CH-3 Personality, Perception, and Attribution – Organizational Behavior: Science, The Real World, and You : Book Guide

3. PERSONALITY, PERCEPTION, AND ATTRIBUTION REVIEW QUESTIONS: Suggested Answers What are individual differences, and why should managers understand them? Answer: In order to understand human behavior, we must know something about the person and about the situation. Because no two individuals are alike, managers face the challenge of working with people who possess a multitude of individual characteristics. Important individual differences include personality characteristics, social perceptions and attributions of causality. The more a manager understands these differences, the better he or she can work with others. Define personality, and describe its origins. Answer: Personality is a relatively stable set of characteristics that influences an individual's behavior. Family influences, cultural influences, educational influences, and environmental forces all shape personality. Describe two theories of personality and explain what each contributes to our knowledge of personality. Answer: Two theories of personality are trait theory and the integrative approach. Trait theory was the earliest approach toward studying personality, and in part because of criticism of its approach, it provided the basis for other types of theories. The integrative approach is the most comprehensive theory because it includes a variety of psychological processes. Describe the eight preferences of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator instrument. How does this measure Carl Jung's ideas? Answer: Jung's theory of individual differences is put into application through the Myers-Briggs instrument. The initial division he proposed was between Extraverted and Introverted individuals. He added the measurements of Sensing and Intuition, which depict how individuals gather information. The third set includes Thinking and Feeling, styles of decision making, and the fourth set reflects one's orientation to the outer world. What factors influence social perception? What are the barriers to social perception? Answer: Perception is influenced by all things with which we come into contact, and helps us understand our surroundings and ourselves. Selective perception is the tendency to choose information that supports our viewpoints. Stereotyping is a generalization made about a group of people, and is often inaccurate. First impression error is the tendency to form lasting opinions about an individual based on initial perceptions. Projection involves the tendency to assume that other people are similar to us and that our own values and beliefs are appropriate. Self-fulfilling prophecies are expectations that become reality. Describe the errors that affect the attribution process. Answer: Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to make attributions to internal causes when focusing on someone else's behavior. Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute one's own successes to internal causes and one's failure to external causes. DISCUSSION and communication QUESTIONS: suggested answers What contributions can high self-monitors make in organizations? Low self-monitors? Answer: High self-monitors would do well in sales jobs or in any position that requires meeting the public because of their attentiveness to cues from other people and from situations. Low self-monitors would do well in jobs that are consistent with their fundamental beliefs. Because they prefer that their behavior is consistent with their attitudes, they would be uncomfortable in certain sales situations, such as having to sell a product they didn't believe in. High Self-Monitors: 1. Adaptability: High self-monitors can quickly adjust to different social and professional situations, making them effective in dynamic environments. 2. Networking: Their ability to read social cues and modify their behavior helps them build strong networks and relationships within the organization. 3. Leadership: They can inspire and motivate different types of employees by adapting their communication and leadership styles to fit the audience. 4. Conflict Resolution: High self-monitors can navigate conflicts more smoothly by understanding and responding to the emotions and perspectives of others. Low Self-Monitors: 1. Consistency: Low self-monitors provide stability and predictability in their actions and decisions, which can be reassuring to colleagues and subordinates. 2. Authenticity: Their genuine and straightforward nature fosters trust and credibility within the organization. 3. Integrity: They are likely to uphold strong ethical standards and are less influenced by changing social pressures or expectations. 4. Focus: Low self-monitors often stay true to their values and goals, providing a clear sense of direction and purpose within their teams and projects. Both high and low self-monitors bring valuable contributions to organizations, balancing adaptability and authenticity, which can enhance overall organizational effectiveness. How can managers improve their perceptual skills? Answer: Managers need to be aware of characteristics in themselves, in situations, and in other people that affect social perception. They need to understand the barriers to accurate perception and guard against these barriers. Managers can improve their perceptual skills by: 1. Seeking Feedback: Regularly solicit feedback from colleagues and subordinates to gain different perspectives and identify blind spots. 2. Active Listening: Practice active listening to fully understand others' viewpoints and reduce misunderstandings. 3. Continuous Learning: Engage in training and development programs focused on emotional intelligence, cultural awareness, and bias reduction. Which has the stronger impact on personality: heredity or environment? Answer: This is a good discussion question in class, particularly if there are psychology and sociology students taking the organizational behavior course. There are good arguments for either position. Both have an impact. Both heredity and environment significantly impact personality, but their influence varies. Heredity provides the genetic framework and predispositions, while environment shapes personality through experiences, upbringing, and social interactions. Most researchers agree that it is the interaction between heredity and environment that ultimately shapes an individual's personality, with neither being solely dominant. How can managers make more accurate attributions? Answer: Managers can make more accurate attributions by gathering information carefully and possessing an awareness of self-serving bias and fundamental attribution error. Managers can make more accurate attributions by: 1. Gathering Comprehensive Information: Collect data from multiple sources and perspectives to understand the context of behavior or performance. 2. Avoiding Assumptions: Refrain from jumping to conclusions and recognize potential biases that may influence judgment. 3. Applying the Attribution Theory: Use principles like consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus to systematically analyze the causes of behavior. 4. Reflecting on Past Experiences: Learn from previous attribution errors and successes to refine their evaluative processes. How can managers encourage self-efficacy in employees? Answer: Managers can provide job challenges, coaching and counseling for improved performance, and reward employees' achievements to enhance self-efficacy. Managers can encourage self-efficacy in employees by: 1. Providing Positive Feedback: Offer regular, constructive, and specific praise to reinforce employees' confidence in their abilities. 2. Setting Achievable Goals: Establish clear, attainable objectives to build a sense of accomplishment and motivation. 3. Offering Support and Resources: Ensure employees have the necessary tools, training, and support to perform their tasks effectively. 4. Modeling Behavior: Demonstrate effective strategies and behaviors, showing employees that success is attainable. 5. Encouraging Skill Development: Promote continuous learning and professional growth opportunities to enhance competence and confidence. How can self-serving bias and the fundamental attribution error be avoided? Answer: Awareness is the first step. Careful information gathering and conscious attention to one's own attributional tendencies are essential. Owning up to one's failures is important. Self-serving bias and the fundamental attribution error can be avoided by: 1. Increasing Self-Awareness: Regularly reflect on personal biases and assumptions to recognize when these biases might be influencing judgments. 2. Seeking Objective Feedback: Encourage and consider feedback from diverse sources to gain a balanced perspective on situations and behaviors. 3. Focusing on Evidence: Base attributions on objective data and observable evidence rather than assumptions or subjective interpretations. 4. Considering External Factors: Actively think about situational and environmental influences that could be affecting others' behaviors and performance. 5. Training on Bias Reduction: Engage in training programs that highlight common biases and teach strategies for more accurate attribution. You have been asked to develop a training program for interviewers. An integral part of this training program focuses on helping interviewers develop better social perception skills. Write an outline for this section of the training program. Be sure to address barriers to social perception and ways to avoid them. Answer: During class discussion, encourage students to share interview experiences they have had in which misperceptions played a role. This would also be a good assignment to refer back to during the discussion of learning in Chapter 6. Training Program Outline: Developing Better Social Perception Skills for Interviewers I. Introduction to Social Perception • Definition and importance of social perception in the interview process • Impact of accurate social perception on hiring decisions II. Understanding Barriers to Social Perception • A. Stereotyping • Definition and examples • Effects on interview outcomes • B. Halo Effect • Definition and examples • How it can skew overall impression based on one positive trait • C. Recency Effect • Definition and examples • Importance of considering the entire interview • D. Attribution Errors • Fundamental attribution error and self-serving bias • How they affect judgment of candidates III. Strategies to Overcome Barriers • A. Awareness and Reflection • Self-awareness exercises to recognize personal biases • Reflection techniques post-interview • B. Structured Interviews • Importance of using a standardized set of questions • How to maintain consistency across interviews • C. Note-Taking and Objective Recording • Techniques for detailed and unbiased note-taking • Using objective criteria for candidate evaluation • D. Diverse Interview Panels • Benefits of having multiple interviewers from diverse backgrounds • How it mitigates individual biases IV. Enhancing Observation and Listening Skills • A. Active Listening Techniques • Encouraging interviewers to listen more and talk less • Summarizing and paraphrasing candidate responses • B. Nonverbal Communication • Training on interpreting body language, facial expressions, and other nonverbal cues • Importance of congruence between verbal and nonverbal communication V. Practice and Role-Playing • A. Mock Interviews • Conducting practice interviews with feedback sessions • Role-playing different scenarios to identify and overcome biases • B. Group Discussions • Sharing experiences and learning from peers • Discussing difficult cases and how to handle them VI. Continuous Improvement and Feedback • A. Regular Training Updates • Periodic refresher courses on social perception and bias reduction • B. Feedback Mechanisms • Encouraging feedback from candidates and peers on the interview process • Using feedback to improve and refine interview techniques VII. Conclusion • Summary of key points • Emphasis on the importance of developing social perception skills for effective interviewing • Encouragement to continuously practice and improve these skills Appendices • A. Checklist for Unbiased Interviewing • B. Recommended Reading and Resources • C. Contact Information for Further Support and Training Sessions This outline provides a comprehensive framework for helping interviewers develop better social perception skills, ensuring a fair and effective hiring process. Form groups of four to six, then split each group in half. Debate the origins of personality, with one half taking the position that personality is inherited, and the other half taking the position that personality is formed by the environment. Each half should discuss the implications of its position for managers. Answer: To enhance the debate, this assignment could be made prior to the class in which the debate will occur so that students have the opportunity to conduct outside research on the different perspectives. Group Debate: Origins of Personality Group 1: Personality is Inherited Arguments: 1. Genetic Influence: • Research shows that traits such as temperament, intelligence, and certain behaviors have a strong genetic component. • Twin studies suggest that identical twins raised apart often exhibit similar personality traits. 2. Biological Basis: • Biological factors, such as brain chemistry and hormonal levels, influence personality development. • Certain personality disorders are linked to genetic predispositions. 3. Consistency Across Lifespan: • Personality traits show considerable stability over time, indicating a genetic basis. Implications for Managers: 1. Understanding Individual Differences: • Recognizing that employees have inherent traits can help in tailoring management approaches to suit different personalities. • Managers can use personality assessments during hiring to match candidates with suitable roles. 2. Fixed Traits: • Since inherited traits are relatively stable, managers should focus on leveraging employees' strengths rather than trying to change their core personality traits. • Training and development programs can be designed to enhance skills rather than alter inherent traits. Group 2: Personality is Formed by Environment Arguments: 1. Social Influence: • Family, culture, education, and life experiences play a significant role in shaping personality. • Socialization processes, such as reinforcement and modeling, influence behavior and personality development. 2. Environmental Factors: • Childhood experiences, including parenting style, education, and peer interactions, significantly affect personality. • Life events, such as trauma or major changes, can lead to personality shifts. 3. Behavioral Adaptability: • Individuals adapt their behavior based on environmental cues and feedback. • Personality can evolve over time in response to changing circumstances and environments. Implications for Managers: 1. Creating Supportive Environments: • Managers can foster positive work environments that encourage desirable behaviors and personal growth. • Organizational culture and management practices can shape employees' attitudes and behaviors. 2. Flexible Management Approaches: • Managers should adopt flexible strategies that consider the influence of environmental factors on employees. • Providing opportunities for continuous learning and development can help employees adapt and grow. Debate Process 1. Opening Statements: • Each side presents a 3-minute opening statement outlining their main arguments. 2. Rebuttal: • Each side gets 2 minutes to rebut the opposing side's arguments. 3. Discussion: • Open floor discussion for 5 minutes, where both sides can ask questions and provide further evidence. 4. Closing Statements: • Each side presents a 2-minute closing statement summarizing their key points and implications for managers. 5. Group Reflection: • After the debate, groups come together to reflect on the discussion and consider how both genetic and environmental factors might interact in shaping personality. • Discuss how managers can balance these perspectives to effectively lead and develop their teams. ETHICAL DILEMMA Sandra seems to fit in with the other employees just fine, but seems to have trouble relating to Juanita on an individual basis. Juanita’s options are to 1) fire Sandra, 2) talk to Sandra about her inconsistent behavior, or 3) do nothing and see if Sandra’s behavior becomes more consistent. Using consequential, rule-based, and character theories, evaluate Juanita’s options. Answer: Consequential – If Juanita fires Sandra, Sandra will probably be unhappy, the other employees may wonder why she was fired since they got along well, and Juanita may be happy but will then have to find someone to replace Sandra. If she talks to Sandra, she may avoid firing her and may even discover the reason for Sandra’s apparent shyness around her, the other employees will be happy to have Sandra still there, and Juanita may be able to resolve the inconsistent behavior. If Juanita does nothing, the inconsistent behavior may resolve on its own, but that is unlikely, and she will continue to be frustrated. Rule-based – If Juanita fires Sandra, she may be seen by the other employees to be violating an unwritten obligation to approach Sandra about the inconsistent behavior before dismissing her. If she talks to Sandra about the situation, she may be seen by the others as upholding her obligation to at least attempt to resolve things. If she does nothing, she may also be seen as ignoring her responsibilities. Character – If Juanita fires Sandra, she may be seen as strong, but lacking in compassion or understanding. If she talks to Sandra, she will be exhibiting strength, compassion, and understanding. If she does nothing, Juanita may be seen as weak and ineffective, especially if the inconsistent behavior does not resolve quickly on its own. 2. What should Juanita do? Why? Answer: The best course of action for Juanita is to approach Sandra about her inconsistent behavior and try to resolve the situation. This option has the best likelihood of providing the most benefit for everyone involved, she will be fulfilling her obligation as a manager to try to understand and provide professional development for her employees, and she will be exhibiting strength, compassion, and understanding. EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES 3.1 Management Styles This exercise illustrates David Keirsey's temperaments and their related management styles. Students should complete the questionnaire prior to the exercise. To do the exercise, students should be assigned to groups according to their temperament: NF, NT, SJ, or SP. The rather vague task students are assigned is intended to bring out the different management styles of the various temperaments. The exercise works best when students are not aware of their types. To complete the exercise, do the following: 1. Have students complete the questionnaire. Score the questionnaires. 2. Assign students to groups based on their temperaments. 3. Have students complete the group task. 4. Ask each group to report to the class. 5. As each group reports, reveal its temperament and management style, using the information that follows. Temperaments and Leadership Styles NF — NFs are catalysts. Their focus is on individuals within the organization and on individual growth. They use a very participative style and are often referred to as charismatic. NFs are verbally fluent and are superb at giving feedback. They are good listeners and talented at managing interpersonal transactions. They see the possibilities in people and can often turn liabilities into assets. NFs are likely to become worn out and overextended by their focus on relationships. They have a high need for approval and may seem to others to be too anxious to please. They need positive feedback and despise impersonal treatment. They value harmony and cooperation. NT — NTs are visionaries. Their focus is on designing systems and the organization's mission. They believe the organization must grow and develop, and they place a strong emphasis on competence and intelligence. They expect a lot of themselves and of others. NTs welcome change, and focus on possibilities. They can easily see the long-range implications for the organization. They tend to be on the cutting edge of things and may be nonconformists. They are the portrait painters of ideas and encourage ideas in their employees. They also enjoy solving problems. NTs love the creative process, but once it is finished they prefer to let someone else take over to run the system. They value competence and achievement, and they may ignore the feelings of others unknowingly. SJ — SJs are traditionalists. Their focus is on the organization and its hierarchy, and they are masters at defining policies, rules, and procedures. As managers, they are patient, thorough, steady, and reliable. They value caution and accuracy in work. SJs preserve the traditions in life and have a keen sense of social responsibility. They are loyal and industrious but may be irritated when others do not play by their rules. They are decisive and are happiest when they can plan their work and work their plan. SJs run efficient meetings and want colleagues to get to the point and stick to it. They can become impatient when projects are delayed and prefer sensible, stable, reliable colleagues. SP — SPs are troubleshooters. They are good at putting out fires and solving problems. They are very realistic, and to them everything is negotiable. They display an open, flexible style and focus on the present time. SPs like change and are very adaptable. They dislike being told how to do things and may become impatient with bureaucracy. If there are no fires to put out, SPs may make mischief. They do not enjoy maintaining the status quo but want to be where the action is. SPs listen to their superiors but may not do what they are told. They are flexible and open-minded in relations with others, and they are easy to get along with. They may appear hard to predict because of their flexibility. To learn more about management styles, we suggest the following: D. Keirsey and M. Bates, Please Understand Me (Prometheus Nemesis, Del Mar, CA: 1978). R. Benfara and J. Knox, Understanding Your Management Style (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1991). O. Kroeger and J. Thuesen, Type Talk at Work (New York: Delacorte Press, 1992). 3.2 Stereotypes in Employment Interviews Instructor's Notes: The following exercise illustrates the influence of stereotypes on employment interviews. Students are given a transcript of an interview in which the candidate is applying for a job as a laborer. The transcript reflects a number of characteristics of the interviewee that are consistent with the negative stereotype of African-Americans (the applicant is poor, has a criminal record, and is behind on child support payments). The transcript also presents several items of information inconsistent with the stereotype (the applicant is Catholic, drives a pickup truck, and likes hockey games). Further, information is presented that is not stereotypical (the applicant watches television comedies, is from a small town, and is applying for a blue-collar job). One-half of the students should be handed a version of the transcript that states that the job candidate is white. The other half of the students should be handed the version of the transcript that states that the job candidate is African-American. The transcript should be collected after five minutes. One week (or at least several days) later, ask students to write down all they remember about the job candidates. Students who read about an African-American will be more likely to recall the stereotypical African-American characteristics. Students are asked to review the transcript that records an applicant's interview for a job as a laborer. They are asked to memorize as much of the interview as possible. They are then asked to write down everything they can remember about the job candidate. As you photocopy the following interview transcript, include version 1 of the introduction with half the copies and version 2 with the other half. Discussion Questions: 1. In what ways does the exercise show that stereotypes can influence interviewers, even without their awareness? Answer: The exercise demonstrates that stereotypes can influence interviewers in several ways, even without their awareness: 1. Bias in Evaluation: Interviewers may unconsciously favor or disadvantage candidates based on preconceived notions or stereotypes about certain groups, affecting their evaluation and decision-making process. 2. Confirmation Bias: Stereotypes can lead interviewers to focus on information that confirms their preexisting beliefs about a candidate, while overlooking evidence that contradicts these beliefs. 3. Behavioral Influence: Stereotypes may affect how interviewers interact with candidates, influencing their questions, tone, and overall demeanor, which in turn impacts the candidate's performance and perception. 4. Inconsistent Standards: Interviewers might apply different standards or criteria to candidates based on stereotypes, leading to inconsistent assessments and unfair treatment. These subtle influences can skew interview outcomes and perpetuate biases, highlighting the need for awareness and structured approaches to minimize their impact. 2. Many people believe stereotypes are motivated by hate or insecurity. How do these exercise results fit this idea? Answer: The exercise results fit the idea that stereotypes are motivated by hate or insecurity in the following ways: 1. Unconscious Bias: Stereotypes often stem from deep-seated insecurities or societal prejudices that people may not fully recognize in themselves. The exercise reveals how these biases can influence behavior and decisions without conscious intent, suggesting that underlying insecurities or negative attitudes may be at play. 2. Differential Treatment: When interviewers act on stereotypes, it can lead to unfair or biased treatment of candidates. This differential treatment often reflects broader societal biases and insecurities about certain groups, rather than objective assessments. 3. Perpetuation of Negative Views: The exercise can highlight how stereotypes perpetuate negative views and reinforce prejudices. Interviewers may unknowingly act on these stereotypes, reflecting an underlying sense of insecurity or bias about the value or abilities of different groups. Overall, the exercise underscores how stereotypes are not merely academic concepts but are deeply rooted in personal and societal insecurities and prejudices. 3. What can be done to reduce the effects of stereotypes in interviews? Answer: To reduce the effects of stereotypes in interviews, the following measures can be implemented: 1. Structured Interviews: Use standardized questions and evaluation criteria to ensure consistency and reduce personal biases. 2. Diverse Interview Panels: Include multiple interviewers from varied backgrounds to provide a balanced perspective and mitigate individual biases. 3. Bias Training: Provide training on unconscious bias and its effects to raise awareness and help interviewers recognize and address their own stereotypes. 4. Objective Criteria: Base evaluations on objective performance metrics and job-related qualifications rather than subjective impressions. 5. Blind Recruitment: Remove personal information (e.g., names, photos) from applications to focus solely on skills and experience. 6. Reflective Practices: Encourage interviewers to reflect on their decision-making processes and review how their biases may have influenced their assessments. 4. If stereotypes help you remember information that is consistent with the stereotype and help you ignore information that is inconsistent with the stereotype, how can stereotypes be changed? Answer: Changing stereotypes involves several key strategies: 1. Exposure to Counter-Stereotypical Examples: Increase exposure to individuals or information that contradicts existing stereotypes. This helps challenge and broaden one's understanding of different groups. 2. Education and Awareness: Provide education about the origins and effects of stereotypes, promoting awareness of their inaccuracies and impact. Training programs and workshops can be effective in this regard. 3. Encouraging Critical Thinking: Promote critical thinking and self-reflection to question and evaluate one's own beliefs and assumptions about different groups. 4. Positive Interactions: Foster positive, meaningful interactions with individuals from diverse backgrounds, which can alter perceptions and reduce reliance on stereotypes. 5. Role Models and Media Representation: Highlight diverse role models and ensure balanced media representation to challenge existing stereotypes and provide a more accurate view of different groups. Introduction: Mr. Harris is a twenty-seven year old African-American male. He is applying for a job working on a loading dock. Mr. Harris is interviewing as part of a social services program. Interview Transcript (I = interviewer; A = applicant) I: Please tell me a little bit about your last job. A: Well, the job was basically a blue-collar job. I worked in a factory doing janitor work mostly. Second shift for most of the time. I didn't mind the job too much. I've been out of work for quite a while now. I guess you could say I was at the poverty level for the last year. I: Do you have a criminal record? A: Well, yeah, but the crime wasn't too serious. I spent a few weeks in jail for breaking and entering when I was a kid. Me and some friends broke into a department store. Pretty stupid. I: Tell me a little bit about your education, Mr. Harris. A: I finished high school in 1980. I was brought up in a Catholic family in a small southern country town. So I went to a Catholic school. Kind of unusual I guess. I used to really give the nuns a hard time (laughs). I was thinkin' about going to college but never made it. I: Have you and your family adjusted well to moving into the area? A: Yeah, I like New Jersey. I don't live with my wife no....er, a ...any more. I hope to see my three kids pretty soon. Maybe bring them up here. Haven't seen 'em for years. I really need the job because I'm behind on my child support. I: What have you been doing in your spare time? A: Well, I been looking around the area quite a bit. I've been drivin' my truck, you know just checkin' things out. I went to a hockey game the other night. Had a good time. Otherwise I watch a little TV. Watch a lot of comedies. I: Please tell me about your accomplishments. A: Well, I was a sort of a star athlete in school. Our team went to the state tournament. I suppose I could have been a college player. Besides that, I won a writing contest when I was in high school. It was for the region. Oh yeah, I got a commendation from my last job. They wanted me to train the new guys. I: What are your greatest weaknesses? A: I could probably take orders better. But I don't get too upset. Maybe I should read a little more. 'Been a long time since school. Introduction: Mr. Harris is a twenty-seven year old white male. He is applying for a job working on a loading dock. Mr. Harris is interviewing as part of a social services program. Interview Transcript (I = interviewer; A = applicant) I: Please tell me a little bit about your last job. A: Well, the job was basically a blue-collar job. I worked in a factory doing janitor work mostly. Second shift for most of the time. I didn't mind the job too much. I've been out of work for quite a while now. I guess you could say I was at the poverty level for the last year. I: Do you have a criminal record? A: Well, yeah, but the crime wasn't too serious. I spent a few weeks in jail for breaking and entering when I was a kid. Me and some friends broke into a department store. Pretty stupid. I: Tell me a little bit about your education, Mr. Harris. A: I finished high school in 1980. I was brought up in a Catholic family in a small southern country town. So I went to a Catholic school. Kind of unusual I guess. I used to really give the nuns a hard time (laughs). I was thinkin' about going to college but never made it. I: Have you and your family adjusted well to moving into the area? A: Yeah, I like New Jersey. I don't live with my wife no....er, a ...any more. I hope to see my three kids pretty soon. Maybe bring them up here. Haven't seen 'em for years. I really need the job because I'm behind on my child support. I: What have you been doing in your spare time? A: Well, I been looking around the area quite a bit. I've been drivin' my truck, you know just checkin' things out. I went to a hockey game the other night. Had a good time. Otherwise I watch a little TV. Watch a lot of comedies. I: Please tell me about your accomplishments. A: Well, I was a sort of a star athlete in school. Our team went to the state tournament. I suppose I could have been a college player. Besides that, I won a writing contest when I was in high school. It was for the region. Oh yeah, I got a commendation from my last job. They wanted me to train the new guys. I: What are your greatest weaknesses? A: I could probably take orders better. But I don't get too upset. Maybe I should read a little more. 'Been a long time since school. alterNative experiential exercise Identifying Cognitive Styles Instructor's Notes: This exercise adapts the cognitive styles to situations that require students to identify and define. This exercise is probably better as homework to be discussed in class after completion. Each method of handling the crisis is perfectly valid. Point out to students there is no "best" cognitive style. Each is valuable in organizations. The cognitive styles in the exercise are as follows: Mona is NF; Denise is NT; Bill is ST, and Blake is SF. * SOURCE: Adapted from O. Kroeger and J. M. Thuesen, Type Talk at Work, New York: Delacorte Press, 1992, 165-166. Identifying Cognitive Styles Assume that it is Friday at 3:00 p.m. A customer calls to say that a major shipment of computers you sent a week ago has not arrived, and that they must have the computer by noon Monday. Failing to deliver the computers will result in losing the client. The manager must either find the shipment, or reship the computers and make sure they arrive on time. Below are descriptions of how four different managers would react to this crisis. Read their reactions, and answer the questions that follow. BILL accepts the reality that the shipment of computers is lost and that he shouldn't waste time tracking it down. He sees no alternative but to put together a new shipment and send it out immediately. He expects all his workers to pitch in and stay late to get the new shipment out. MONA considers the possibility that the original shipment might be recovered, as this would save everyone the trouble of having to prepare a new shipment. She attempts to motivate a team of workers to work together to track down the shipment. At the same time, she puts together another team to work out a backup plan. She works back and forth between the two teams, trying to inconvenience everyone as little as possible. DENISE tries to track down the original shipment because no matter what happens it will have to be located. She sees putting together another shipment as the only reliable solution. At the same time, she is going to develop a strategy for evaluating shipping operations to ensure that this problem doesn't come up again. BLAKE writes off the original shipment and feels in reality there's no time to waste looking for it. He polls his workers to see who can work late to put together a new shipment, and if no one volunteers, he will do it himself. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING: 1. Bill's cognitive style is "Action-Oriented" or "Decisive." What clues were evident in his handling of the crisis? 2. Mona's cognitive style is "Analytical and Balanced." What clues were evident in her handling of the crisis? 3. Denise's cognitive style is "Systematic and Strategic." What clues were evident in her handling of the crisis? 4. Blake's cognitive style is "Pragmatic and Delegative." What clues were evident in his handling of the crisis? EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES The following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained from: Marcic, Dorothy, Seltzer, Joseph, & Vaill, Peter. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and Cases, 6th Ed. South-Western College Publishing Company, 2001. Incongruent Perceptions: The Case of the “Other Systems Group.” p. 29-30. Time: 30 minutes. Purpose: To recognize differences in perception and to understand the impact of those differences on communications and decision making. The Case of the Predictable Bikers. p. 31-32. Time: 25-35 minutes. Purpose: To illustrate how initial perceptions influence subsequent attempts at problem solution or in communications with others. Fandt, Patricia M. Management Skills: Practice and Experience. West Publishing Company, 1994. In-Basket Exercise 2: Listening to Others. p. 15-16. In-Basket Exercise 4: Eliciting Ideas, Feelings, and Perceptions from Others. p. 19-20. TAKE 2 BIZ FLIX: Because I Said So PPT Slide 29 Organizations Discussed: Good Enuf to Eat catering service Meet Daphne Wilder (Diane Keaton)—your typical meddling, overprotective, and divorced mother of three daughters. Two of her three beautiful daughters have married. That leaves Millie (Mandy Moore) as the focus of Daphne’s undivided attention and compulsive need to find Millie a mate. Daphne places some online advertising, screens the applicants, and submits those she approves to Millie. Along the way, Daphne meets Joe (Stephen Collins), the father of one applicant. Romance emerges and the film comes to a delightful, though expected, conclusion. Personality Assessment: Daphne and Millie This scene starts after Daphne answers her cellular telephone and says the person has the wrong number. It follows the frantic rearrangement of the sofa, which ends up in the same place it started. The film cuts to Millie and Jason (Tom Everett Scott) dining at his place. What to Watch for and Ask Yourself PPT Slide 31 Which Big Five personality traits best describe Daphne? Give examples of behavior from the film scene to support your observations. Answer: Daphne clearly appears high in extraversion in this scene as evidenced by her fast, overt interactions with her daughter. She is at least moderate in agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness. Her good-natured character is evidence of agreeableness, her desire to help Millie suggests conscientiousness, and her desire for her daughter to talk to Jason suggests the openness factor. Her behavior in this scene suggests low emotional stability during her frantic interactions with Millie and reactions to Millie’s behavior. Which Big Five personality traits best describe Millie? Give examples of behavior from the film scene to support your observations Answer: Millie appears moderate on all the Big Five dimensions. Her behavior does not show extremes suggesting a balanced approach to life. The one exception is her tendency to overly use the word “great”. She says it six times during her telephone conversation with Jason. Review the discussion of the “Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® instrument” earlier in this chapter. Assess both Daphne and Millie with the content of Table 3.3, “Characteristics Frequently Associated with Each Type.” Answer: Both Daphne and Millie are extraverts and sensing types. Their outgoing behavior toward each other in the scene underscores their extraversion. The sensing quality shows in the total amount of information that each uses during their interaction. Daphne is high on the feeling and judging dimensions. She has strong, positive feelings for her daughter and approaches her decisions with high emotion. The judging quality appears in her assessment of Millie’s behavior. We can summarize Daphne’s personality as ESFJ. Millie is high on the thinking and perceiving dimensions. She carefully analyzes her decision options and wants to keep her options open. We can summarize Millie’s personality as ESTP. WORKPLACE VIDEO: Theo Chocolate Video Case Synopsis Seattle’s Theo Chocolate specializes in the divine. The cocoa that the chocolate maker harvests to produce its delicious candy bars comes from a tropical evergreen known as Theobroma cacao—translated literally, “food of the gods.” The heavenly flavor that resides in the plant’s cacao pods helps sustain the worldwide confectionery industry, and Theo is one of the newest companies to master the art of cacao cultivation. When Theo first started its production, the company offered an exotic line of dark and milk chocolate bars and truffles. The treats had unusual names such as Coconut Curry, the 3400 Phinney Bar, and Bread & Chocolate. Moreover, the bars were wrapped in artistic watercolor packaging with whimsical cover designs. Theo’s launch garnered accolades from critics and organic food consumers alike. But pitching chocolate to foodies and green consumers didn’t add up to high volume sales, and marketing vice president Debra Music began noticing barriers to mainstream acceptance of Theo’s products. In particular, consumers perceived Theo’s exotic flavors to be off or too funky, and wrapper designs were so artistic that customers were confused about what was inside the packaging. Leaders were forced to work on a new strategy. Since exotic products rarely have widespread appeal, founder Joe Whinney went back to the drawing board. “When we decided to alter course and make more accessible products, we decided that consumers were choosing the winners already, so we designed products that we felt would meet consumers’ expectations.” As a result, Theo now offers distinct product lines for two different market segments: a classic line of milk chocolate bars for mainstream customers, and “fantasy flavors” for more adventurous eaters. Each line embodies the high quality and sustainability that make up the Theo brand. Appealing to mainstream customers was consistent with Joe Whinney’s belief that everyone should be able to enjoy Theo Chocolate. “We believe that everyone should have access to great chocolate, and so we wanted to make sure that we were responding to the marketplace, listening to what people really wanted, and then producing products that met our goals and theirs as well.” Discussion Questions and Solutions Describe the personality traits of Theo Chocolate’s founders. Answer: Joe Whinney and Debra Music have an internal locus of control—they believe the future is in their own hands. In addition, both possess general self-efficacy, which enables them to act decisively as well as interact with customers and business leaders. Finally, both leaders possess a high degree of each of the Big Five Personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to experience). Such personality traits have helped the two individuals become effective leaders and entrepreneurs. What is your perception of CEO Joe Whinney? On what do you base your perception? Answer: Different people will perceive a person or situation differently, both in terms of what they selectively perceive and how they organize and interpret what is perceived. Students will form perceptions of Joe Whinney based on their own attitudes and experiences (characteristics of the perceiver), Whinney’s appearance and communication cues (characteristics of the target), and the situation in which evaluation is taking place (characteristics of the environment). To what do you attribute Joe Whinney’s success? Answer: In general, students will attribute success or failure to internal factors like ability and effort, or to external factors like task difficulty and luck. Due to attribution errors such as the fundamental attribution error and the self-serving bias, some students will fail to note external factors like luck or market forces and instead emphasize internal factors like personal foresight or ingenuity. Whinney’s success is a mix of visionary leadership and opportunism exercised in response to a niche in the market and broad environmental and fair trade trends. Joe Whinney's success can be attributed to his innovative approach to fair trade and organic chocolate, his commitment to ethical sourcing, and his ability to build strong relationships with suppliers and customers. His vision and dedication to sustainability and quality have set his brand apart in the industry. CASE SOLUTION: Understanding the People Who Work at and Patronize Build-A-Bear Workshop Linkage of Case to Chapter Material This case focuses on Build-A-Bear Workshop and its founder and CEO, Maxine Clark. The case starts out by describing the nature of Build-A-Bear Workshop, Inc., its initial founding and then phenomenal growth, and the fostering of other make-your-own-toy companies. After developing the contextual background of Build-A-Bear Workshop, the case focuses on Maxine Clark, first describing her defining characteristics, behaviors, and business achievements, and then discussing Clark’s perceptions of and expectations for Build-A-Bear associates and customers. A key focus of Chapter 3 is the discussion of different personality characteristics and traits, including the “Big Five” personality factors of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience, as well as other personality dimensions. The case provides the context for discussing the application of these various personality characteristics to understanding Maxine Clark and her behavior as well as understanding the “ideal” Build-A-Bear associate and his/her behavior. The case also provides a context for exploring perceptions of Build-A-Bear customers and the implications of these perceptions for the operations of the business. Finally, the case provides a context for students to explore their own perceptions and attitudes about the Build-A-Bear business. Suggested Answers for Discussion Questions How would you describe Maxine’s Clark’s personality? What implications do her personality characteristics have for her behavior as the CEO of Build-A-Bear? Answer: Dubbed “the Oprah Winfrey of the retail industrycompassionate, creative and charismatic,” Maxine Clark “is a feisty, seasoned ex-May Department Stores veteran who doesn’t let one detail get by her.” Maxine Clark is an individual who wants to have fun at work. Clark says: “I wasn’t sure what I wanted to do, but I knew it would involve children, because kids know how to enjoy themselves.” Moreover, Clark connects well with childrenshe is comfortable with them and listens to them. This summary description from the case suggests that Maxine Clark is toward the positive end of the continuum for each of the “big five personality traits.” Specifically, Maxine Clark’s personality could be described as follows: Extraversion: she is gregarious, assertive, and sociable; Agreeableness: she is cooperative, warm, and aggressive; Conscientiousness: she is hardworking, organized, and dependable; Emotional stability: she is calm, self-confident, and cool; and Openness to experience: she is creative, curious, and cultured. Combined together, these personality characteristics contributed to Maxine Clark’s impact on consumers, the investment community, and other similar businesses. She “charmed consumers and wowed Wall Street with a concept that set a new template for interactive experiential retailing.” This business template focuses on customers experiencing self-expression and creativity in a safe and supportive environment. In turn, this enables every customerno what his or her ageto creatively express his or her inner child. Besides charming customers and wowing Wall Street, Maxine Clark also has inspired numerous business imitators. Maxine Clark’s personality can be described as entrepreneurial, visionary, and charismatic. Her traits likely contribute to her innovative leadership style and strong ability to inspire and motivate her team, driving Build-A-Bear’s success. Her focus on creativity and customer experience reflects her dynamic and people-oriented approach. What are the desired personality characteristics of Build-A-Bear Associates? How might these personality characteristics influence the associates’ work behaviors? Answer: From a conceptual perspective, one can argue that four personality characteristics are highly desirable for Build-A-Bear Associates. These are: Extraversion, which refers to the associates being gregarious, assertive, and sociable; Emotional stability, which involves the associates being calm, self-confident, and cool; Self-monitoring, which refers to the extent to which the associates base their own behavior on cues they receive from other people and situations; and Positive affect, which describes associates who focus on the positive aspects of themselves, other people, and the world in general. These four personality characteristics relate to the critical job behavior of providing a great Build-A-Bear experience for customers. Clark asserts that Build-A-Bear workshop isn’t just selling a physical product; it is selling an emotional experience as well. Clark says that a we’re a business that stands for memories, and those memories can be both happy and sad. Our greatest success has been finding associates who understand that.” Selling happy memories is easily understood and embraced. Selling sad memories is much less so. As an example, Clark cites instances of “mothers bringing their children [to Build-A-Bear] after the death of a grandparent or a beloved pet, and parents leaving for Iraq or Afghanistan recording their voices in little sound modules they drop into the bears.” Associates who can help with these emotional experiencesboth happy and sadmust be extraverted, emotionally stable, high self-monitors, and possess positive affect as critical elements of their caring nature Build-A-Bear Associates ideally exhibit traits such as enthusiasm, creativity, and interpersonal skills. These characteristics influence their work behaviors by enhancing their ability to engage with customers, contribute to a fun and interactive store environment, and effectively support the company’s focus on personalized and memorable experiences for customers. Describe the perceptions that Maxine Clark has of Build-A-Bear customers. How have these perceptions influenced Clark’s approach to developing the Build-A-Bear business model? Answer: Maxine Clark’s primary perception of customers is that they enjoy the experience of creating their own stuffed animals. “When customers create toys at Build-A-Bear Workshop, they make something that is theirs alone. The experience is about self-expression and creativity. At Build-a-Bear it’s all right to act like a kid. That’s appealing to people who are 10 or 60.” This primary perception translates into a company that “keeps defying critics with strong gains as it broadens its geography, customer types and menagerie.” Although Build-A-Bear’s core customer demographic is the group known as ‘female tweens,’ the Build-A-Bear product line has broadened its appeal by locating stores at zoos and ballparks to enhance the product line’s appeal for boys. Maxine Clark perceives Build-A-Bear customers as active participants in creating personalized and memorable experiences. This perception has influenced her approach by emphasizing a business model centered around customer engagement, creativity, and interactive experiences. By focusing on making customers co-creators of their products, Clark has developed a unique model that fosters strong emotional connections and customer loyalty. Would you enjoy or not enjoy working at Build-A-Bear Workshop? Explain your answer. Answer: This question provides students with the opportunity to explore what being a Build-A-Bear associate would be like, and to consider whether they have the personality characteristics that would serve them well as Build-A-Bear associates. This question also affords students the opportunity to explore their personal perceptions of and attitudes about this type of business and the people who work for such businesses. I would likely enjoy working at Build-A-Bear Workshop due to its creative and interactive environment, which allows for engaging with customers and contributing to a fun, playful atmosphere. The emphasis on personalization and customer experience aligns with a dynamic and rewarding work environment, fostering a sense of creativity and satisfaction in helping customers create memorable experiences. SOURCE: This case solution was written by Michael K. McCuddy, The Louis S. and Mary L. Morgal Chair of Christian Business Ethics and Professor of Management, College of Business, Valparaiso University. Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior: Science, The Real World, and You Debra L. Nelson, James Campbell Quick 9781111825867