norms, impacting individuals' worldview and social interactions. 24. In what way does the state or the government play a role in socialization? Answer: The state or government plays a role in socialization through policies, laws, and programs that shape societal norms and behaviors. Educational systems regulated by government standards influence the content and methods of teaching, impacting social values and knowledge. Public policies and laws, such as those related to health, safety, and family structure, affect social behaviors and expectations. Government-sponsored programs, such as social welfare initiatives, contribute to the socialization of norms related to citizenship and civic responsibility. Additionally, government communications and public service announcements shape public perceptions and attitudes on various issues. By establishing rules and norms, the state contributes to the broader socialization process, influencing how individuals engage with society. 25. What is the “sandwich generation” and why are current (and future) generations more affected by this than generations from the past? Answer: The “sandwich generation” refers to adults who are simultaneously caring for their aging parents and their own children. Current and future generations are more affected by this phenomenon due to increased life expectancy, which means that people are living longer and often require care in later years. Additionally, economic factors, such as higher costs of living and healthcare, compel adult children to support their parents financially. Social changes, including higher rates of divorce and blended families, further complicate caregiving responsibilities. Unlike past generations, which often had clearer generational boundaries and fewer demands on caregivers, today's sandwich generation faces the dual challenge of managing the needs of both older and younger family members while balancing their own financial and personal needs. 26. What are the phases in the retirement experience identified by Robert Atchley? Answer: Robert Atchley identified several phases in the retirement experience, including: 1. Pre-Retirement Phase: Planning and anticipating retirement, involving psychological preparation and financial planning. 2. Retirement Phase: The initial adjustment period where retirees experience a significant life change, including shifts in daily routines and identity. 3. Disenchantment Phase: Often marked by feelings of disappointment or boredom as retirees adjust to the realities of retirement. 4. Reorientation Phase: Retirees begin to find new routines and activities that provide fulfillment and structure. 5. Stability Phase: A period of adjustment where retirees settle into a comfortable routine and find a sense of balance in their new lifestyle. 6. Termination Phase: The final phase, which can involve declining health and the need for increased assistance or long-term care. 27. How does retirement vary by gender, race, and social class? Answer: Retirement varies significantly by gender, race, and social class. Gender: Women often face retirement with less financial security due to lower lifetime earnings and interrupted work histories for caregiving. Race: Minority groups may experience disparities in retirement savings and pension benefits, often due to systemic inequalities in employment and wages. Social Class: Those from higher social classes typically have more substantial retirement savings and access to retirement benefits, while lower-income individuals may rely more on Social Security and face greater financial insecurity. These variations highlight the intersection of socio-economic factors that influence retirement experiences and outcomes. 28. What affect does high-quality childcare have on the development of children? What about the low average yearly income for childcare workers? Answer: High-quality childcare positively affects child development by providing a stimulating environment that supports cognitive, social, and emotional growth. Children in high-quality settings tend to exhibit better language skills, improved social interactions, and higher academic achievement. Low average yearly income for childcare workers can impact the quality of care, as underpaid workers may face job dissatisfaction and high turnover, which affects the continuity and stability of care. The financial constraints on childcare workers also limit their ability to invest in professional development and resources, potentially compromising the quality of the care provided. 29. How might functionalists and conflict theorists analyze the controversy over childcare/day care differently? Answer: Functionalists and conflict theorists offer different perspectives on the controversy over childcare/day care. Functionalists would focus on how childcare systems contribute to the stability and functioning of society by enabling parents, particularly mothers, to participate in the workforce. They would emphasize how childcare supports socialization and the smooth functioning of family and economic systems. In contrast, conflict theorists would examine how childcare reflects and perpetuates existing social inequalities. They might argue that access to high-quality childcare is often linked to socio-economic status, with affluent families benefiting from better services while low-income families face inadequate care. This disparity reinforces class divisions and perpetuates systemic inequality. 30. Examine childcare outside the home using a micro-level analysis. Answer: A micro-level analysis of childcare outside the home would focus on individual and small-group interactions and experiences. This perspective examines how children, parents, and childcare providers interact within specific settings, such as day care centers or family child care. For example, micro-level analysis might explore how children develop social skills through daily interactions with peers and caregivers, how parents perceive the quality and effectiveness of childcare services, or how providers manage relationships with children and families. This approach highlights the personal and immediate impacts of childcare on individuals and their day-to-day lives, including emotional bonds, developmental outcomes, and parental satisfaction. 31. What concerns do feminists have with high-quality childcare? Answer: Feminists express several concerns about high-quality childcare. They argue that while high-quality childcare supports women’s participation in the workforce, it can also reinforce traditional gender roles by framing child-rearing as a "female" responsibility. Additionally, the high cost of quality childcare can exacerbate class and gender inequalities, as lower-income families may struggle to afford such services. Feminists also critique how the low wages and poor working conditions of many childcare workers reflect broader systemic undervaluation of women’s work. They advocate for policies that promote affordable, high-quality childcare and recognize caregiving as a crucial social responsibility shared by both genders. 32. How does out-of-home childcare differ in other countries? Compare out-of-home childcare in other countries to the care that is provided in the United States. Answer: Out-of-home childcare differs significantly across countries in terms of access, quality, and funding. In Scandinavian countries like Sweden and Denmark, comprehensive public childcare systems are funded by the government, offering affordable or free high-quality care that supports working parents and promotes gender equality. In contrast, in the United States, childcare is often expensive and varies widely in quality, with significant gaps in accessibility based on income and location. The U.S. system relies heavily on private provision, leading to disparities in care quality. Comparing these systems reveals how different societal values and policies shape the availability and quality of childcare, affecting family dynamics and social equity. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the influence of heredity in explaining the process of one’s personality development. Give examples to support your answer. Have students identify similarities and differences between themselves and their siblings and discuss possible explanations for the differences, both from a “nature” and a “nurture” perspective (i.e., Did their mother and/or father interact differently with the siblings? Is one sibling more like the mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, etc.?) Answer: Heredity influences personality development through genetic predispositions affecting traits like temperament and intelligence. For example, if siblings share similar temperaments or talents, it could be due to genetic similarities. Differences might arise from varied parental interactions or environmental factors, showcasing the interplay of nature and nurture. 2. Define Goffman’s dramaturgical approach in the development of the self. Give examples in which you may have used impression management to portray your image as favorable to others around you. Answer: Goffman’s dramaturgical approach views social interactions as performances where individuals manage impressions to fit societal expectations. For instance, you might dress formally for a job interview to create a professional image, demonstrating impression management. 3. Discuss Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory of development and offer any strengths or criticisms of his approach in viewing personality development. Give examples from your own observations that either support or fail to support Piaget’s theory. Answer: Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory suggests that children develop through stages of cognitive growth. While his theory is foundational, criticisms include overemphasis on stages and cultural bias. Observations of children’s problem-solving abilities can both support and challenge his theory. 4. Identify Goffman’s four traits of total institutions and discuss how a degradation ceremony is used to erode one’s sense of self. Discuss why elimination of the former sense of self is necessary to fully resocialize a person. Answer: Goffman’s four traits of total institutions include isolation, a controlled environment, a hierarchical structure, and the regulation of daily life. A degradation ceremony, like a public shaming, erodes the former self to facilitate resocialization by stripping away previous identities. 5. Discuss the various ways socializing agents may contribute to an institutionalized system of social inequality. Give some examples to support your answer. Answer: Socializing agents like family, schools, and media contribute to social inequality by reinforcing class distinctions and biases. For example, educational disparities perpetuate class divisions by providing varying levels of resources and opportunities. 6. Describe why adjustment to retirement may or may not be easier for a person in a modern society compared to a person in an earlier society. Answer: Adjustment to retirement in modern societies might be easier due to improved health care and pension systems compared to earlier societies. However, it can also be challenging due to the loss of work identity and social status. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Generations: A special section in the New York Times (March 8, 2000) is devoted to an analysis of the life course. The highlight of the section is an article by Arlie Russell Hochschild, “Coming of Age, Seeking an Identity,” pp. 1, 10. 2. Socialization and Racial Prejudice: Deborah Van Ausdale and Joe R. Feagin, The First R: How Children Learn Race and Racism. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001. 3. Adolescent Parenting: What happens when young people become parents? See Leanne Whiteside-Mansell, Sandra K. Pope, and Robert H. Bradley, “Patterns of Parenting Behavior in Young Mothers,” Family Relations 45 (July 1996): 273–281. 4. The Impact of Divorce on Childhood Socialization: How does the experience of divorce change the nature of childhood? This book addresses this question in the context of Great Britain. Carol Smart, Bren Neale, and Amanda Wade, The Changing Experience of Childhood Families and Divorce, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2001. 5. Socialization and African Americans: See Clyde W. Franklin II, “Sex and Class Differences in the Socialization Experiences of African American Youth,” Western Journal of Black Studies 18 (June 1994): 104–111. 6. Socialization and Sociologists: See Joan M. Morris and Michael D. Grimes, “Contradictions in the Childhood Socialization of Sociologists from the Working Class,” Race, Gender, and Class 4 (1) (1996): 63–81. 7. Philippines and Aging: See Lindy Williams and Lita J. Domingo, “The Social Status of Elderly Women and Men within the Filipino Family,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 55 (May 1993): 415–426. 8. Exploring Activity Theory Further: Gerontologist Mary Kouri notes that restless “young elders” today are rejecting the traditional retirement lifestyle of full-time leisure and are showing the way to re-engagement.” See Mary K. Kouri, “From Retirement to Re-Engagement,” The Futurist 18 (June 1984): 35–39, 41–42. 9. Acting Your Age: Refer to Bernice L. Neugarten and Dail A. Neugarten, “The Changing Meanings of Age,” Psychology Today (May 1987): 29–30, 32–33. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION 7 Up in the Soviet Union (Koch Vision, 1993, 68m). Presents an intimate portrait of 20 children at the age of seven and their lives in the former Soviet Union. 7 Up in South Africa (Koch Vision, 1993, 83m). Portraits of bright and charming children at the age of seven are strikingly contrasted with the social turbulence that surrounds them. The program shows how the innocence of these children is compromised by the intolerance of their communities. 42 Up (First Run Features, 2000 133m). Michael Apted’s documentary follows the development of a group of English children over a period of 35 years. Beginning when the children were 7 years old, the filmmaker captured their successes and failures, as well as the hopes and dreams that his subjects expressed at intervals of seven years until they reached the age of 42. Age (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video gives an overview of the sociological perspective on aging. It also addresses the fact that we have a growing percentage of older people in the population. Green Winter (Wellspring Media, 1989, 25m). This inspiring autobiographical program, produced by filmmaker Elda Hartley when she was in her mid-70s, offers a new perspective on the later years of life. Identity Crisis (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2005, 60m). What shapes a child’s identity—situation and surroundings, or unchangeable factors within the child? This program weighs in on the question by capturing the emotional and psychological development of 25 boys and girls at age five. Larry (VCI Home Video; 1974, 78 minutes). In this powerful docu-drama, Frederick Forrest plays the part of a man mistakenly diagnosed with mental retardation and subsequently institutionalized for the first twenty years of his life. The film also features Tyne Daly and Katherine Helmond. Sexual Stereotypes in Media: Superman and the Bride (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000¬–2001, 37m). This program explores the history of sexual stereotypes as presented in the media. As a classroom tool, it encourages discussions regarding the media’s continuing role in reinforcing sexual stereotypes. Socialization (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video examines the nature versus nurture debate and how the agents of socialization influence the self throughout the life cycle. Additionally, it analyzes how personality is socially constructed. What a Girl Wants (Insight Media, 2000, 38m). This video illustrates the socializing effects of media on young girls, and the younger population in general. Includes interviews with girls aged 8 to 16. Whisper: The Women (Terra Nova Films, 1988, 11m). Sensitive portraits of seven senior women who share their stories and reflections. This documentary invites viewers to rethink their ideas about growing older. Focusing on the hands and faces as well as the words of these culturally diverse women, Wiener provides an eloquent testament to their wisdom and beauty. Wrestling with Manhood: Boys, Bullying, and Battering (Media Education Foundation, 2003, 60 minutes). Directed by Communications professor Sut Jhally, Wrestling with Manhood explores the world of “WWE,” World Wrestling Entertainment, and its potential effects on young men’s attitudes toward women. Footage from actual WWE events is presented in graphic and disturbing detail. The influence of popular media on a number of social problems is discussed, including sexual harassment, homophobia, domestic violence, and sexual assault. ADDITIONAL READINGS AARP. 2001. Beyond 50—A Report to the Nation on Economic Security. Washington, D.C.: AARP. A detailed report on the social circumstances and trends affecting the 76 million Americans age 50 and over. (This report can be accessed electronically at www.aarp.org.) Adler, Patricia A., and Peter Adler. 1998. Peer Power: Preadolescent Culture and Identity. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Using eight years of observation research, sociologists discuss the role of peer groups and family as they relate to popularity, social isolation, bullying, and boy-girl relationships. Benjamin, Gail R. 1997. Japanese Lessons. New York: New York University Press. An American anthropologist recounts her children’s year in a Japanese school. Berezin, Mabel. 1997. Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of Interwar Italy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. What were the social processes through which the fascist regime gained support in Italy? This book, written by a sociologist, addresses socialization processes in an interesting and unusual context. Best, Amy L. 2000. Prom Night: Youth, Schools, and Popular Culture. New York: Routledge. An analysis of contemporary high schools, using social events as a means of looking at gender and race differences. The chapter “Divided Dance Floor” considers how race in school affects the interaction of students. Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne. 1997. Red Dirt: Growing Up Okie. London: Verso. An adult remembers her upbringing in a poor white family in rural Oklahoma. Dychtwald, Ken. 1999. Age Power: How the 21st Century Will Be Ruled by the New Old. New York: Putnam. A gerontologist projects social patterns and aging into the future. Gubrium, Jaber F., and James A. Holstein, eds. Ways of Aging. Maldon, MA: Blackwell Publishing. An edited volume that emphasizes heterogeneity in the ways that people adjust to old age. Goffman, Erving. 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday. Goffman demonstrates his interactionist theory that the self is managed in everyday situations in much the same way that a theatrical performer carries out a stage role. Hersch, Patricia. 1999. A Tribe Apart: A Journey into the Heart of American Adolescence. New York: Ballantine Books. Eight teenagers in Reston, Virginia, struggle with the growing freedom and complexity of adolescence. Lareau, Annette. 2003. Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkeley: University of California Press. Sociologist Annette Lareau uses the qualitative approach known as ethnography to explore how childhood socialization varies by social class and race. Ortner, Sherry. 2003. New Jersey Dreaming: Capital, Culture, and the Class of ‘58. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Ortner, a well-known anthropologist, finds out what happened to her high school classmates after their 1958 graduation. Pelzer, Dave. 1993. A Child Called “It”: One Child’s Courage to Survive. Omaha: Omaha Press. In this auto-biographical account, Pelzer recalls the sadistic abuse and isolation that he endured at the hands of his mother. Pollack, William. 1998. Real Boys: Rescuing Our Sons from the Myths of Boyhood. New York: Henry Holt. A clinical psychologist looks at the disenchantment experienced by so many boys because their true emotions are kept hidden. Quadagno, Jill. 2005. Aging and the Life Course: An Introduction to Social Gerontology, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. A sociological overview not only of the elderly but also of the entire process of aging. Rosier, Katherine Brown. 2000. Mothering Inner-City Children: The Early School Years. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Based on in-depth interviews with low-income mothers, this sociological analysis explains how low-income African-American families cope with the daily pressures and responsibilities of child rearing. Squishinsky, Joel S. 2000. Breaking the Watch: The Meanings of Retirement in America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. A gerontologist considers how workers in the United States approach the end of full-time employment. JOURNALS Among the journals that deal with socialization issues are Adolescence (founded in 1966), Childhood: A Global Journal of Child Research (1993), Ethnology and Sociobiology (1979), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1965), and Young Children (1945). Among the journals that focus on issues of aging and age stratification are Ageing and Society (founded in 1981), Ageing International (1994), Contemporary Gerontology (1994), Death Studies (1976), Generations (1976), The Gerontologist (1961), Journal of Aging and Ethnicity (1996), Journal of Applied Gerontology (1982), Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology (1986), Journal of Gerontology (1946), Research on Aging (1979), and Youth and Society (1968). Chapter 5 Social Interaction, Social Structure, and Groups ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Describe the development of roles in the mock prison experiment. Answer: In Philip Zimbardo's mock prison experiment, participants were assigned roles as either guards or prisoners. Initially, participants adjusted to their roles with a degree of playfulness; however, as the experiment progressed, the roles became more deeply ingrained. Guards began exhibiting increasingly authoritarian and abusive behavior, while prisoners showed signs of emotional distress and submission. The development of these roles was accelerated by the experiment’s artificial environment, which mimicked a real prison setting, reinforcing the behaviors and attitudes associated with their assigned roles. This shift in behavior underscores how social roles and environments can influence individual actions and attitudes. 2. Explain the ethical considerations that led to the end of Zimbardo’s prison experiments. Based on what you learned about the sociological code of ethics in Chapter 2, do you believe that it was appropriate to stop this experiment? Answer: The ethical concerns that led to the cessation of Zimbardo’s experiment included the psychological harm inflicted on participants and the lack of informed consent regarding the potential severity of the experience. Participants, particularly those assigned as prisoners, suffered significant emotional and psychological distress. The experiment's conditions violated principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice outlined in the sociological code of ethics. Given these ethical breaches, it was appropriate to halt the experiment to prevent further harm and ensure the welfare of participants. 3. Use the concepts of social interaction and social structure to explain the events that transpired in Zimbardo’s mock prison experiment. Answer: In Zimbardo’s mock prison experiment, social interaction and social structure played crucial roles. The structured environment of the prison created rigid social roles and norms that guided behavior. Social interaction within this setup intensified these roles: guards, given power and authority, adopted increasingly abusive behaviors, while prisoners, subjected to humiliation and control, became passive and distressed. The social structure of the mock prison, including its hierarchical setup and lack of oversight, facilitated these extreme role behaviors, demonstrating how social structures can profoundly impact individual actions and interactions. 4. Discuss the work of Herbert Blumer and William I. Thomas with respect to social interaction and reality. Answer: Herbert Blumer’s work emphasized symbolic interactionism, focusing on how individuals create and interpret meanings through social interactions. He argued that social realities are constructed through these interactions and that behavior is influenced by the meanings people attach to it. William I. Thomas contributed with the Thomas theorem, stating that "if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." This means that the subjective perception of reality affects behavior, regardless of its objective accuracy. Both Blumer and Thomas highlighted how social interactions shape our understanding of reality and influence actions, reinforcing the significance of perception in social behavior. 5. How do ascribed and achieved statuses serve to identify who a person is in a culture? Answer: Ascribed statuses are characteristics individuals are born with or acquire involuntarily, such as race, gender, and social class. These statuses are often foundational in how people are perceived and treated within a culture. Achieved statuses, on the other hand, are attained through personal effort, achievements, or choices, such as educational attainment or career success. Both types of statuses help define an individual's identity and social position. Ascribed statuses can influence the opportunities and limitations one faces, while achieved statuses reflect personal accomplishments and social mobility. Together, they shape how individuals are perceived and interact within their cultural context. 6. How does a master status differ from an ascribed status? An achieved status? Give an example of a master status which is ascribed and then one which is achieved. Discuss. Answer: A master status is a social position that holds exceptional significance in defining an individual’s identity, often overshadowing other statuses they may possess. It can be either ascribed or achieved. An ascribed master status could be race or ethnicity; for instance, being a Black individual in a predominantly white society can dominate others’ perceptions. An achieved master status might be an accomplished athlete; for example, being a world-renowned athlete may define someone’s identity more than other roles they hold. The difference lies in how master statuses become central to an individual's public identity and interactions, overshadowing other aspects of their social identity. 7. How is disability a master status? Answer: Disability often functions as a master status because it can dominate an individual's identity in social interactions and shape their life experiences. It is a status that significantly affects how others perceive and interact with the person, often overshadowing other aspects of their identity, such as their skills, interests, or personality traits. For example, a person with a disability might be primarily identified by their disability, rather than their professional achievements or personal qualities. This master status can influence social interactions, opportunities, and access to resources, defining how the individual is viewed and treated within society. 8. Distinguish between a medical model and a civil rights model of people with disabilities. Answer: The medical model of disability focuses on the individual’s impairment and sees disability as a problem to be fixed or cured through medical intervention. It emphasizes diagnosis and treatment of the impairment to improve functionality. In contrast, the civil rights model views disability as a social construct, emphasizing the need for societal changes to eliminate barriers and discrimination. It argues that disability is a result of the environment's inability to accommodate diverse needs rather than an individual's inherent condition. The civil rights model advocates for inclusivity and equal rights, highlighting that societal attitudes and structures, rather than just medical conditions, contribute to the experience of disability. 9. Explain the kinds of dilemmas a person may face in carrying out a social role. Answer: When fulfilling a social role, individuals often face various dilemmas that stem from conflicting expectations and pressures. For example, a person may experience role conflict, where the expectations of one role clash with those of another role they occupy, such as a worker needing to meet job demands while also fulfilling family responsibilities. Role strain occurs when the demands of a single role become overwhelming, such as a student struggling to manage academic workload and social life. Additionally, individuals may encounter role ambiguity, where unclear expectations create uncertainty about how to act. These dilemmas can lead to stress and challenges in balancing multiple roles or meeting role expectations effectively. 10. Define and present an example of role conflict. Answer: Role conflict arises when the demands or expectations of two or more social roles an individual occupies are incompatible or contradictory. For instance, consider a working parent who faces role conflict between their professional responsibilities and parenting duties. They might experience tension when their job requires late hours or travel, which conflicts with their role as a caregiver who needs to be present for their children. This clash creates stress and difficulty in meeting the expectations of both roles, highlighting the challenge of balancing conflicting demands in everyday life. 11. Distinguish between role conflict, role strain, and role exit, and provide an example of each. Answer: Role conflict occurs when expectations from different roles are incompatible, such as a manager who must balance the demands of work with family responsibilities. Role strain happens when a single role imposes conflicting demands or excessive pressure, like a student facing difficulties managing a heavy course load and extracurricular activities. Role exit refers to the process of disengaging from a role that has been central to one's identity, such as a retiree leaving their career role and transitioning to a new identity. Each concept illustrates different challenges individuals face as they navigate and adjust to their social roles. 12. What is meant by role exit and how does it relate to the socialization process? Answer: Role exit is the process of leaving or disengaging from a significant social role that has been central to one’s identity. This transition often involves a redefinition of self and adaptation to new roles. For instance, when someone retires, they exit their role as a worker and must adjust to new roles such as being a retiree or engaging in new activities. This process relates to socialization as individuals must learn and adapt to new roles and societal expectations, redefining their identity and integrating into new social contexts. The experience of role exit highlights the dynamic nature of social roles and the ongoing process of socialization throughout life. 13. What part do groups play in a society’s social structure? Answer: Groups are fundamental components of a society's social structure, as they provide the context within which individuals interact and form relationships. Social groups, such as families, peer groups, and professional organizations, help define roles, norms, and expectations that guide behavior. They create a network of social connections that contribute to individuals' identities and social roles. By participating in various groups, individuals gain social support, resources, and opportunities. Groups also influence socialization processes and the distribution of power and status within a society. Thus, groups serve as building blocks for societal organization and interpersonal connections. 14. What impact, if any, has computer technology had on group formation? Answer: Computer technology has significantly transformed group formation by facilitating virtual connections and interactions. Online platforms, such as social media and professional networking sites, enable individuals to form and maintain groups regardless of geographic location. This has led to the creation of diverse virtual communities, where people with shared interests or goals can collaborate and support each other. Technology also enhances the ability to organize and mobilize groups quickly, impacting activism, social movements, and professional networks. However, it can also lead to issues such as reduced face-to-face interactions and the creation of echo chambers, where members are exposed only to similar viewpoints. 15. What is meant by social networks? Answer: Social networks refer to the web of social relationships and connections that individuals maintain, encompassing friends, family, colleagues, and acquaintances. These networks represent the patterns of relationships and interactions among people and can be visualized as nodes connected by lines representing various forms of social ties. Social networks facilitate the exchange of information, resources, and support, influencing individual opportunities, social capital, and social integration. They play a crucial role in shaping social interactions, influencing behaviors, and providing access to resources within a society. 16. What role do social networks play for women in the business world? Answer: In the business world, social networks are vital for women as they provide access to professional opportunities, mentorship, and resources. Networks help women build relationships with peers, mentors, and industry leaders, which can lead to career advancement, job referrals, and business partnerships. Women’s networks can offer support, share information about career development, and create spaces for discussing challenges specific to their experiences. However, women may face barriers in accessing influential networks traditionally dominated by men, impacting their ability to advance and achieve equality in business environments. Social networks thus play a crucial role in shaping women’s professional experiences and opportunities. 17. Distinguish between the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist views of social institutions. Answer: Functionalist View: Functionalism sees social institutions as essential components of the social system, each serving a role in maintaining social stability and cohesion. According to this perspective, institutions like family, education, and religion contribute to societal functions such as socialization, regulation of behavior, and social integration. They are interdependent and work together to ensure the smooth operation of society. Conflict View: Conflict theory, on the other hand, views social institutions as mechanisms through which power and inequality are maintained. Institutions are seen as tools that benefit the dominant groups while perpetuating the disadvantage of less powerful groups. For instance, the education system might reinforce class stratification by providing different quality of education based on socioeconomic status. Interactionist View: Interactionism focuses on the day-to-day interactions and meanings individuals attach to social institutions. This perspective examines how people create and interpret social roles and norms within institutions through their interactions. For example, interactionists might study how individuals experience and understand their roles within a family or workplace. 18. What are the five functional prerequisites that a society must satisfy if it is to survive? Answer: The five functional prerequisites, as identified by sociologist Talcott Parsons, are: 1. Reproduction: Societies must reproduce their members through biological reproduction and socialization of children to ensure the continuation of the population and cultural norms. 2. Socialization: New members must be socialized into the norms and values of the society to maintain social cohesion and continuity. 3. Production: Societies must organize and manage the production of goods and services necessary for survival and well-being. 4. Regulation: Societies require systems of regulation and control to manage social behavior and resolve conflicts, ensuring order and stability. 5. Integration: Societies must integrate members into a cohesive system, promoting social solidarity and collective goals to unify diverse groups. 19. Discuss social institutions from the viewpoint of feminists. Answer: From a feminist perspective, social institutions are often viewed as patriarchal structures that reinforce gender inequalities and maintain male dominance. Feminists argue that institutions such as the family, education, and the workplace are organized in ways that perpetuate gender roles and power imbalances. For instance, the family may be seen as a site where traditional gender roles are reinforced, with women often expected to perform unpaid domestic labor. The education system may contribute to gendered expectations and disparities in career opportunities. Feminists advocate for reforms to challenge and change these institutional structures to achieve gender equality and dismantle systemic sexism. 20. Describe the differences between organic solidarity and mechanical solidarity. Answer: Organic Solidarity: Introduced by Émile Durkheim, organic solidarity characterizes modern, complex societies where social cohesion arises from the interdependence of individuals performing specialized roles. In these societies, people rely on one another's specialized skills and functions to maintain social order. Organic solidarity is typical of industrial and post-industrial societies where roles are diverse and highly differentiated. Mechanical Solidarity: In contrast, mechanical solidarity describes social cohesion in traditional, simpler societies where members share similar values, beliefs, and tasks. This type of solidarity is found in pre-industrial societies with minimal division of labor, where social integration is based on common experiences and collective consciousness. In such societies, the similarity of roles and norms binds people together, creating a strong sense of community. 21. Distinguish between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. Answer: Gemeinschaft: Ferdinand Tönnies introduced the concept of Gemeinschaft (community) to describe social relationships and structures typical of traditional societies. In Gemeinschaft, social bonds are characterized by personal connections, emotional ties, and a sense of belonging. Relationships are often intimate, and social cohesion is maintained through shared values and norms. Examples include close-knit rural communities or family units where personal relationships and social networks play a central role in social organization. Gesellschaft: In contrast, Gesellschaft (society) refers to modern, industrialized societies where social relationships are more impersonal and contractual. Here, social bonds are based on individual goals and achievements rather than personal ties. People interact through formal and professional relationships, and social cohesion is maintained through legal and economic institutions rather than personal connections. Examples include urban environments where interactions are often more transactional and less emotionally involved. 22. How does Ferdinand Tönnies use ideal types? (Note: Ideal type is discussed in Chapter 1). Answer: Ferdinand Tönnies used ideal types as theoretical constructs to understand and analyze social phenomena by comparing and contrasting different types of social relationships. An ideal type is a conceptual model that represents a pure form of a social phenomenon, against which real-world instances can be measured. Tönnies used the ideal types of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft to analyze the transition from traditional to modern societies, highlighting how social bonds and organizational structures evolve. These ideal types help scholars examine how various societies balance personal and impersonal relationships, providing a framework to explore societal changes and dynamics. 23. Outline Gerhard Lenski’s discussion of sociocultural evolution. Answer: Gerhard Lenski focused on sociocultural evolution, which describes how societies change and develop over time based on technological advancements and the resulting shifts in social organization. Lenski outlined several stages of sociocultural evolution: 1. Hunting and Gathering Societies: Characterized by small, nomadic groups relying on hunting, fishing, and foraging. Social structures are simple, and technology is minimal. 2. Horticultural and Pastoral Societies: Societies that engage in farming or animal herding, leading to more permanent settlements and complex social structures. This stage sees the rise of social hierarchies and surplus production. 3. Agrarian Societies: Marked by advanced agricultural techniques, leading to significant technological innovations, social stratification, and centralized political systems. 4. Industrial Societies: Characterized by industrialization, which leads to rapid technological advancement, urbanization, and complex social institutions. 5. Post-Industrial Societies: Focus on information and technology-driven economies, with a shift towards service-oriented jobs and the importance of knowledge and information in social organization. 24. Compare and contrast the approaches to social structure introduced by Émile Durkheim, Ferdinand Tönnies, and Gerhard Lenski. Answer: Émile Durkheim: Durkheim’s approach to social structure is grounded in the concepts of mechanical and organic solidarity. He focused on how social cohesion is maintained in different types of societies. Mechanical solidarity is found in traditional societies with strong collective consciousness, while organic solidarity characterizes modern societies with complex divisions of labor. Durkheim emphasized the role of social institutions and norms in maintaining social order and addressing dysfunctions. Ferdinand Tönnies: Tönnies differentiated between Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (society) to analyze how social relationships change over time. Gemeinschaft represents traditional, intimate social bonds, while Gesellschaft refers to modern, impersonal relationships. Tönnies used these ideal types to explore how societal transitions affect social cohesion and relationships. Gerhard Lenski: Lenski’s approach is centered on sociocultural evolution, examining how technological advancements shape social structures. His framework highlights the progression from simple to complex societies based on technological development and the resulting changes in social organization. Lenski’s focus is on the impact of technological and economic changes on societal structure, contrasting with Durkheim’s and Tönnies’s more static analyses of social bonds and relationships. In summary, Durkheim emphasizes social cohesion through solidarity, Tönnies through the nature of social relationships, and Lenski through technological evolution, each providing a unique lens to understand social structures. 25. What role does technology play in the sociocultural evolution approach to understanding societies? Answer: In the sociocultural evolution approach, technology plays a pivotal role in shaping the development and organization of societies. According to Gerhard Lenski's framework, technological advancements drive changes in social structures and cultural norms. Each stage of sociocultural evolution is marked by significant technological innovations that influence economic practices, social organization, and overall societal complexity. • Hunting and Gathering Societies: Technology is minimal, with tools primarily used for basic subsistence activities. • Horticultural and Pastoral Societies: Advances in farming and herding techniques lead to more permanent settlements and complex social hierarchies. • Agrarian Societies: Significant technological progress in agriculture supports larger populations, leading to more elaborate social institutions and stratification. • Industrial Societies: Industrialization introduces advanced machinery and production processes, causing urbanization and shifts in social roles and institutions. • Post-Industrial Societies: Information technology and digital communication dominate, transforming economies into knowledge-based systems and altering social interactions and institutions. Technology, therefore, acts as a catalyst for sociocultural change, influencing every aspect of societal development. 26. What are the differences among industrial, post industrial, and postmodern societies? Answer: Industrial Societies: Characterized by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial production. The focus is on mass production, mechanization, and the growth of urban centers. Social structures become more complex with distinct class stratifications and formal institutions. The economy centers around manufacturing and industrial labor. Post industrial Societies: Marked by a transition from manufacturing to service and information-based economies. Technology and information systems become crucial, leading to a knowledge-based economy where services and digital technologies drive economic growth. Social roles and structures adapt to the emphasis on information and technological innovation. Postmodern Societies: Defined by a skepticism of grand narratives and ideologies, with a focus on diversity, relativism, and the blending of cultural forms. Technology and media play significant roles in shaping identity and social relations. Postmodern societies are characterized by fragmented and diverse social experiences, fluid identities, and a mix of traditional and contemporary cultural elements. These stages reflect evolving economic and technological contexts that redefine social organization and cultural norms. 27. Discuss the links your text presents between media concentration and politicians. Answer: Media concentration refers to the consolidation of media ownership into fewer hands, which can significantly influence political processes and public opinion. The text often highlights several key links between media concentration and politicians: • Influence on Public Opinion: Concentrated media ownership can lead to biased reporting, shaping public perception and political attitudes based on the interests of a few powerful media owners. • Political Agendas: Media conglomerates may support political candidates or parties that align with their business interests, influencing electoral outcomes and policy decisions. • Access and Representation: Politicians may cater to media owners and executives to secure favorable coverage, leading to a skewed representation of political issues and debates. • Policy Influence: Concentrated media can affect policy-making by amplifying certain issues and diminishing others, impacting legislative priorities and political discourse. Overall, media concentration can lead to an imbalance in political power and public information, affecting democratic processes and political accountability. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Would you have more respect for a person who is born wealthy or a person who becomes wealthy through hard work? Address the differences associated with ascribed and achieved statuses in your answer. Answer: Respect may lean toward a person who becomes wealthy through hard work, as this reflects achieved status and personal effort. In contrast, being born wealthy is an ascribed status, which involves no personal accomplishment but rather inherited privilege. 2. In the United States today, which type of factors do you believe are more important in shaping or determining one’s social class—ascribed or achieved? Discuss. Answer: Achieved factors, such as education and career success, are increasingly influential in shaping social class in the U.S., although ascribed factors like race and family background still play significant roles. 3. Discuss the various ways a person may experience role strain. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: Role strain occurs when fulfilling a single role's demands becomes challenging, such as a student struggling with both academic and extracurricular commitments or a parent balancing work and family responsibilities. 4. Describe how the impact of political terrorist attacks is likely to affect various social interactions among groups. Include your own observations of events following the 9/11 terror attacks and the war with Iraq in your answer. Answer: Political terrorist attacks often heighten group solidarity within affected communities but can also increase suspicion and division between groups, as seen with heightened security measures and increased nationalism post-9/11. 5. Analyze the importance of social institutions from the three major sociological perspectives. How are the views similar and different? Answer: Functionalists view social institutions as essential for maintaining societal stability, conflict theorists see them as means of perpetuating inequality, while interactionists focus on how institutions affect daily interactions and identities. 6. Discuss how social life and interaction would be affected if the Internet permanently disappeared today. Use the sociocultural evolution approach to describe your predictions. Answer: The disappearance of the Internet would disrupt communication and access to information, potentially causing a regression to less efficient forms of social interaction and information sharing, reflecting a shift to an earlier stage of sociocultural evolution. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Social Structure and Emotion: Have students explore how social structure impacts our emotional life. Bruno S. Frey and Alois Stutzer. Happiness and Economics: How the Economy and Institutions Affect Human Well-Being. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001. 2. Changing Social Roles in the Catholic Church: This book argues that, because of a lack of men willing to serve as celibate priests, the types of social roles available through Catholicism are undergoing major changes. Richard A. Schoenherr. Goodbye Father: The Celibate Male Priesthood and the Future of the Catholic Church. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. 3. Prison Interaction: See Geoffrey Hunt et al., “Changes in Prison Culture: Prison Gangs and the Case of the ‘Pepsi Generation,’“ Social Problems 40 (August 1993): 398–409. 4. Networking Among Men and Women: See Gwen Moore, “Structural Determinants of Men’s and Women’s Personal Networks,” American Sociological Review 55 (October 1990): 726–735. 5. Social Networks in China: See Peter M. Blau, Danching Ruan, and Monika Ardelt, “Interpersonal Choice and Networks in China,” Social Forces 69 (June 1991): 1037–1062. 6. Gerhard Lenski: See Gerhard Lenski and Patrick D. Nolan, “Trajectories of Development: A Test of Ecological-Evolutionary Theory,” Social Forces 63 (September 1984): 1–23; and “Trajectories of Development: A Further Test,” Social Forces 64 (March 1984): 744–795. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION The Brandon Teena Story (1998, 89 minutes). This powerful and disturbing documentary depicts the life and death of Teena Renae Brandon, a Nebraska teenager who transitioned from female to male. The documentary also provided the basis for the Academy Award winning film, Boys Don’t Cry, starring Hilary Swank. The documentary provides a solid foundation for discussion of the concepts of role strain, role conflict, and master status. Breaking Silence: Sisters at Desales Heights (1993, 58m). While the term role exit is not used, this motion picture illustrates the concept as it traces 12 elderly nuns facing the outside world for the first time in their adult lives. Coming Out Under Fire (Fox Lorber, 1994, black & white, 71m). Explores through interviews the roots and impact of the “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy. From Social Interaction to Social Structure (Dallas TeleLearning, 1991, 30m). Explores the ways in which social interaction leads to social relationships and social structures. The program defines social interaction, culture, and socialization. It describes different levels of social structure, from groups to societies, and demonstrates how sociologists study these various levels. Group Influence (Insight Media, 2001, 30m). This video examines the Asch studies and Milgram experiment. The nature of group influence can be used to demonstrate the evolution from mechanical to organic solidarity as argued by Émile Durkheim. Keeping up Appearances: The Culture of Conformity (McGraw-Hill, 25m). Whether following stated procedures or complying with implicit rules of conduct, modern humans willingly modify their behavior dozens of times each day. This program investigates the conformity necessary for mass interactions and the flexibility required to learn and use the behaviors of conformity. In addition to conventions, such as air travel protocol and museum manners, instances of the subversion and even outright abuse of conformity are examined. Social Institutions: Politics and Education (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This film gives an overview of social institutions, and utilizes interviews with sociologists to show how political and educational institutions are connected to the rest of society. Social Interaction, Conflict, and Change (Dallas TeleLearning, 1991, 30m). Defining social conflict and social change, this program examines how individuals and communities are affected by their surroundings. It demonstrates how social change at the community level results in role conflict and role strain. Social Interaction in Diverse Settings (RMI, 1992, 60m). Describes a model for social interaction that helps to explain the similarities and differences among human beings. It defines the terms culture, cultural scene, propriospect, idiolect, and aggregation. ADDITIONAL READINGS Albom, Mitch. 1997. Tuesdays with Morrie. New York: Doubleday. Social interaction can take place under unusual circumstances, such as that chronicled in the relationship between a young man and his ailing former sociology professor, Morrie Schwartz. Bell, Daniel. 1999. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books. Updated with a new foreword, this book describes the current economic trend away from growing food or making products for a living and toward the provision of services and information as a livelihood. Ebaugh, Helen Rose Fuchs. 1988. Becoming an Ex: The Process of Role Exit. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Sociologist Ebaugh examines the phenomenon of becoming an “ex”—for example, an ex-convict, an ex-nun, a divorced person, or a mother who lost custody of her children. Kennedy, Dan. 2003. Little People: Learning to See the World through My Daughter’s Eyes. New York: Rodale Press. A “normal” man learns about the master status of dwarfism through his daughter’s experience with the condition. Kephart, William M., and William M. Zellner. 2001. Extraordinary Groups: An Examination of Unconventional Lifestyles, 7th ed. New York: Worth. Among the groups described in this very readable book are the Amish, the Oneida community, the Mormons, Hasidic Jews, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and the Romani (commonly known as Gypsies). Putnam, Robert D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon and Schuster. A public policy scholar considers whether what he calls “social capital”—community activity and group participation—has declined in the last few decades. Shilts, Randy. 1987. And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Shilts, a reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle, offers this devastating critique of the nation’s medical, political, and media establishments for allowing the AIDS epidemic to reach grave proportions before taking it seriously. Skolnick, Jerome H., and Elliot Currie, eds. 2003. Crisis in American Institutions, 12th ed. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. A collection of readings focused on the problems facing social institutions in the United States. Wuthnow, Robert, and John H. Evans, eds. 2002. The Quiet Hand of God: Faith-Based Activism and the Public Role of Mainline Protestantism. Berkeley: University of California Press. This book, edited by a leading researcher of religion, addresses the important but little-known social and political involvements of mainline religious groups. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of social interaction and social structure are Journal of Contemporary Ethnography (formerly Urban Life, founded 1971), and Symbolic Interaction (1977). Among the journals that focus on the study of groups and organizations are Academy of Management Journal (founded in 1958), Administration and Society (1969), Administrative Science Quarterly (1956), Clinical Sociology Review (1981), Organization: Interdisciplinary Journal of Organization Theory and Society (1994), Organizational Studies (1980), Small Group Research (formerly Small Group Behavior, 1970), Social Psychology Review (1948), and Work and Occupations (1974). Chapter 6 The Mass Media ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Discuss what you believe to be some of the implications of the pervasiveness of media in our lives. Answer: The pervasive presence of media in daily life influences behavior, perceptions, and social interactions significantly. It shapes public opinion, spreads information rapidly, and can create a homogenized culture by exposing individuals to similar content regardless of geographical location. This constant exposure can lead to a heightened awareness of global issues but also contributes to information overload and a decreased ability to critically evaluate content. Additionally, media's influence on self-image and societal norms can impact mental health and reinforce stereotypes. 2. Discuss the media as agents of socialization. Answer: The media serves as a powerful agent of socialization by shaping and reinforcing societal values, norms, and behaviors. Through various platforms—such as television, social media, and online news—individuals learn about societal expectations and cultural practices. For example, media portrayals of gender roles, family dynamics, and social issues can influence perceptions and behaviors from a young age. Educational programs, advertisements, and news coverage also contribute to the socialization process by providing models of behavior and reinforcing societal norms. 3. Discuss the media as enforcers of social norms. Answer: Media enforces social norms by consistently presenting and reinforcing acceptable behaviors and values. Through repeated portrayals of "ideal" behavior, appearance, and lifestyle, media sets standards for what is deemed normal or desirable. For example, advertisements and TV shows often highlight specific beauty standards or consumer behaviors as normative, influencing individuals to conform. By showcasing reactions to deviant behavior and emphasizing consequences, media also discourages behaviors that deviate from societal expectations, thus upholding social norms. 4. Discuss the role of the media in shaping perceptions about the risks of substance abuse. Answer: The media plays a crucial role in shaping public perceptions of substance abuse risks by framing how such issues are presented and discussed. Through news reports, documentaries, and public service announcements, the media can highlight the dangers and consequences of drug and alcohol use, influencing public awareness and attitudes. For instance, sensationalized portrayals of addiction or dramatic anti-drug campaigns can heighten perceived risks, while more balanced representations might offer insight into prevention and treatment. Additionally, media coverage can affect policy discussions and public opinion by emphasizing certain aspects of substance abuse, such as its link to crime or health problems. 5. Explain how the mass media confer status on people, organizations, and public issues. Answer: Mass media confers status by selecting and highlighting individuals, organizations, or issues for public attention, thus shaping societal perceptions of importance and credibility. Celebrities and public figures gain recognition and influence through media exposure, which can elevate their status and impact. Similarly, organizations receiving extensive media coverage are perceived as more significant or trustworthy. Public issues gain prominence when they are covered frequently, affecting their perceived urgency and priority. For example, a media campaign focusing on climate change can elevate it to a top public concern, influencing policy and individual behaviors. 6. Based on your own experiences, explore the links between media advertising and consumerism. Answer: Media advertising drives consumerism by constantly presenting products and lifestyles as desirable and necessary. From personal experiences, it’s evident that advertising creates a sense of need or aspiration, often through persuasive techniques like emotional appeals and endorsements. For example, advertisements for fashion and technology often depict them as essential for social status or happiness. Media advertising frequently links products to positive outcomes, such as success or attractiveness, reinforcing consumer desire and influencing purchasing decisions. This cycle of exposure and reinforcement fuels consumer behavior and shapes market trends. 7. Discuss the narcotizing effect of the mass media. Answer: The narcotizing effect of the mass media refers to the phenomenon where the constant bombardment of news and information leads to a sense of saturation and complacency among the public. Instead of actively engaging with or addressing the issues presented, people may become numb or apathetic due to the overwhelming volume of media content. For example, extensive coverage of natural disasters or social injustices might lead to desensitization, where the audience feels emotionally drained or resigned rather than motivated to act. This effect diminishes the impact of important issues, reducing the likelihood of meaningful public response or engagement. 8. What is gatekeeping, and what is its role in the mass media? Answer: Gatekeeping is the process by which media organizations and professionals decide which information and stories to publish, broadcast, or highlight, thus controlling the flow of information to the public. This role involves selecting which events or issues are deemed newsworthy, shaping public discourse by filtering content. Gatekeepers, including editors, journalists, and media executives, influence what is seen and heard based on their criteria, biases, or organizational policies. For instance, a news outlet may prioritize certain political stories over others, affecting public perception and focus on specific topics. 9. Discuss the relationship between the dominant ideology and the construction of reality. Answer: The dominant ideology refers to the set of beliefs and values that are widely accepted and promoted by those in power within a society. This ideology shapes the construction of reality by framing how social issues, behaviors, and norms are perceived and understood. Media and institutions often reflect and reinforce the dominant ideology, influencing public attitudes and behaviors. For example, capitalist values in many Western societies emphasize individual success and consumerism, which are reflected in media portrayals of success and ambition. This ideological framework helps construct a shared reality that aligns with the interests of those in power. 10. Give examples of how television content reinforces stereotypes. Answer: Television content often reinforces stereotypes through recurring themes and character portrayals. For instance, sitcoms frequently depict women in domestic roles or men as inept at household tasks, perpetuating traditional gender roles. Similarly, crime dramas may portray certain ethnic groups disproportionately as criminals, reinforcing racial stereotypes. Reality shows and news segments sometimes amplify these stereotypes by focusing on sensationalized or extreme cases. These portrayals shape public perceptions and contribute to the perpetuation of biased beliefs and generalizations about different groups in society. 11. Discuss the three problems that feminists believe arise from media coverage. Answer: Feminists identify three main problems with media coverage: underrepresentation, misrepresentation, and objectification. Underrepresentation occurs when women and minority groups are portrayed in fewer and less varied roles compared to men, reinforcing a lack of diversity in public perceptions. Misrepresentation involves the distortion or simplification of women's roles and issues, often portraying them in stereotypical or limiting ways. Objectification refers to the portrayal of women as objects of male desire rather than as complex individuals with their own agency and identity. These problems collectively contribute to the perpetuation of gender inequalities and biased social norms. 12. Discuss the approach to the mass media taken by interactionists. Answer: Interactionists focus on the ways in which media content is created, consumed, and interpreted through everyday social interactions. They are interested in how media messages are negotiated and how they influence and reflect social norms and individual behaviors. For example, interactionists might examine how viewers interpret television shows based on their own social contexts or how media portrayals of certain groups influence personal interactions and identity. This perspective highlights the dynamic relationship between media producers and consumers, emphasizing the role of social context and interaction in shaping media’s impact. 13. Explain what is meant by a segmented audience. Answer: A segmented audience refers to the division of the overall audience into smaller, distinct groups based on various demographic or psychographic factors such as age, gender, interests, or lifestyle. This segmentation allows media producers to target specific groups with tailored content that appeals to their particular preferences and needs. For instance, television networks might create channels focused on specific interests like sports or cooking to attract viewers with those particular hobbies. By targeting segmented audiences, media organizations can increase engagement and effectiveness of their content and advertising strategies. 14. What is an opinion leader? Answer: An opinion leader is an individual who holds significant influence over the opinions and behaviors of others within their social network. They are typically recognized for their expertise, credibility, or charismatic presence on specific topics, making their views particularly persuasive. Opinion leaders often shape public perceptions and attitudes through their roles in media, politics, or social circles. For instance, a respected journalist or a popular social media influencer can act as an opinion leader, affecting how their followers perceive current events or consumer products. 15. Discuss the main concerns surrounding media, technology and the right to privacy. Answer: Concerns surrounding media, technology, and the right to privacy include data security, surveillance, and data ownership. Data security involves protecting personal information from unauthorized access or breaches. Surveillance refers to the monitoring of individuals by governments or corporations, often raising fears about invasive tracking and loss of anonymity. Data ownership concerns who controls and profits from personal information collected online. These issues highlight the tension between technological advancement and the protection of individual privacy rights, raising ethical and legal questions about the balance between security and personal freedoms. 16. Compare and contrast the functionalist perspective and the social conflict perspective regarding censorship and privacy issues. Answer: From a functionalist perspective, censorship and privacy issues are seen as mechanisms to maintain social order and cohesion. Censorship may be justified as a means to prevent harm and preserve societal norms, while privacy is valued as a way to protect individuals' well-being and social stability. In contrast, the social conflict perspective views censorship and privacy concerns as reflections of power struggles and inequalities. Censorship is often seen as a tool used by powerful groups to control dissent and maintain dominance, while privacy issues are viewed through the lens of exploitation and control by those in power over less privileged groups. Thus, functionalists emphasize stability, while conflict theorists focus on power dynamics and resistance. 17. Which do you consider the greatest threat to society: government censorship, cybercrime, or Internet surveillance? Explain. Answer: The greatest threat to society can be debated, but Internet surveillance is a significant concern due to its broad implications for personal freedom and democracy. While government censorship restricts freedom of expression and cybercrime poses direct risks to individuals' financial and personal security, Internet surveillance affects everyone by potentially creating a climate of fear and self-censorship. It undermines trust in public institutions and erodes democratic values by normalizing invasive monitoring practices. The widespread nature of surveillance and its potential to be abused for control and repression makes it a critical issue with far-reaching consequences. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss televising executions of convicted criminals from a functionalist perspective. Why or why not would you believe it to reaffirm proper behavior in a society? Answer: From a functionalist perspective, televising executions might be seen as a way to reinforce social norms and values by demonstrating the consequences of criminal behavior, thereby deterring crime and reaffirming societal standards. However, it could also be argued that such practices might desensitize viewers to violence and undermine respect for human life, potentially having the opposite effect of destabilizing societal norms. 2. Discuss how media reporting in the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks helped to confer status on police officers and firefighters within the United States. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: Media reporting after 9/11 elevated police officers and firefighters as heroes through extensive coverage of their bravery and sacrifice. Examples include the portrayal of first responders in news stories and documentaries, which emphasized their critical roles in rescuing victims and combating terrorism, thereby conferring a heightened status on these professionals. 3. Describe how regulating pornography on the Internet could be considered gatekeeping. Are there any positive effects of not regulating Internet transmissions? Answer: Regulating pornography on the Internet is a form of gatekeeping that controls access to content based on societal norms and legal standards. Positive effects of minimal regulation could include greater freedom of expression and reduced censorship, allowing diverse perspectives and content to be accessible without excessive restrictions. 4. Describe how politicians or celebrities have used symbols or staged photo ops to convey self-serving definitions of social reality. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: Politicians and celebrities often use symbols and staged photo ops to craft a favorable public image. For example, a politician might visit a disaster site wearing casual attire to appear empathetic and relatable, while celebrities might stage charity events to project a caring persona, thus influencing public perceptions in their favor. 5. Discuss how parents who regulate the quantity and quality of the television shows their children watch could be viewed as both protecting and inhibiting their children. Answer: Parents regulating TV content protect children from inappropriate material and influence their development positively by choosing educational and age-appropriate shows. However, this control can also inhibit their children's exposure to diverse perspectives and limit their understanding of broader social realities, potentially stifling their ability to navigate varied media landscapes independently. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. News Framing in Television: This book explores how television media subjectively shape our perceptions of fear and danger. David L. Altheide. Creating Fear: News and the Construction of Crisis. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2002. 2. Representation of Hispanics in Television Shows: See S. Robert Lichter and Daniel R. Amundson, “Distorted Reality: Hispanic Characters in TV Entertainment.” In Clara Rodriquez (ed.). Latin Looks. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000, pp. 57–92. 3. Reinforcement of Stereotypes through Films: See Bruce E. Johansen, “Race, Ethnicity, and the Media.” In Alan Wells and Ernest A. Hakanen (eds.). Mass Media and Society. Greenwich, CT: Ablex, 1997, pp. 513–25. 4. The Role of Popular Music in Social Change: See Tricia Rose, “Orality and Technology: Rap Music and Afro-American Cultural Resistance.” In Alan Wells and Ernest A. Hakanen (eds.). Mass Media and Society. Greenwich, CT: Ablex, 1997, pp. 207–16. 5. What Television Tells Us about Our Lives: S. Robert Lichter, Linda S. Lichter, and Stanley Rothman. Watching America: What Television Tells Us about Our Lives. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991. 6. Race and Media Framing: Joe R. Feagin. The White Racial Frame: Centuries of Racial Framing and Counter-Framing. New York: Routledge, 2010. 7. Social Class and Media Framing: See Class Dismissed: How TV Frames the Working Class. Media Education Foundation, 2005. In this clever and well-delivered documentary, popular media is critically examined for its differential depiction of the social classes. Clips from a number of popular programs are featured, dating from the 1950s through the early 2000s. The video is a useful platform to open up discussion about several important topics including: social class in the United States; the media’s role in shaping attitudes about class, race, and gender; and how to usefully apply the Conflict and Feminist Perspectives. It may also be useful as a starting point for a research paper or portfolio assignment on the topic. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION Class Dismissed: How TV Frames the Working Class (Media Education Foundation, 2005). In this clever and well-delivered documentary, popular media is critically examined for its differential depiction of the social classes. Communications Media and Technology (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video gives a basic overview of media issues like gatekeeping, and explores both the pros and cons of mass media in our society. Killing Us Softly 3 (Media Education Foundation, 2000, 34 minutes). In this now famous documentary, Jean Kilbourne exposes the treatment of girls and women in the mass media. Mass Communication, Part 1: Forging an Identity (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 42m). This ABC News program anchored by Peter Jennings takes a critical look at how the media rose to prominence during the years between U.S. involvement in World War I and the onset of the Cold War. Mass Communication, Part 2: Toward a Global Village (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2002, 32m). This ABC News program with Peter Jennings focuses on the way in which both the silver screen and the television screen have reflected America’s national culture and even shaped the country’s perception of the latter half of the twentieth century. Mass Media in Society (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2001, 28m). In this program, academic and industry experts examine the globalization of information exchange, the way in which it has altered the social distance between nations and individuals, and the future of mass media. The Mean World Syndrome (Media Education Foundation, 2010, 51 minutes). This film examines how media violence cultivates in heavy viewers, especially, a heightened state of insecurity, exaggerated perceptions of danger, and a fear-driven propensity for hard-line political solutions to social problems. Media Impact (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2001, 28m). This program emphasizes the seductive nature of films and television. It is an essential component of any course that addresses the importance of critical viewing skills and an awareness of the media’s impact on perceptions. Media Rights and Responsibilities (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 28m). This program looks at all of the issues surrounding the media’s pursuit of the advertising dollar versus its responsibility to exercise some concern for the public good. Playing Unfair: Media Images of the Female Athlete (Media Education Foundation, 30 minutes, 2002). This program examines contemporary media images of women in sports, exposing the severity of women’s underrepresentation, homophobic overtones, and themes of overt sexualization. Scene Smoking: Cigarettes, Cinema, and the Myth of Cool (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2001, 46m). Using interviews with some of the biggest names in filmmaking, this provocative program addresses the impact on young viewers of smoking in movies and on TV, and debates questions of artistic license and social responsibility. Should You Let Them Watch? Assessing Media Violence (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 13m). In this ABC News program, noted psychology professor Jonathan Freedman and Pulitzer Prize-winning science author square off against the University of Michigan’s Leonard Eron and L. Rowell Hesumann to debate the issue of assessing media violence. Television Media: Headlines or Hype? (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1998, 29m). This program profiles the history of the electronic media, reveals its biases and tendencies toward sensationalism and exploitation, and highlights the challenges facing networks and local stations in the current sensation-seeking culture. Why We Buy (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2003, 51m). This video examines the habits of American buying and shopping. Many topics, from branding to compulsive shopping, are explored. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bayton, Mavis. 1999. Frock Rock: Women Performing Popular Music. New York: Oxford University Press. Based on in-depth interviews and participant observation in Great Britain, this book looks at how and why the occupation “rock musician” remains male-dominated. Croteau, David, and William Hoynes. 2001. The Business of Media: Corporate Media and the Public Interest. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. Two sociologists examine the mass-media industry and the social changes it has undergone. Dolby, Nadine. 2001. Constructing Race: Youth, Identity and Popular Culture in South Africa. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. An examination of how the media and elements of the popular culture affect adolescents in South Africa. Fisherkeller, JoEllen. 2002. Growing up with Television: Everyday Learning among Young Adolescents. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. This study—predicated on the assumption that adolescents are an active media audience—examines how young people use television to mold an identity for themselves. Johnson, Phylis, and Michael C. Keith. 2000. Queer Airwaves: The Story of Gay and Lesbian Broadcasting. The first book-length study of the role of gays and lesbians in television and radio. McChesney, Robert W. 1999. Rich Media, Poor Democracy: Communication Politics in Dubious Times. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. A look at the increasing concentration of newspapers, television stations, and radio stations in the hands of a few wealthy corporations, making the information age harmful for public life, according to the author. Miller, Toby, Nitin Govil, John McMurria, and Richard Maxwell. 2001. Global Hollywood. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Examines how the network of motion picture production companies, distributors, marketing firms, and banks maximize the impact of big-budget filmmaking from Hollywood on the global marketplace. Pomerance, Mary, ed. 2001. Ladies and Gentlemen, Boys and Girls: Gender in Film at the End of the Twentieth Century. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. An examination of gender as portrayed in film both in the United States and worldwide. JOURNALS Among the journals that consider mass media are Communication Research (founded in 1974), Howard Journal of Communications (1991), Journal of Consumer Culture (2001), Popular Culture (1967), Media, Culture and Society (1979), and Public Culture (1989). Solution Manual for Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026812, 9780071318419