This Document Contains Chapters 4 to 6 CHAPTER 4: Human Variation and Adaptation Multiple Choice Questions 1. Variation between human populations may be the result of __________. a. differences in genes b. growing up in a particular environment c. interaction between genes and environment d. all of the above 2. ___________ are changes in the structure of genes. a. Mutations b. Gene frequencies c. DNA molecules d. Alleles 3. ___________ are the ultimate source of all genetic variation. a. Mutations b. Gene frequencies c. DNA molecules d. Alleles 4. ___________ results in more favorable genes becoming more frequent in a population over time. a. Mutation b. Natural selection c. Luck d. Planning 5. ___________ are genetic changes that give their carriers a better chance of survival and reproduction than individuals without the genetic change who live in the same environment. a. Mutations b. Gene frequencies c. Alleles d. Adaptations 6. How adaptive a gene or trait is depends on the __________. a. weather. b. environment. c. climate. d. temperature. 7. ___________ involves physiological adjustments in individuals to environmental conditions. a. Climate b. Weather c. Acclimatization d. Mutation 8. The most notable physical variations among human populations are those that are __________. a. internal b. external c. transitional d. none of the above 9. __________ describes what seems to be a general relationship between body size and temperature. a. Robert’s rule b. Darwin’s principle c. Bergmann’s rule d. Boas’s rule 10. The color of a person’s skin depends on both the amount of blood in the small blood vessels of the skin and the amount of __________ in the skin. a. planktin b. riboflavin c. melanin d. pores 11. The amount of melanin in the skin seems to be related to the __________ where a person lives. a. weather b. climate c. rainfall d. moonlight 12. An advantage of light skin is greater absorption of Vitamin __________. a. A b. B c. C d. D 13. It can be concluded that _________ is related to height. a. weight b. nutrition c. genetic makeup d. all of the above 14. An abnormality of the red blood cells is known as __________. a. sickle-cell anemia b. Hodgkin’s disease c. Alzheimer’s d. fecundity 15. Racism is the belief that __________. a. there are variations in human populations b. some races are innately inferior to others c. variations between human populations are noticeable d. all races are equal 16. Regarding human beings, race is a(n) _________ category. a. scientific b. religious c. social d. accurate 17. A major reason for the European domination of colonized peoples was __________. a. the susceptibility of colonized people to infectious disease b. the cultural superiority of Europeans c. the cultural inferiority of Africans, Asians, and Native Americans d. that God willed it 18. J. Philippe Rushton has argued that race has __________. a. a causal effect on behavior b. no relationship to behavior c. no basis in scientific thinking d. all of the above 19. In 1994, _________ published The Bell Curve, a book arguing that there is a causal link between race and intelligence. a. Sapir and Whorf b. Boas and Weber c. Herrnstein and Murray d. Ember and Ember 20. The first large-scale intelligence testing in the United States began with its entry into __________. a. World War I b. World War II c. the Korean War d. the Vietnam War 21. In 1969, __________ argued that “blacks” were less intelligent than “whites.” a. Arthur Goldberg b. Arthur Ashe c. Art Garfunkel d. Arthur Jensen 22. The exact reproduction of an individual from cellular tissue is called __________. a. reproduction b. transplanting c. cloning d. mutation 23. __________ is an acclimatization. a. Tanning among light-skinned people b. Shivering c. Increased metabolic rates d. All of the above 24. __________ states that protruding body parts are relatively shorter in the cooler areas of a species’ range than in the warmer areas. a. Robert’s rule b. Darwin’s principle c. Bergmann’s rule d. Allen’s rule 25. __________ studies in mean body weight of human populations with widely differing temperatures have provided support for Bergmann’s rule. a. Roberts’s b. L. Wolfe’s c. J. P. Rushton’s d. J. Allen’s 26. __________ states that populations of birds and mammals living in warmer climates have more melanin and, therefore, darker skin, fur, or feathers. a. Robert’s rule b. Gloger’s rule c. Bergmann’s rule d. Allen’s rule 27. At high altitudes, we take in less oxygen with every breath, which causes a condition known as __________. a. anemia. b. melanoma. c. hypoxia. d. lopoxia. 28. Peruvians who were born at sea level but who grew up at high altitudes developed _________ amount of lung capacity than/as people who had spent their entire lives at high altitudes. a. a greater b. a lesser c. the same d. none of the above 29. Since epidemics of infectious disease may occur only if many people live near each other, __________ are least likely to keep an epidemic going. a. food collectors b. pastoralists c. agriculturists d. industrialists 30. Racial classification is problematic because there is sometimes more __________ diversity within a single geographic group that might be called a race than there is between supposed “racial” groups. a. physical b. physiological c. genetic d. all of the above Essay Questions 31. Discuss the processes involved in susceptibility to infectious diseases. 32. What factors affect fecundity? Discuss their importance. 33. Race is a highly controversial topic when applied to human differences. Why is it so controversial? 34. What do differences in IQ scores really mean? 35. Which do you judge to be better for the future of humankind and why: The perpetuation of human variability or the creation of an invariable “perfect” human? 36. What factors—genetic, cultural, and environmental—account for variations in height? 37. Discuss two of the myths of racism. Why are these myths important? 38. Compare the significance of various processes in human variation and adaptation. 39. Skin color has come to represent for many people a clear “racial” marking. What do we know about the reasons for differences in skin color? 40. After reading the chapter, what are the most significant things about human variation in your judgment? Explain why you think the items you chose are the most significant. Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. d 2. a 3. a 4. b 5. d 6. b 7. c 8. b 9. c 10. c 11. b 12. d 13. d 14. a 15. b 16. c 17. a 18. a 19. c 20. a 21. d 22. c 23. d 24. d 25. a 26. b 27. c 28. c 29. a 30. d Essay Answer 31. Susceptibility to infectious diseases involves several key processes: 1. Exposure: Contact with pathogens through air, water, food, or direct contact. 2. Entry: Pathogens enter the body through portals such as respiratory tract, digestive tract, skin breaks, or mucous membranes. 3. Adherence: Pathogens attach to host cells, facilitated by specific surface molecules. 4. Invasion: Pathogens invade host tissues and evade immune responses. 5. Colonization: Pathogens multiply and establish themselves in host tissues. 6. Pathogenicity: Ability of pathogens to cause disease, influenced by virulence factors. 7. Host factors: Individual characteristics like age, genetics, immunity, and underlying health conditions affecting susceptibility. 8. Transmission: Spread of pathogens to others through direct or indirect contact, contributing to community-level susceptibility. Understanding these processes helps in developing strategies for prevention, treatment, and control of infectious diseases. 32. Fecundity, the potential reproductive capacity of an individual or population, is influenced by several factors: 1. Age: Fecundity typically peaks during prime reproductive years and declines with age. 2. Health: Physical health and fertility health significantly impact fecundity. 3. Nutrition: Adequate nutrition supports reproductive functions and influences fertility. 4. Environmental factors: Pollution, climate, and habitat conditions can affect fertility rates. 5. Lifestyle choices: Factors like smoking, alcohol consumption, and stress can negatively impact fecundity. 6. Genetics: Inherited traits and genetic conditions can affect reproductive capabilities. 7. Medical conditions: Chronic diseases, hormonal imbalances, and reproductive disorders can affect fecundity. Understanding these factors is crucial for addressing reproductive health issues, optimizing fertility treatments, and promoting overall population health. 33. Race is controversial due to: 1. Social construction: Race lacks biological basis but has been historically used to categorize people based on physical characteristics. 2. Inaccurate stereotypes: Racial categories perpetuate stereotypes and overlook genetic diversity within populations. 3. Discrimination: Racial classifications have justified discrimination, oppression, and unequal treatment. 4. Ethical concerns: Applying race can oversimplify complex cultural, social, and genetic identities. 5. Scientific consensus: Modern genetics shows race as a poor predictor of genetic variation, challenging its validity in biological terms. 34. Differences in IQ scores reflect varying levels of cognitive abilities measured through standardized tests. They can indicate relative strengths or weaknesses in problem-solving, reasoning, and other cognitive skills, but they do not fully capture intelligence's breadth, which includes emotional intelligence, creativity, and practical skills. Factors like education, environment, and cultural background can influence IQ scores, making them a limited measure of overall intelligence. 35. The perpetuation of human variability is better for the future of humankind because it embraces diversity, which fosters resilience, adaptability, and innovation. It respects individual differences and enriches society culturally, socially, and scientifically. In contrast, striving for an invariable "perfect" human risks homogenizing traits and stifling diversity, potentially limiting humanity's ability to tackle complex challenges and adapt to changing environments. 36. Variations in height are influenced by: 1. Genetic factors: Inherited genes from parents play a significant role in determining height. 2. Environmental factors: Nutrition, health during childhood and adolescence, and access to healthcare impact growth. 3. Cultural factors: Socioeconomic conditions, dietary habits, and cultural practices can affect height within populations. 37. Two myths of racism include: 1. Myth of biological superiority: False belief that certain racial groups are inherently superior or inferior based on genetic traits. 2. Myth of cultural inferiority: False assumption that certain racial or ethnic groups are less capable or advanced due to cultural differences. These myths are important because they perpetuate stereotypes, justify discrimination, and hinder social progress. Debunking them promotes equality, challenges systemic racism, and encourages understanding of the complex factors influencing human capabilities and societies. 38. Various processes in human variation and adaptation include genetic diversity, cultural practices, environmental factors, and social dynamics. Each plays a crucial role: 1. Genetic diversity: Provides the raw material for adaptation to different environments and selective pressures. 2. Cultural practices: Influence behavior, technology, and social organization, aiding adaptation through knowledge sharing and innovation. 3. Environmental factors: Shape physical and physiological traits, influencing survival and reproductive success. 4. Social dynamics: Impact adaptation by shaping group interactions, cooperation, and responses to challenges. Understanding these processes helps explain how humans have adapted and diversified across different environments and societies throughout history. 39. Differences in skin color are primarily due to adaptation to varying levels of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in different geographic regions: 1. Melanin: Pigment produced by skin cells that absorbs UV radiation to protect against DNA damage. 2. Evolutionary adaptation: Populations in sunnier regions evolved darker skin to block excess UV radiation and prevent skin cancer. 3. Geographic distribution: Lighter skin in regions with less sunlight allows for sufficient vitamin D synthesis. 4. Genetic diversity: Various genetic factors influence melanin production, contributing to skin color variation among individuals and populations. 40. The most significant aspects of human variation include: 1. Genetic diversity: It underpins the adaptability of humans to different environments and disease resistance. 2. Cultural diversity: Shapes behaviors, traditions, and societal norms, influencing how humans interact with their environment and each other. These aspects are crucial because they highlight the complexity of human evolution, resilience, and the interplay between genetics, culture, and environment in shaping human diversity and adaptation over time. Understanding these dynamics is essential for appreciating the richness of human experience and addressing global challenges effectively. CHAPTER 5: Primates: Present and Past Multiple Choice Questions 1. Humans belong to the order of __________. a. Mammalia b. Chordata c. Homo d. Primates 2. Humans evolved from earlier __________ which are now extinct. a. monkeys b. chimpanzees c. orangutans d. primates 3. Many skeletal features of primates reflect a(n) ___________ existence. a. agrarian b. terrestrial c. arboreal d. pastoral 4. Primates are generally ___________. a. frugivores b. omnivores c. carnivores d. herbivores 5. Primates have chewing teeth—molars and premolars—that are ___________, and front teeth—incisors and canines—that are ___________. a. unspecialized/unspecialized b. specialized/specialized c. specialized/unspecialized d. unspecialized/specialized 6. Primates are characterized as __________. a. stereoscopic b. monoscopic c. myopic d. hyperopic 7. A common primate trait is __________. a. forward-facing eyes b. grasping hands and feet c. a large brain relative to body size d. all of the above 8. For most primates, particularly those that are ___________, group life may be crucial to survival. a. diurnal b. nocturnal c. bipedal d. terrestrial 9. The prosimians resemble other mammals _________ the anthropoid primates do. a. less than b. the same as c. more than d. The prosimians don’t resemble other mammals at all. 10. The order Primates is usually subdivided into two suborders: the prosimians and the _________. a. humans b. ceboids c. anthropoids d. catarrhines 11. Which of the following in not a prosimian? a. lemurs b. tarsiers c. lorises d. chimpanzees 12. Anthropoids include all of the following except _________. a. monkeys b. apes c. lorises d. humans 13. Which is not a characteristic of New World monkeys? a. three premolars b. arboreal c. two premolars d. prehensile tail 14. Old World monkeys have the same _________ as apes and humans. a. number of teeth b. brain to body ratio c. mating habits d. bipedalism 15. The hominoid group contains all of the following families except __________. a. hylobates b. pongids c. hominids d. cercopithecines 16. __________ is not a hominoid characteristic. a. Relatively large brains b. A tail c. Fairly large arms d. Longer and stronger hands than other primates 17. The Y-5 pattern of hominids refers to __________. a. expanded cerebral cortex capacity. b. lower cuspids having five cusps with a Y shaped groove. c. bipedalism. d. all of the above. 18. Which of the following statements is not true of gibbons and siamangs? a. They mate for life. b. They are brachiators. c. There is great sexual dimorphism. d. They live in small family groups. 19. The largest of the surviving apes are __________. a. gorillas b. chimpanzees c. gibbons d. orangutans 20. Which of the following is not a distinct hominid trait? a. consistently walks erect b. dish-shaped pelvis c. straight lower limbs d. prehensile feet 21. Hominid females can have sex __________. a. only when they are likely to conceive b. at any time during the year c. when the moon is blue d. when the moon is full 22. __________ is not a behavioral ability of hominids. a. Tool making b. Language c. Gender-role specialization d. Being arboreal 23. Compared with other primates, the human dependency period is much ________. a. longer b. shorter c. about the same d. Humans have no dependency period. 24. The best candidate for the earliest anthropoid is __________. a. Carpolestes b. Caluromys c. Catopithecus d. Aegyptopithecus 25. Except for ___________, the following are similarities exhibited by parapithecids to modern anthropoids. a. bony partitions behind the eye sockets b. narrow incisors c. projecting canines d. low, rounded cusps on the molars 26. Many scholars believe that _____________ must have been the means of bringing anthropoids to South America. a. rafting on drifting vegetation b. island hopping when sea levels were much lower c. migration before the continents drifted apart d. migrating across the land bridge between Asia and North America 27. The best known genus of proto-ape from the Miocene is the __________. a. Kenyapithecus b. Sivapithecus c. Proconsul d. Dryopithecus 28. Pierolapithecus, the oldest ape-like find, is dated to __________. a. 10 million years ago b. 13 million years ago c. 16 million years ago d. 20 million years ago 29. As more fossils of Sivapithecus were discovered, scholars recognized it was remarkably similar in facial structure to __________. a. orangutans b. chimpanzees c. gibbons d. gorillas 30. As more fossils of Dryopithecus were discovered, scholars recognized it was remarkably similar to __________. a. gorillas b. chimpanzees c. gibbons d. orangutans Essay Questions 31. List and discuss the importance of the major hominid behavioral traits. 32. List and discuss the importance of the major hominid physical traits. 33. Explain the reasons for primate variability. 34. Compare the similarities and differences between the hylobates and pongids. 35. Compare the New and Old World monkeys. What is the significance of their differences? 36. What is the importance of the differences between prosimians and other primates? 37. List the major social features of primates. Discuss the significance of these features. 38. The purpose of this chapter is to aid in understanding more about humans through studying primates. What are some of the areas of this study that you find most helpful in understanding humans? 39. Skeletal and dentition similarities of hominoids point to a common ancestry. Explain this statement. Discuss its significance. 40. What is the importance of the varying dependency periods for different primates? Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. d 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. a 7. d 8. a 9. c 10. c 11. d 12. c 13. c 14. a 15. d 16. b 17. b 18. c 19. a 20. a 21. b 22. d 23. a 24. c 25. b 26. a 27. c 28. b 29. a 30. d Essay Answer 31. The major hominid behavioral traits include: 1. Bipedalism: Walking upright freed hominids' hands for tool use and allowed for more efficient movement over long distances. 2. Tool Use and Manufacture: Early hominids began making and using tools, which aided in hunting, gathering, and processing food, demonstrating early cognitive abilities. 3. Large Brain Size: Evolution towards larger brains enabled increased cognitive abilities, including problem-solving, language development, and social interaction. 4. Complex Social Structures: Hominids developed intricate social behaviors, including cooperation, communication, and group living, which enhanced survival and adaptation. 5. Use of Fire: Control and use of fire provided warmth, protection, and enabled cooking, which increased dietary options and nutritional intake. These traits collectively allowed hominids to adapt to diverse environments, expand into new territories, and lay the foundation for modern human development. 32. The major hominid physical traits and their importance include: 1. Bipedalism: Walking upright allowed for efficient movement and freed hands for tool use, contributing to early hominid survival and adaptation. 2. Large Brain Size: Increased cognitive abilities facilitated tool-making, problem-solving, and social interaction, key to hominid development and adaptation. 3. Opposable Thumbs: Enhanced dexterity for tool manipulation and grasping objects, crucial for early hominid tool use and technological advancement. 4. Dental Adaptations: Changes in tooth structure enabled varied diets, from tough plant materials to cooked foods, supporting nutritional needs and dietary flexibility. 5. Forward-Facing Eyes (Binocular Vision): Depth perception for accurate tool use, hunting, and navigation in diverse environments, aiding survival and resource acquisition. These physical traits collectively contributed to hominid success in evolving, adapting to new environments, and developing complex social and technological behaviors. 33. Primate variability is influenced by factors such as habitat diversity, dietary adaptations, social structures, and evolutionary pressures. These factors drive variations in behavior, morphology, and ecological niche occupation among primate species. 34. Hylobates (gibbons) and pongids (great apes) are both primate groups, but they differ in several key ways: Similarities: • Both are primates with complex social structures. • Both exhibit varying degrees of arboreality (tree-dwelling behavior). • Both show advanced cognitive abilities compared to other primates. Differences: • Hylobates (gibbons) are smaller, arboreal, and typically monogamous, while pongids (great apes) are larger, include chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, and bonobos, and show more diverse social structures. • Pongids have larger body sizes and different dietary habits, with some being omnivorous and others primarily herbivorous. • Pongids have more complex tool use and cultural behaviors compared to hylobates. These differences reflect their evolutionary adaptations to different environments and social structures. 35. New World monkeys (found in Central and South America) and Old World monkeys (found in Africa and Asia) differ in several ways: Differences: • Nose: New World monkeys have broad, flat noses with outward-facing nostrils, while Old World monkeys have narrow noses with downward-facing nostrils. • Prehensile Tails: Many New World monkeys have prehensile tails used for grasping branches, which are absent in Old World monkeys. • Dental Formula: New World monkeys typically have a dental formula of 2.1.3.3 / 2.1.3.3, while Old World monkeys have a dental formula of 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3. • Geographical Distribution: New World monkeys are found in Central and South America, while Old World monkeys are found in Africa and Asia. Significance: • These differences reflect separate evolutionary paths and adaptations to their respective environments. • Behavioral and anatomical distinctions help in understanding primate evolution, ecological roles, and adaptive strategies in different continents. Understanding these differences aids in studying primate diversity, behavior, and conservation strategies tailored to their specific habitats and challenges. 36. The differences between prosimians (such as lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers) and other primates (such as monkeys and apes) are important because they reflect distinct evolutionary paths and adaptations: • Evolutionary History: Prosimians represent more primitive forms of primates, retaining characteristics that offer insights into early primate evolution. • Ecological Niches: Prosimians occupy different ecological niches compared to monkeys and apes, contributing to biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics in their habitats. • Behavioral and Morphological Diversity: Understanding these differences enhances our knowledge of primate behavior, morphology, and adaptation to various environments. Studying prosimians helps in comprehending the broader spectrum of primate evolution, biodiversity, and conservation strategies tailored to different primate groups. 37. Major social features of primates include: 1. Social Grouping: Primates often live in social groups, varying from solitary to large, complex societies. 2. Social Hierarchies: Many primates exhibit dominance hierarchies within groups, influencing access to resources and mating opportunities. 3. Communication: Primates use vocalizations, gestures, facial expressions, and body language to communicate within their groups. 4. Altruism and Cooperation: Cooperative behaviors, such as grooming, sharing food, and protecting group members, are common among primates. 5. Parental Care: Primates show varying degrees of parental care, from extensive caregiving in some species to minimal care in others. Significance: • These social features reflect adaptations to ecological challenges and contribute to primate survival, reproduction, and adaptation. • Understanding primate social behavior informs studies on human evolution, social structure dynamics, and conservation strategies. • Social interactions in primates provide insights into cognition, emotional intelligence, and the development of complex societies across evolutionary time scales. 38. Studying primates helps understand humans in areas such as: 1. Evolutionary Origins: Insights into early human behaviors, adaptations, and anatomy. 2. Social Behavior: Understanding of human social structures, cooperation, and communication. 3. Cognitive Abilities: Comparative studies shed light on human cognition, problem-solving, and tool use. 4. Ecological Adaptations: Lessons on human interactions with the environment and resource management. 5. Health and Disease: Research into primate diseases aids in human medical studies and treatments. These areas provide foundational knowledge crucial for understanding human evolution, behavior, and biology. 39. The skeletal and dentition similarities among hominoids (great apes and humans) suggest a common ancestry, indicating evolutionary relationships and shared genetic heritage. These similarities include: 1. Skeletal Structure: Features like the structure of the limbs, pelvis, and skull exhibit variations that suggest adaptations to different locomotive patterns and behaviors shared among hominoids. 2. Dentition: Similarities in dental patterns, such as the number and arrangement of teeth, reflect evolutionary adaptations to diet and environmental changes over time. Significance: • Evolutionary Relationships: Studying these similarities helps reconstruct the evolutionary history of hominoids, tracing their divergence from a common ancestor millions of years ago. • Behavioral Adaptations: Understanding skeletal and dental adaptations provides insights into hominoid behaviors, such as locomotion, diet, and social structures, which shaped their evolutionary success. • Comparative Anatomy: Comparative studies with modern humans reveal shared traits and adaptations, highlighting the biological foundations of human uniqueness and our connections to other primates. In summary, these similarities underscore the shared evolutionary journey of hominoids and provide crucial evidence for understanding human origins and biological diversity within the primate lineage. 40. The varying dependency periods among different primates are important because they reflect adaptations to ecological and social pressures: • Ecological Adaptation: Dependency periods influence how primates interact with their environment and access resources during critical developmental stages. • Social Dynamics: Longer dependency periods often correlate with complex social structures and learning behaviors, impacting social relationships and group dynamics. • Evolutionary Strategies: Differences in dependency periods highlight diverse evolutionary strategies for survival, reproduction, and adaptation across primate species. Understanding these variations aids in studying primate evolution, behavior, and conservation, providing insights into the development of human caregiving and social dynamics. CHAPTER 6: The First Hominids and the Emergence of Homo Multiple Choice Questions 1. The famous footprints of Australopithecus were found at __________. a. Laetoli b. Alexandria c. Nairobi d. Addis Ababa 2. Gracile australopithecines include all of the following except __________. a. anamensis b. afarensis c. aethiopicus d. africanus 3. Robust australopithecines include all of the following except __________. a. aethiopicus b. boisei c. africanus d. robustus 4. The earliest Australopithecine species, anamensis, is dated to about __________ million years ago. a. 3.9-4.2 b. 5.8-4.4 c. 8.8-10.3 d. 11-12 5. Anthropologist Donald Johanson found 40 percent of the skeleton of a female hominid at Hadar; he named it __________ after the Beatles song. a. Rita b. Lucy c. Yoko d. Day-Tripper 6. The first early hominid found outside East Africa is __________. a. A. garhi b. A. afarensis c. A. bahrelghazali d. A. africanus 7. The earliest identifiable stone tools from East Africa date from about __________ million years ago. a. 5.5 b. 4.5 c. 3.5 d. 2.5 8. Anthropologists speculate that early stone tools found in East Africa were made by __________. a. Homo sapiens b. Australopithecus robustus c. Early Homo d. Australopithecus afarensis 9. The Leakeys worked for almost 30 years at __________ before finding a hominid fossil, A. boisei. a. Laetoli b. Hadar c. the Fayum d. Olduvai Gorge 10. According to the model of human evolution in Ember and Ember, the presumed common ancestor of apes and modern humans lived about __________ million years ago. a. 30 b. 15 c. 10 d. 6 11. Undisputed bipedal early hominids lived in __________ about 4 million years ago. a. China b. East Africa c. North America d. West Africa 12. Which of the following hominid characteristics came first? a. bipedalism b. modification of the female pelvis c. expansion of the brain d. reduction of the face 13. With the drying trend of 16 to 11 million years ago, the area called the ________ expanded in Africa. a. polar icecaps b. tropical rain forest c. savanna d. bush 14. The first clear evidence of stone tools appeared more than __________ million years after the appearance of bipedalism. a. 12 b. 10 c. 5 d. 2 15. Of the following animals, which was not hunted at Terra Amata, near Nice, France? a. Rhinoceros b. Elephant c. Stags d. Rabbits 16. All of the following are “costs” of bipedalism except __________. a. it is harder to overcome gravity to supply the brain with sufficient blood b. the weight of the body above the pelvis and lower limbs puts greater stress on the hips, lower back, knees, and feet c. the hands were freed for other tasks d. pregnant women had greater stress placed on the lower limbs 17. Sahelanthropus tchadensis lived about __________ million years ago. a. 15 b. 7 c. 3 d. 2 18. Which of the following has evidence showing that it may have been a bipedal early hominid? a. Orrorin tugenensis b. Sahelanthropus tchadensis c. Kenyapithecus d. all of the above 19. What makes Ardipithecus ramidus unique is that it __________. a. was bipedal b. had apelike dentition c. combined apelike dentition with bipedalism d. had a giant body 20. The first definite hominid was __________. a. Sahelanthropus tchadensis b. Kenyapithecus c. Australopithecus d. Orrorin tugenensis 21. The widening of the female pelvis is related to __________. a. reduction of the face, teeth, and jaws b. decreased cranial capacity c. larger brained babies d. smaller brained babies 22. A. anamensis has been found in several locations in __________. a. Japan b. the United States c. Tanzania d. Kenya 23. The first hominid species to be widely distributed in the Old World was __________. a. Australopithecus afarensis b. Homo habilis c. Homo rudolfensis d. Homo erectus 24. The fossil that Raymond Dart discovered was that of __________. a. an adult male b. a young child c. an older woman d. an older man 25. Sexual dimorphism in Homo erectus is __________. a. the same as in Homo habilis b. greater than that found in Homo sapiens c. greater than that found in Homo habilis d. less than in earlier Australopithecine species 26. Generally, the greater the sexual dimorphism, the __________ the social dominance of males over females. a. less b. greater c. more equal d. none of the above 27. The tool tradition identified with Homo erectus is the __________. a. Oldowan b. Mousterian c. Acheulian d. none of the above 28. Acheulian sites were usually located close to __________. a. water sources b. lush vegetation c. large stocks of herbivorous animals d. all of the above 29. Early Olduvai hominids __________. a. were vegetarians b. exploited a wide range of animals c. ate only a few animals d. none of the above 30. The average size of the brain of Homo sapiens is _________ cc. a. 440 b. 1000 c. 1300 d. 1500 Essay Questions 31. Discuss the importance of bipedalism in the evolution of hominids. 32. Discuss and evaluate theories of the evolution of bipedalism. 33. Why is Sahelanthropus tchadensis important in understanding evolution? 34. Compare Orrorin tugenensis and Ardipithecus ramidus. Why are they important in the understanding of hominid evolution? 35. What is Scott Simpson’s evaluation of the importance of A. afarensis in human evolution? 36. Why are the australopithecines considered the first definite hominid? 37. Why are the new finds of early “robust” australopithecines puzzling? 38. Discuss the importance of the work of the Leakey family. 39. Explain why cladograms of human evolution are important. 40. Discuss the model of human evolution presented by Ember, Ember, and Peregrine. Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. a 2. c 3. c 4. a 5. b 6. c 7. d 8. c 9. d 10. d 11. b 12. a 13. c 14. d 15. d 16. c 17. b 18. a 19. c 20. c 21. c 22. d 23. d 24. b 25. d 26. b 27. c 28. d 29. b 30. c Essay Answer 31. Bipedalism was crucial in hominid evolution as it freed the hands for tool use and manipulation, facilitated efficient long-distance travel, and enabled adaptation to diverse environments, leading to increased foraging capabilities and cognitive development. 32. Several theories explain the evolution of bipedalism in hominids: 1. Efficiency in Long-Distance Travel: Proposes that bipedalism evolved to reduce energy expenditure during travel over long distances on the ground, allowing early hominids to efficiently search for food and migrate between habitats. 2. Thermoregulation: Suggests that bipedalism evolved to reduce heat stress by minimizing direct exposure to the sun during the hottest parts of the day, thereby enhancing survival in open savanna environments. 3. Freeing Hands for Tool Use: Argues that bipedalism allowed early hominids to free their hands for tool manipulation and carrying food and infants, facilitating the development of tool use and social behaviors. 4. Visual Surveillance and Predator Detection: Posits that standing upright provided early hominids with better visual surveillance of their surroundings, aiding in predator detection and group cohesion. Evaluation: • These theories are not mutually exclusive and likely interacted to various extents in the evolutionary process. • Fossil evidence and comparative anatomy support the shift towards bipedalism in early hominids, highlighting its adaptive advantages. • The transition to bipedalism was likely driven by a combination of ecological changes and evolutionary pressures, leading to increased survival and reproductive success. 33. Sahelanthropus tchadensis is important in understanding evolution because it represents one of the earliest known hominins, dating back approximately 7 million years. Its discovery in Chad suggests a possible ancestral link between humans and chimpanzees. Studying Sahelanthropus helps trace the early divergence of hominins from other primates, offering insights into the origins and adaptive traits that eventually led to the development of modern humans. 34. Orrorin tugenensis and Ardipithecus ramidus are both important in understanding hominid evolution: 1. Orrorin tugenensis: Known from fossils dated around 6 million years ago, Orrorin provides insights into early bipedalism. Its femur suggests bipedal capabilities, potentially placing it close to the human-chimpanzee divergence. 2. Ardipithecus ramidus: Dated to about 4.4 million years ago, Ardipithecus exhibits a mix of ape-like and human-like traits. Its fossilized remains, including a partial skeleton named "Ardi," provide critical evidence of early bipedalism and adaptation to woodland environments. Both species contribute crucial evidence to the understanding of when and how bipedalism evolved in hominids, shedding light on the early stages of human evolution and the transition from ape-like ancestors to early humans. 35. Scott Simpson emphasizes the importance of Australopithecus afarensis in human evolution due to its fossil record, which includes the famous "Lucy" specimen. A. afarensis provides crucial evidence of early bipedalism, suggesting significant adaptations for walking upright. This species lived approximately 3.9 to 2.9 million years ago and helps bridge the gap between earlier ape-like ancestors and later, more human-like hominins. 36. The australopithecines are considered the first definite hominids because they exhibit a combination of bipedalism and ape-like characteristics, placing them firmly within the human lineage. Fossil evidence suggests they lived between 4.2 to 1.2 million years ago, showing adaptations for upright walking, which is a key defining trait of hominids. 37. The new finds of early "robust" australopithecines are puzzling because they challenge previous assumptions about the linear progression of human evolution. These specimens, such as Paranthropus robustus and Paranthropus boisei, exhibit robust cranial features and specialized dentition suggesting adaptations for a different diet compared to contemporary Homo species. Their coexistence with early Homo species raises questions about the diversity and evolutionary paths within the hominin lineage during that period. 38. The Leakey family's work is crucial in the field of paleoanthropology as they made significant discoveries of early human fossils in East Africa. Louis Leakey, Mary Leakey, and their son Richard Leakey contributed extensively to the understanding of human evolution. Their discoveries include important fossils like Zinjanthropus (Paranthropus boisei), Homo habilis, and the Laetoli footprints, which provided key insights into the origins and development of human ancestors. Their work helped establish Africa as a significant area for human evolutionary research and shaped our understanding of the timeline and diversity of early hominins. 39. Cladograms of human evolution are important because they visually depict evolutionary relationships among hominins based on shared characteristics. They help scientists organize and interpret fossil and genetic data, clarifying the sequence of evolutionary changes over time. Cladograms provide a framework for understanding the branching patterns and relationships between different species, aiding in reconstructing the evolutionary history of humans and their ancestors. 40. Ember, Ember, and Peregrine's model of human evolution emphasizes cultural evolution alongside biological changes. They propose that human societies evolve through stages: foraging, horticulture, agriculture, and industrialism. Their approach integrates both biological and cultural aspects, highlighting the role of technology, social organization, and environmental factors in shaping human evolution over time. Test Bank for Human Evolution and Culture: Highlights of Anthropology Carol R. Ember, Melvin R. Ember, Peter N. Peregrine 9780205924776, 9780205232390, 9780136036357, 9780133976069
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