CH-3 From Exposure to Comprehension – Consumer Behavior : Book Guide

Chapter 3 From Exposure to Comprehension CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter considers the topics of exposure, attention, and perception. It notes that in order for a marketing stimulus to have an impact, consumers must be exposed to it, allocate some attention to it, and perceive it. Perception and attention are mutually reinforcing processes. A basic level of attention is needed to perceive a stimulus. Once perceived, further attention-based resources can be used to process stimuli at higher levels of processing. Key topics are: Exposure • Selective exposure • Gaining exposure Attention • Focal, nonfocal, preattentive • Habituation Perception • Sensory processing • Perceptual thresholds • Perceptual organization Comprehension • Source identification • Message comprehension • Consumer inferences Exposure occurs when the consumer is presented with a marketing stimulus. Marketers are now attempting a wide variety of tactics to increase stimulus exposure, particularly since consumers’ exposure to marketing stimuli is selective. These efforts are important as consumers now engage in behaviors that interfere with exposure like zipping (fast forwarding through a videotaped program), zapping (switching channels during commercials), and flipping (switching channels even when there is no commercial). Among the efforts that marketers are using is road blocking—placing the same ads on multiple channels simultaneously. Attention occurs when the stimulus makes a conscious impression on the consumer or the consumer allocates processing capacity to it. The key aspect of attention is that it is selective, divided, and limited. Because it is limited, consumers may be distracted by other stimuli. Moreover, even though it is limited, consumers have some capacity to process information at a preattentive level (provided these stimuli are compatible with the principle of contralateral conduction). Given that the marketing environment is so cluttered, it is important for marketers to capture consumers’ attention. Making a stimulus (a) self-relevant, (b) pleasant, (c) surprising, or (d) easy to process enhances its attention-getting properties. Alternatively, the problem of habituation suggests that familiar stimuli can lose their attention-getting power. If exposure and attention are sufficient, the stimulus may reach one or more sensory registers and be perceived through one of the five senses. Processing of stimuli depends on the sense being used. Visual stimuli are influenced by the important factors of: (a) size; (b) color (including hue, saturation, and lightness); and (c) brightness and contrast. Hearing is influenced by intensity and music. Taste perceptions are also critical for certain products, yet because tastes may vary across cultures, marketers use taste tests to improve marketing strategy. In addition, the chapter considers how smell and touch may influence the marketing strategy for certain products. The chapter then discusses the concept of sensory thresholds. The absolute threshold is the lowest point at which an individual can experience a sensation, while the differential threshold is the minimal difference that can be detected between two stimuli (the just noticeable difference). For a marketing stimulus to be perceived, it must be above the absolute threshold. The differential threshold is important when marketers do not want consumers to either notice a difference between two stimuli (e.g., a price increase) or want consumers to notice the difference (e.g., product improvements). The chapter also considers that consumers do appear to have some abilities to perceive things that are just outside their conscious level of awareness (subliminal perception). Perceptual organization occurs when consumers organize a set of stimuli into a coherent perception. Gestalt principles of figure and ground, closure, and grouping facilitate this process of organization. CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students will be able to 1. Discuss why marketers are concerned about consumers’ exposure to marketing stimuli and what tactics they use to enhance exposure. 2. Explain the characteristics of attention and how marketers can try to attract and sustain consumers’ attention to products and marketing messages. 3. Describe the major senses that are part of perception and outline why marketers are concerned about consumers’ sensory perceptions. 4. Discuss the process of comprehension, and outline how marketing-mix elements can affect consumer inferences about products and brands. CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Exposure and Consumer Behavior A. Exposure reflects the process by which the consumer comes into physical contact with a stimulus. 1. Marketing Implications a) Selection of media to fit target market, including broadcast, print, product placement, Internet, and sponsorships B. Factors Influencing Exposure 1. Position of an ad within a medium a) Placing an ad within a medium can influence exposure b) Beginning vs. middle of commercial break in television c) Front vs. back or inside magazine covers 2. Distribution and shelf placement a) Where a product can be found in the marketplace b) Shelf placement within the retailer’s store 3. Marketing Implications a) Marketers are constantly striving to find unique media to expose consumers to marketing stimuli. C. Selective Exposure 1. Consumers select their exposure to stimuli. a) Software to block “pop-up” ads b) Zipping-consumers fast-forward through recorded programs c) Zapping-consumers avoid ads by switching channels d) Registering with Federal Do Not Call Registry allows consumers to avoid telemarketing e) Laws forbidding spam and unsolicited marketing messages via e-mail, wireless phones and pagers 2. Marketing Implications a) Marketers are testing media not saturated by advertising D. Measuring Exposure 1. Marketers use research data to determine if ads reach consumers. 2. Internet exposure numbers are more difficult to measure. II. Attention and Consumer Behavior A. Characteristics of Attention 1. Attention refers to the process by which an individual devotes mental activity to a stimulus. 2. Attention is limited and can be directed to only a few places. 3. Attention is selective; thus, consumers need to be led to allocate resources to a given stimulus (e.g., a brand) or they may direct their attention elsewhere. 4. Attention can be divided among multiple stimuli. B. Focal and Nonfocal Attention 1. Preattentive Processing a) Preattentive processing refers to processing information from peripheral vision. b) Because attention is limited, consumers are not aware that preatentive processing is occurring. 2. Hemispheric Lateralization a) One’s ability to process preattentively depends on where an ad is placed in relation to a subject; pictures (words) are more likely to be processed preattentively if they are placed in the left (right) visual field. 3. Preattentive Processing, Brand Name Liking, and Choice a) Some research suggests that consumers will like a brand name more if they have processed it preattentively than if they have not been exposed to it at all. b) Other research suggests that preattentive processing may affect consumers’ choices. C. Marketing Implications 1. Personally, relevant stimuli are more likely to attract attention because they have potential consequences for our lives. a) The incorporation of more self-relevant needs, values, and goals into a stimulus (marketing communication) increases the likelihood that the stimulus will be perceived. b) Appeals that emerge from individuals perceived as similar to one’s self are more likely to be attended to. c) Appeals that contain dramatic presentations are more likely to attract attention because they draw the consumer into the action. d) Rhetorical questions draw consumers into advertisements although no specific answer is expected. 2. Pleasant Stimuli a) Visual attractiveness increases the likelihood of a stimulus (e.g., advertisement) being noticed. b) Familiar, pleasant, or nostalgic music can all be used to attract attention. c) Providing a pleasurable experience through humor can draw consumers into an ad. 3. Surprising Stimuli a) Stimuli that are new are more likely to attract attention. b) Novel formats and messages can attract attention. c) Consumers do not always like novel presentations. d) Placing a message in an unexpected place (e.g., on the ground, in the air) can draw attention. e) Puzzles or other exercises that engage the consumer attract attention because they require resolution on the part of the consumer. 4. Easy to Process Stimuli a) Prominent stimuli, such as full-page ads and loud commercials, are easy to process because they stand out from the environment; ease of finding such stimuli increases their chance of being attended to. b) Concrete stimuli that are more detailed and specific are easier to understand, thus they are more likely to be processed. c) Messages that stand out from competing information draw attention to themselves, making them easier to locate and thus more likely to be processed. D. Customer Segments Defined by Attention 1. Consumers can be identified by whether they focus on information that is relevant, pleasant, surprising, or easy to process. E. Habituation 1. Habituation refers to the fact that once a stimulus becomes familiar it can lose its attention-getting ability. 2. Marketing Implications a) Habituation can be reduced by altering the stimulus to keep it “fresh.” III. Perception A. Perception occurs when stimuli are registered by one of the five senses. B. Perceiving Through Vision 1. Size and shape attracts attention a) Consumers tend to buy products in packages that appear taller. 2. The size and style of lettering on product packaging or in an ad can attract attention and support brand recognition. 3. Where product images are located on a package can influence consumer’s perceptions and preferences 4. Color can determine whether we see a stimulus and can be described by three dimensions. a) Hue refers to the pigment contained in a color: Warm colors (e.g., red, orange, yellow) encourage activity and excitement; cool colors (e.g., green, blue, and violet) are more soothing and relaxing. b) Saturation refers to the richness of a color. c) Lightness refers to the depth of tone in a color. 5. Color can affect consumers’ psychological responses and moods. a) Warm colors encourage activity and excitement b) Cool colors are more soothing and relaxing. 6. Color choices can have a great effect on consumers’ liking for a product. C. Perceiving Through Hearing 1. Loud music or stark noises can increase the probability that a stimulus will be perceived. 2. Speed and pitch of the audio portion of marketing messages can affective attitudes toward the ad and brand. D. Perceiving Through Taste 1. Taste preferences change over time and vary across cultures. E. Perceiving Through Smell 1. Sensitivity to smell varies across individuals and groups. a) Women are more sensitive than men are. b) Younger consumers are more sensitive than older ones. 2. Smells can affect physiological responses and moods. a) This theory has lead to the development of aromatherapy. 3. Companies can expose consumers to marketing stimuli through their sense of smell. a) Smell can entice consumers to try a product b) Smells are more effective if appropriate to the product category 4. Smells can attract customers to locations when shopping. 5. Pleasant smelling environments can have a positive effect on shopping behavior (e.g., evaluation of a brand). F. Perceiving Through Touch 1. Touch can affect physiological responses and moods. a) Consumers who are touched by a salesperson are more likely to evaluate both the store and salesperson positively. 2. Some products are liked because of the way they feel, including skin care products, baby products, clothing fabrics G. Marketing Implications 1. Vision 2. Hearing a) These stimuli can also influence behavior (e.g., faster music in a restaurant encourages faster eating, allowing greater turnover and higher sales). b) Music can affect moods. Bad moods might affect how we feel about products and consumption experiences. 3. Taste a) Taste tests help marketers formulate stimuli appropriate to the consumer. 4. Smell c) Some products are liked because of the smell they produce, while others products are liked because they mask unpleasant odors. d) Ambient smells in a retail environment may be irritating to some customers. e) Consumers’ preference for smells vary across cultures. 5. Touch H. When Do We Perceive Stimuli? 1. Absolute thresholds are the lowest point at which an individual can detect a difference between “something” and “nothing.” a) Marketers must cross the absolute threshold before their communication or product is noticed. 2. Differential threshold refers to the minimal difference that can be detected between two stimuli. a) It is often called the “just noticeable difference.” b) Its properties are outlined by Weber’s law: The greater the initial stimulus, the greater the additional intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as different. c) Marketers must present differences that are large enough for consumers to notice (as in comparing new attributes in a product to the old attributes) or keep them small enough to be missed (as with price increases). 3. Marketing Implications a) Marketing messages and other stimuli must be above the absolute threshold to be perceived by consumers. b) Sometimes marketers do not want consumers to notice differences between two stimuli, such as when the price is increased or the packaging size is decreased. c) Sometimes marketers do want consumers to notice the difference between stimuli, such as when a product is new and improved. 4. Subliminal perception involves the activation of sensory receptors by stimuli presented below the perceptual threshold. a) Subliminal stimuli are presented so briefly (or covertly) that they are not consciously noticed, but can influence behavior. b) Subliminal perception is different from preattentive processing. c) Whether consumers respond to subliminal messages in advertising has been a controversial topic in marketing. d) A strong effect influences people against their will. e) A weak effect influences people in ways that are consistent with their current goals or motivations. f) Research suggests that subliminal perception has limited effects on consumers. I. How Do Consumers Perceive a Stimulus? 1. Perceptual Organization a) Considers issues related to how consumers organize and combine the visual stimuli they receive 2. Figure and Ground a) Stimuli are interpreted with respect to their environment. b) Key brand information should be the focal point of marketing communications and background should not interfere. 3. Closure a) Individuals have a need to organize perceptions into meaningful “wholes.” b) Using this principle, marketers create incomplete messages that lead consumers to complete the messages themselves. 4. Grouping a) Stimuli are grouped to form meaningful impressions. b) Marketers can influence perception of a brand by carefully placing it where it will be grouped with appropriate, complementary stimuli. 5. Bias for the whole a) Principle that consumers perceive more value in the whole of something than in the sum of its component parts. IV. Comprehension and Consumer Behavior A. Source Identification 1. The process of determining what the stimulus that we have detected actually is. B. Message Comprehension: determine what sense is made from the message. 1. Objective and Subjective Comprehension a) Is the derived meaning the same is what the message actually stated? 2. Miscomprehension a) When consumers inaccurately construe the meaning contained in a message, product description, or instructions. 3. Effect of MAO a) Low motivation and limited opportunity to process it—namely in a long or fleeting message increases miscomprehension. 4. Effect of the Culture a) Low context cultures generally separate words and meanings from a message. In high context cultures, there is more meaning in visuals. 5. Marketing Implications a) Perceptual fluency. b) Design a message to be consistent with consumers’ prior knowledge. c) Product placements on the rise. d) Beware of miscomprehension. C. Consumer Inferences 1. Brand Names and Symbols a) Brand names create subjective comprehension and inferences. b) Descriptive names create inferences. 2. Product Features and Packaging a) Inferences based on the way a product is packaged. b) Taste inferences based on nutritional labeling. c) Inferences based on the country of origin. d) Inferences based on package characteristics. 3. Price a) Inferences based on price. 4. Retail Atmospherics, Displays, and Distribution a) Inferences based on retailer’s marketing tactics. b) Context of a product display is important. b) Inferences based on the way an offering is distributed. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION Possible answers are as follows. 1. How do zipping and zapping affect consumers’ exposure to stimuli such as products and ads? Answer: Zipping and zapping drastically reduces consumers’ exposure to commercials. Zipping eliminates ads by fast-forwarding through them, while zapping is the practice of switching to another program, purposely avoiding the commercial altogether. These are both examples of selective exposure. With the proliferation of cable channels, it is harder to gauge how effective ads are at influencing consumers to make product decisions. 2. What is attention, and what are three key characteristics? Answer: Attention is the way in which one allocates part of their mental activity to a stimulus. It is limited in its capacity, it is selective and it can be spread to different activities at the same time. Attention also varies depending on what is going on in the consumers’ life. For instance, if a consumer is looking for a car and has decided on a Toyota Camry he/she will likely notice more Toyota Camry’s on the road then he/she would normally. 3. In what ways do prominence and habituation affect consumer attention? Answer: Prominence and habituation have opposite effects on consumer attention. The more prominent a stimuli is, the greater the likelihood that the stimuli will garner attention. A prominent stimulus causes it to stand out relative to its surroundings, therefore generating more attention. Consequently, habituation is when a stimulus loses its attention-getting capacity due to its familiarity. 4. What is perception, and what methods do we use to perceive stimuli? Answer: Perception can be thought of as the way in which our different senses are activated by a stimulus. We often perceive stimuli through multiple senses (sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell). 5. Differentiate between the absolute threshold and the differential threshold, and explain how these concepts relate to Weber’s Law. Answer: The absolute threshold is the minimum amount of stimulus necessary to perceive it while the differential threshold is the amount of stimulus needed to perceive a difference. Weber’s law states that the stronger the initial stimulus, the greater the additional intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as different. In short, it is easier to detect a difference between an object weighing 10 lbs. and one weighing 20 lbs. (10 lb. difference) than it is to detect a difference between an object weighing 100 lbs. and one weighing 110 lbs. (still a 10 lb. difference). 6. Identify four principles of perceptual organization and describe why marketers need to know about them. Answer: Perceptual organization is based primarily on the principles of figure and ground, closure, grouping, and bias for the whole. Figure and ground is a principle that illustrates how people make sense of a situation through environmental cues. Closure refers to our need to organize perceptions so that they form a meaningful whole. Grouping is a tendency to join stimuli to form a unified impression. Bias for the whole refers to consumers valuing the whole of something more than the sum of its component parts. All of these principles are important to marketers who need to understand how consumers perceive marketing stimuli. 7. Discuss how source identification and message comprehension affect consumers’ comprehension of a stimulus. Answer: Source identification is the process of determining what the stimulus that we have detected actually is. Message comprehension is understanding that message. Identifying the correct source and understanding the message are crucial in perceiving the stimulus correctly. Comprehension is the process of extracting higher-order meaning from the stimulus. 8. What are some ways that companies can use marketing-mix elements such as brand names and symbols to affect consumer inferences? Answer: Companies can use product features, price, retail atmospherics, displays, distribution, color, logos, and packaging to impact consumer inferences. These specific elements of the marketing mix impact consumer inference. CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE How Under Armour Gets Noticed The Nike swoosh may be one of the most recognized logos in the world of sports, but the Under Armour logo (an interlocking U and A) is increasingly in the spotlight as the company gets noticed on and off the field. Founded in 1996 by Kevin Plank, once a member of the University of Maryland’s football team, Under Armour designs apparel and gear to help athletes feel and do their best in hot or cold weather, in sports arenas or on the track. How can a latecomer to a fast-growing industry dominated by global giants such as Nike get noticed? A little-known brand name was only one of Under Armour’s early challenges. Another was that many of its first products (such as undershirts that wick away moisture) were not actually visible to onlookers. In contrast, the logos of competing brands were visible and often prominent on athletic shoes, shirts, and caps. So the company initially positioned itself as “a brand for the next generation of athletes.” Whereas Nike was sponsoring well-known, established athletes, Under Armour’s sponsorships went to up-and-comers known for their dedication and athleticism. Its first endorsement deal was with a Dallas Cowboys football player who had been at University of Maryland with Under Armour’s founder. More recently, the company’s performance apparel has been spotted on endorsers such as Heather Mitts (soccer), Cam Newtown (football), and Derrick Williams (basketball). As its sponsored athletes do well, and their teams win games and even championships, Under Armour’s brand gains attention and visibility. Although not every rising star becomes a sports legend, the brand still gets exposure as these athletes receive media coverage, become established in their sports, and appear in Under Armour ads. Now that the company rings up more than $1 billion in yearly revenue from the sale of clothing, footwear, and accessories for men, women, and children, it can also afford some high-profile deals, such as being endorsed by Tom Brady of the New England Patriots. The Under Armour web site features the brand mission—“Make all athletes better”—and puts its “Universal guarantee of performance” in a conspicuous position, offering a full refund if customers are ever dissatisfied with a product for any reason. The diversity of models and athletes on the Under Armour site and in its ads, often shown participating in a sport, invites a broad range of consumers to identify with the brand. The close ties between Under Armour and the University of Maryland have led to additional opportunities for brand and product exposure. To grab attention and sell more team merchandise, college and professional football teams are switching to more fashionable uniforms and gear, with flashier colors and styles. As part of this trend, Under Armour has designed 32 different items for football players at the University of Maryland to wear. Fans, competing teams, and the media can’t help but notice the eye-catching combinations of shirts, pants, and helmets worn by team members on different days—with Under Armour’s now-familiar logo on each item. What’s ahead for Under Armour? The company is expanding into Europe and beyond, relying on distribution and marketing communications to reach more consumers, both casual and serious athletes. It’s using social media such as YouTube, Twitter, and Facebook to engage consumers, showcase its sports endorsers, and increase brand and product visibility. Just as important, new products are in the pipeline, along with new technology that enhances Under Armour’s differentiation. Case Questions 1. What is Under Armour doing to make its brand personally relevant, surprising, and easy to process? Answer: Up-and-coming athletes are easier for an average consumer to relate to than a player making millions of dollars. Regular athletes perceive themselves as more similar to a new and relatively unknown athlete. Using lesser known athletes also adds a surprising aspect to message stimuli; consumers may attend to such messages in order to figure out who the athlete is. Providing University of Maryland players with non-traditional eye-catching uniforms is also an attention getting surprise, since the players stand out from their opponents’ uniforms they are easier for viewers to process. 2. What role do objective and subjective comprehension play in Under Armour’s ability to market its products by sponsoring up-and-coming athletes? Answer: Objective comprehension—up-and-coming athletes embodied the company’s initial position as “a brand for the next generation of athletes” Subjective comprehension—these athletes are more representative of a “normal” person or athlete, so the target market can interpret the company as meant for all athletes 3. Why would Under Armour want to be sure that consumers can clearly see different models as well as its mission and guarantee on the brand’s website? Answer: Using different models ensures the brand is perceived as personally relevant to a wide variety of athletes because they see someone similar to themselves. This also emphasizes that Under Armour is for all athletes (i.e. “normal” people) and is reinforced by their mission, “Make all athletes better.” Additionally, the guarantee may influence subjective comprehension as consumers assume the products must be of a high quality to warrant such a broad guarantee and defined promise to back-up its claims by offering full refunds for any dissatisfaction. SUGGESTED EXERCISES AND TEACHER GUIDELINES 1. Select a good or service that would typically be considered high in involvement and one that would be considered low in involvement. Design an ad to encourage attention to, and perception of, each chosen good or service. How are these two situations similar? How are they different? Exchange your work with a classmate, and explain your rationale for each ad. Review your classmate’s work as he or she comments on yours, based on how effectively each ad attracts attention and perception. Answer: Break into small groups. This exercise can be very effective when student groups design an ad on a transparency that is then presented to the class for critique. Students quickly learn that creating advertisements (slogans, logos, mascots, etc.) is not as simple as they think. Secondly, ask students if they notice that most brand names are one syllable (this makes for an interesting discussion). For instance, Coke used to be called Coca-Cola until the late eighties when they changed the name to Coke. This led to higher brand recognition. High Involvement Good: Luxury Car Ad Design: • Visuals: High-quality images in luxury settings. • Content: Detailed specs, advanced features, and owner testimonials. • Appeal: Focus on status, innovation, and long-term value. • Call-to-Action: Schedule a test drive or visit a showroom. Low Involvement Good: Everyday Toothpaste Ad Design: • Visuals: Simple, clean images. • Content: Key benefits like whitening and freshness. • Appeal: Practicality, price, and everyday use. • Call-to-Action: Buy at local stores or online. Similarities: Both ads aim to attract attention and highlight benefits. Differences: • High Involvement: Detailed, aspirational content. • Low Involvement: Simple, practical message. 2. Browse through a copy of one of your favorite magazines looking for three ads that you think are most effective for generating exposure, attention, and perception. Also, find three ads that are ineffective for each process. What makes the good ones effective? What do you think is wrong with the others, and how could they be improved? Answer: Students have a tendency to provide lots of interesting detail. Attempt to get students to categorize this vast amount of information by developing common themes that denote the reasons for successful and unsuccessful ad executions. Effective Ads: 1. Luxury Car Ad • Exposure: Full-page, high-quality images, prominent placement. • Attention: Eye-catching design, luxurious setting. • Perception: Detailed specs and testimonials enhance credibility. 2. Smartphone Ad • Exposure: Vibrant colors, prominent in tech section. • Attention: Bold headlines and interactive features. • Perception: Clear benefits, innovative features highlighted. 3. Travel Destination Ad • Exposure: Full-page, beautiful imagery. • Attention: Stunning visuals of the destination. • Perception: Engaging descriptions and appealing offers. Ineffective Ads: 1. Generic Snack Ad • Exposure: Small, low-quality image. • Attention: Bland design, uninteresting. • Perception: Lacks specific benefits or differentiation. 2. Insurance Ad • Exposure: Text-heavy, minimal visuals. • Attention: Overwhelming information, lacks focus. • Perception: No clear call-to-action or emotional appeal. 3. Local Event Ad • Exposure: Poorly placed, small size. • Attention: Dull colors, cluttered layout. • Perception: Unclear event details, lack of excitement. Improvements: • Generic Snack Ad: Use more vibrant images and focus on key benefits. • Insurance Ad: Simplify content, use engaging visuals, and a clear call-to-action. • Local Event Ad: Improve placement, design, and highlight key details more clearly. 3. Watch TV for one hour (recorded if possible). During this period, describe the ads that got your attention. Why were they successful in attracting you? For which ads did you want to engage in zipping or zapping, and why? Answer: Again, attempt to get students to categorize this vast amount of information by developing common themes that denote the reasons for successful and unsuccessful ad executions. Attention-Grabbing Ads: 1. High-End Car Ad • Why: Stunning visuals and luxury appeal. 2. New Tech Gadget • Why: Dynamic visuals and interactive features. 3. Charity Appeal • Why: Emotional and powerful narrative. Zipping/Zapping Ads: 1. Insurance Ad • Why: Text-heavy and unengaging. 2. Generic Household Cleaner • Why: Basic and repetitive. 3. Local Service Promotion • Why: Poor quality and irrelevant. 4. Identify as many examples as you can in which marketers want consumers to perceive a just noticeable difference between their product and a competitor’s, or between an old product and a new one. Also, find examples in which marketers do not want consumers to perceive such a difference. Consider not only visual aspects of the product or service, such as how big or small it is, but other perceptual differences as well (how it tastes, feels, smells, sounds). Answer: Here, students should grasp the notion that market leaders may be trying to distance themselves from the competition while market followers/imitators may be trying to remain as close to the leaders as possible. This is a great time to tie in the Perceptual Mapping concept from Chapter 2. Want Consumers to Perceive a Difference: 1. Smartphones: New features (e.g., better camera). 2. Cars: Major redesigns and upgrades. 3. Food: New flavors or recipes. 4. Beauty Products: Enhanced ingredients. Do Not Want Consumers to Perceive a Difference: 1. Laundry Detergents: Subtle formula changes. 2. Classic Brand Products: Minor packaging updates. 3. Banking Services: Hidden changes in terms. 4. Gas Stations: Unadvertised changes in additives. 5. Visit a local shopping mall and examine the interiors of three or four stores. Describe the physiological and psychological responses that different stores try to create. How do they achieve these responses through the use of color, brightness, and contrast? What other sensory stimuli do these stores use to encourage consumer response? Answer: This can be developed into a major individual exercise or as part of a larger group project, depending on the level of detail desired. Students can benefit from a thorough investigation of all of the little design factors, those that are not as apparent upon first glance. Ask students to analyze their place of work, their housing area (e.g., design of the apartments), the student union, and/or library atmospherics. Store 1: Luxury Boutique • Physiological Response: Relaxed and indulgent. • Psychological Response: Exclusivity and elegance. • Achieved Through: Soft, muted colors; dim lighting; high contrast in display areas. • Other Sensory Stimuli: Soft music, pleasant fragrances, upscale materials. Store 2: Fast-Fashion Retailer • Physiological Response: Energetic and vibrant. • Psychological Response: Trendy and affordable. • Achieved Through: Bright, vibrant colors; high brightness; minimal contrast. • Other Sensory Stimuli: Upbeat music, lively atmosphere, strong visual merchandising. Store 3: Electronics Store • Physiological Response: Focused and engaged. • Psychological Response: Modern and tech-savvy. • Achieved Through: Neutral colors; bright lighting; clear contrasts for product displays. • Other Sensory Stimuli: Demonstration stations, product sounds, interactive displays. Store 4: High-End Grocery Store • Physiological Response: Calm and satisfied. • Psychological Response: Freshness and quality. • Achieved Through: Earthy tones; warm lighting; moderate contrast. • Other Sensory Stimuli: Aromas of fresh produce, ambient music, clean layout. 6. Read about color trends and future color predictions in the press releases and reports of the Color Marketing Group (www.colormarketing.org). What colors are expected to be popular in the next few years—and why? Choose a particular product, such as a specific car model, and explain how the color forecasts you reviewed might affect the marketing of that product. Answer: By way of comparison, it is also interesting to capture information about colors used in older cars. You may ask students to apply this exercise to a variety of products such as fashion (e.g. shoes, shirts) and interior decorating. Color Trends and Predictions: • Expected Popular Colors: Earthy tones like terracotta, warm neutrals, and vibrant, nature-inspired greens and blues. • Reasons: Emphasis on sustainability, connection to nature, and a shift towards calming and comforting hues. Impact on Car Marketing: • Product Example: Electric Vehicle (EV) Model. Effect of Color Trends: • Earthy Tones: Align with the sustainability focus of EVs, appealing to eco-conscious buyers. • Warm Neutrals: Enhance the car's modern, sophisticated appeal. • Nature-Inspired Greens and Blues: Emphasize the car's alignment with environmental values and technological innovation. Marketing Strategy: Incorporate trending colors into the car’s exterior options and marketing materials to resonate with consumer preferences for sustainability and modern design. 7. Examine the home pages of two competing online retailers, such as Amazon.com and Barnesandnoble.com. How does each site use the principles of perceptual organization to focus consumer attention on specific offerings? How does each make its stimuli pleasant, surprising, or easy to process? Which home page appears to be most effective in attracting your attention and perception—and why? Answer: From an initial impression, both sites are similar in structure (e.g., search function is located in the upper left, popular categories are listed with buttons across the top). However, it is quickly apparent that Amazon.com focuses on other product categories than just books, while Barnes & Noble is much more of a bookstore. Amazon is currently using brighter colors on its main page SUGGESTED INTERNET EXERCISES WITH SAMPLE ANSWERS VICTORIA’S SECRET When it comes to exposure, no one knows better than Victoria’s Secret! Its retail stores have become a fixture in most shopping malls, and its catalogs reach millions of consumers several times per year. The brand name is among the most recognizable in the U.S., thanks to coordinated marketing efforts to maximize its exposure among its target market. Three months before the company launched its website, it posted a “splash page” at its eventual web address, to capture information from web surfers who assumed that the company already was online. The splash page asked interested visitors for their e-mail addresses to notify them when the website was up. With zero advertising expenditure, the company built a database of more than 300,000 potential customers from responses to its splash page. The company received more than one million website hits within an hour after promoting its online fashion show during the 1999 Super Bowl. Victoria’s Secret has combined traditional marketing techniques and Internet technology with its successful e-tailing strategy. Visit the Victoria’s Secret website at www.victoriassecret.com. How does the company use its home page to provide potential consumers with opportunities for additional exposure to the company and its products? What techniques does the company use to attract and hold consumers’ attention at the website? Which perceptual factors engage the consumer to process the information at Victoria’s Secret website? Instructor Notes From both a marketer’s perspective and a consumer’s perspective, the home page for Victoria’s Secret is quite well designed. The page features photos of the company’s popular products as well as its newest offerings. Convenient links at the top of the page direct visitors to various product categories. Consumers can shop either by clicking on links for various product categories, or by entering a product code from the printed catalogue. To streamline transaction processing, consumers can register at the website. Also included are links for customer service and international information, and an order form to receive a printed catalogue. Besides exposure to company and brand stimuli at their website, Victoria’s Secret provides visitors with opportunities for non-web exposure with a visit to the home page. Potential consumers who provide their e-mail addresses can receive notifications of sales and exclusive deals. Those who do not already receive a printed catalogue can request one through the website. Victoria’s Secret uses a number of successful techniques to capture and hold consumers’ attention at its website. Both photos and copy comprise the pages, assuring that consumers will attend to important stimuli with both brain hemispheres. When the destination links at the top of the home page are within consumers’ range of focal attention, the photos are within range of their peripheral vision, enhancing preattentive processing. Certainly the website’s visuals are attractive, although given the nature of the product offering they are hardly novel or unexpected. Victoria’s Secret increases consumers’ ability to process the stimuli at its website with photos of various products that provide both prominent and concrete stimuli. Links to detailed product information appear near the bottom of the page. When consumers scroll down to access these links, the product photos are no longer visible and cannot compete for attention. As with a printed catalogue, consumers perceive the stimuli at the Victoria’s Secret website only through vision. Therefore the visual stimuli must be carefully designed to achieve the company’s marketing objectives. Signature shades of pink predominate, symbolizing femininity and conveying familiarity for those who have visited the company’s retail stores. These colors may induce consumers to linger at the website, perhaps purchasing more. Color symbolism also reinforces the images of various products; the more fashion-forward or overtly sexy the product, the brighter or racier the color with which it is portrayed. Potential sources of difficulty are the font size and color used for much of the printed information. Small type in pale shades of gray and pink may be difficult for some consumers to read. Interestingly, Victoria’s Secret stores are a feast for all of the senses, complete with attractive visuals of all kinds, soft classical background music, ambient aromas from the fragrance products, open displays that invite touch and trial, and convenient dressing rooms for prepurchase product evaluation. Additional Uses This exercise also relates to concepts in the following chapters: • Chapter 2, Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity (various needs satisfied by purchasing Victoria’s Secret products) • Chapter 3, From Exposure to Comprehension (associations linked with schemas for lingerie, Victoria’s Secret brand personality, scripts for purchasing lingerie) • Chapter 4, Memory and Knowledge (imagery and discursive processing of stimuli at Victoria’s Secret website, trace strength of stimuli, spreading of activation of network nodes for the brand, recognition and recall of the brand and/or products) • Chapter 13, Household and Social Class Influences (likely age of target users of Victoria’s Secret products, differences between lingerie shopping behavior of female and male consumers) • Chapter 14, Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles (psychographic profiles of Victoria’s Secret users, shoppers, and purchasers) Discussion Idea Online shopping sites provide only visual stimuli for most products. What are the most significant disadvantages of this limitation for e-tailers of clothing and fragrance products? How can marketers overcome these disadvantages? Likely answers include the following: • Inability to try products for which touch (fit) or smell (fragrance) are determinant attributes • Lack of opportunity to influence consumers through other perceptual processes • Marketers can maintain or develop a bricks-and-mortar retail presence, providing opportunity for consumers to evaluate products using touch and/or smell; marketers can institute generous return policies for products ordered through websites • Marketers can add auditory stimuli to websites (background music similar to what is used in their stores, or congruent with the websites’ other stimuli) BLUE MOUNTAIN ARTS Many web users enjoy sending personalized e-greetings to their fellow netizens thanks to Blue Mountain Arts. A manufacturer of printed greeting cards for over twenty years, Blue Mountain Arts was among the earliest purveyors of free consumer services on the Internet. From the company’s home page at www.bluemountain.com, consumers can browse an enormous selection of online greeting cards for all occasions, from birthdays to the Buddhist New Year. The site’s offerings and links comprise unexpectedly diverse stimuli. Create an online greeting at Blue Mountain Arts’ site, and send it to a friend. In what ways does Blue Mountain Arts capture users’ attention through its use of unexpected stimuli? Instructor Notes The range of online greeting card categories at Blue Mountain Arts is surprisingly broad and inclusive. The user can select a greeting in any of nine languages. The company’s home page offers free screen savers, address book functions, and a link to an online florist for conveniently supplementing an online card with a real bouquet. More surprises await the user in creating and sending an online card. After browsing designs within a greeting category, the user makes a selection. The next screen offers to retrieve an e-mail address from an address book; allows the user to send the same greeting to multiple recipients; provides generous space to supplement the standard message; and includes a preview of the e-greeting for accuracy and effect. For almost all greetings, the Blue Mountain Arts website provides appropriate background music, which the user hears during the preview. With some online greetings, the user has the option to include a discount offer for a purchase at an affiliated e-tailer. All in all, the site comprises many features that provide the user with an unexpected stimulus or benefit, and that encourage the consumer to revisit Blue Mountain Arts for future e-greetings. Additional Uses This exercise also relates to concepts in the following chapters: • Chapter 6, Attitudes Based on Low Effort (affective versus cognitive involvement) • Chapter 9, Judgment and Decision Making Based on Low Effort (effects of habit and brand loyalty as simplifying strategies for greeting card selection, affect referral, co-branding with e-tailers, shaping greeting selection process) • Chapter 11, Social Influences on Consumer Behavior (reference group usage of online greetings) • Chapter 16, Symbolic Consumer Behavior (appropriate occasions for e-greetings versus printed greetings) Discussion Idea Which of the unexpected stimuli at the Blue Mountain Arts site might some users find unpleasant, and why? In terms of consumer exposure, attention, and perception, of what benefit is this site to the company’s greeting card retail division? Likely answers include the following: • Links to affiliated e-tailers may seem obtrusive to some users. • Users may dislike the music that is sent automatically with a particular e-greeting, or with all e-greetings in general. • Inclusion of a discount offer for the recipient may seem offensive to some users. • Although it may cannibalize some retail sales, Blue Mountain Arts’ website builds brand name exposure and recognition, and may positively affect consumers’ perceptions of its company image (blues and yellows) versus the grays and greens used by Barnes & Noble. ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS WITH SAMPLE ANSWERS These discussion questions can be used as in-class activities or as thought questions that the students consider while reading the chapter or to test their understanding of the material after the reading and lecture are complete. 1. What role does attention play in advertising strategy? Answer: Attention both affects what we perceive and is used to process something after we have perceived it. Marketers can capture attention by making an ad (a) personally relevant, (b) pleasant, (c) surprising, and (4) easy to process. A stimulus will be personally relevant if it appeals to consumer needs, values, and goals, and if it includes drama, rhetorical questions, or sources that are similar to the audience. A stimulus will be pleasant if it incorporates attractive visuals, music, or humor and will be surprising if it incorporates novelty (a stimulus that is new and unique) or unexpectedness (a stimulus that is different from what the consumer expects). Finally, a stimulus will be easy to process if it is prominent, concrete, or in contrast to the surrounding stimuli. 2. What part does just noticeable differences (jnd) play in consumers’ perceptions of a product? Answer: Just noticeable difference (jnd) is the intensity difference needed between two stimuli before they are perceived to be different. Marketers must consider this effect as they position products. If the difference in the focal attribute (price, size, quantity, warranty, etc.) will be interpreted positively by consumers, marketers must ensure that the intensity is great enough for consumers to perceive it. If the difference will be interpreted negatively, marketers must ensure that the intensity is below the i.e. threshold. 3. What strategies have marketers developed for increasing the likelihood that consumers will be exposed to their marketing stimuli? Answer: Marketers know that (a) various marketing communications strategies, (b) careful positioning of an ad in a medium, and (c) calculated product distribution and shelf placement should increase the likelihood that consumers will be exposed to their marketing stimuli. a. Marketers rely on both traditional and newer marketing communications strategies in order to reach consumers. Traditional techniques include personal selling, publicity, magazines, TV, radio, billboards, direct mail, newspapers, advertising specialties, and special-events advertising. Newer types of marketing communications that generate exposure include placing brands or products in movies or other forms of entertainment or in media. Examples include instant coupon machines, infomercials, luggage carousels, shopping carts, and the Internet. b. Marketers also calculate how to position an ad within a medium to increase the likelihood of exposure. For example, exposure to TV commercials is greater when ads are placed at the beginning or end of the commercial break and when run during a program that interests the target audience. Similarly, exposure to magazine ads increases when ads appear on the back cover or next to an article. c. Finally, marketers know that exposure is likely to increase for products that are distributed to a greater number of stores because consumers are more likely to come in contact with these products. Likewise, exposure increases when the product is placed on an end-of-aisle display, when located at eye level on the shelf, and as part of a point-of-purchase display. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS 1. Explain what is meant by the term exposure and how exposure can be created for marketing-related stimuli. Answer: Exposure: The contact with marketing stimuli. Creation: Through ads, product placements, social media, and store displays. 2. Discuss the concept of selective exposure and explain why it is important to marketers. Offer some examples of how consumers engage in selective exposure. Describe how these consumer behaviors can be addressed through marketing efforts. Answer: Selective Exposure: Avoiding information that doesn’t match existing beliefs. Importance: Helps in targeting specific audiences. Examples: Choosing certain TV channels or websites. Addressing: Use targeted ads and personalized content. 3. Explain why the following are important to the sensory processing of visual stimuli: (a) brightness and contrast, (b) size of the product package, and (c) color. Provide an example of each in a marketing context (other than those provided in the text). Answer: (a) Brightness and Contrast: Enhance visibility. Example: Bright colors in billboards. (b) Size of the Product Package: Affects shelf impact. Example: Larger packages for family-sized items. (c) Color: Influences emotion and recognition. Example: Red in fast-food branding. 4. Explain why each of the following types of sensory processing can be important to marketing strategy: (a) hearing, (b) taste, (c) smell, and (d) touch. Provide marketing examples in which these senses are employed (other than those provided in the text). Answer: (a) Hearing: Affects mood and perception. Example: Upbeat store music. (b) Taste: Influences product appeal. Example: Free samples in stores. (c) Smell: Creates emotional connections. Example: Scented candles in stores. (d) Touch: Affects quality perception. Example: Fabric swatches in clothing stores. 5. Create your own definition of the absolute threshold and use an example to explain why it is important for marketing strategy. Answer: • Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus level needed for detection. • Example: Product packaging must be bright enough to be noticed. • Importance: Ensures visibility and detection of marketing messages. 6. Create a definition for, and use a marketing example to describe, the differential threshold. Identify when marketers would and would not want a difference to be perceived. Answer: Definition: The minimum difference needed for consumers to notice a change. Example: Adding $0.35 to a $5 item (compared to $0.07 for a $1 item). When to Perceive: Highlighting new features. When Not to Perceive: Minor price increases. 7. Suppose from testing that it was determined that 7 cents had to be added to a dollar before consumers would notice the difference. According to Weber’s law, how much would have to be added to 5 dollars before consumers would notice the difference? Answer: $0.35 (7 cents / $1.00 = X / $5.00). 8. Explain what is meant by the process of attention. Describe the purpose that it serves and explain why it is important to marketing strategy. Answer: Definition: Focusing cognitive resources on stimuli. Purpose: Allows processing and evaluation. Importance: Ensures marketing messages are noticed and understood. 9. Describe how each of the following could be used to capture the consumer’s attention and provide an example of each (other than those provided in the text): (a) appealing to needs, (b) attractive sources, (c) perceptual vigilance, (d) similar sources, (e) dramas, (f) music, (g) humor, (h) rhetorical questions, (i) comparative advertising, and (j) fear appeals. Describe a case (if there is one) in which marketers might want to create a distraction from their advertised message. Answer: (a) Appealing to Needs: Ads for energy bars. (b) Attractive Sources: Celebrities endorsing products. (c) Perceptual Vigilance: Eco-friendly product ads. (d) Similar Sources: Fitness brands with health influencers. (e) Dramas: Mini-series ads. (f) Music: Memorable jingles. (g) Humor: Funny cleaning product ads. (h) Rhetorical Questions: Vacation ads. (i) Comparative Advertising: Car ads comparing fuel efficiency. (j) Fear Appeals: Insurance ads highlighting risks. Distraction Example: Humor to mask negative aspects. 10. Describe how each of the following can affect attention and provide an example of each (other than those provided in the text): (a) a novel stimulus, (b) a prominent stimulus, (c) an unexpected stimulus, and (d) an attractive visual. Answer: (a) Novel Stimulus: Interactive store display. (b) Prominent Stimulus: Large digital billboard. (c) Unexpected Stimulus: Pop-up ad. (d) Attractive Visual: Beautiful product packaging. EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES AND CLASSROOM EXAMPLES Students who learn more readily through visual and tactile stimuli will benefit from the introduction of physical examples into the classroom. 1. “Not Eggs-actly as Perceived” Exercise Take to class a clear glass-measuring cup, a kitchen towel, and an egg carton filled with 11 white plastic eggs and one real egg. At the start of class, open the carton and show students the eggs inside, being careful not to let them get close enough to notice that most of the eggs are not real. Put the cup on the towel and crack the real egg into it. Then, holding on to the edge of the top of the carton, throw the rest of the eggs at the middle of the room. Most of the students will panic and scream; some will jump out of their seats. After they have settled down, talk to them about why they reacted the way they did, what led them to assume that the eggs were real, and the relationship between perception and reality. 2. “Your Attention Please” Exercise* Purchase an air horn from a local sporting goods store. Take it to class in a paper bag and place it on the floor. While introducing the topics of the day, including attention, remove the air horn from the bag and sound it. The unexpected loud noise will cause most students to levitate out of their chairs. Use their reactions to illustrate the importance of gaining attention and to talk about the difficulty of capturing consumers’ attention in a cluttered marketing environment. 3. “I Read It in the Checkout Line” Exercise* Purchase one copy of Globe, National Enquirer, or Star for every student in the class. Give students five to ten minutes to leaf through the newspapers. At the end of that time, ask students what articles they noticed and why, which ones they read and why, and how their perceptions of the content of the articles were affected by the publication in which they appeared. 4. Consider visiting the local grocery store to find examples of marketing efforts that have an effect on exposure, attention, or perception to bring to the classroom. Examples of these efforts might include point-of-purchase displays, in-store advertising, unique packaging, and interactive devices (e.g., sweepstakes, etc.), which are all used to increase consumer exposure, attention, or perception. Use these examples to stimulate discussion about how marketers are or are not using principles of consumer behavior to support their marketing efforts. CLASSROOM GROUP ACTIVITY Using Exposure, Attention, and Perception in Your Marketing Program: 45 Minutes I. Start Up A. Purpose of the activity 1. This activity will give students an opportunity to apply the concepts of exposure, attention, or perception in a brief classroom exercise. B. What the instructor will do 1. The instructor will divide people into small groups, assign them a product for consideration, and be available to coach and help the groups as needed. C. What the participants will do 1. The participants will work in small groups to brainstorm ideas for applying concepts from the chapter to specific brands. After a period of small-group discussion, they will make reports to the large group. D. Rules for this experience 1. Groups are to work separately from each other. Individuals should rely on their knowledge from the book and may refer to their notes and the book as necessary. II. Experience A. Group up. 1. Have students form groups of no more than five. This exercise will work in groups of any size; however, room restrictions that do not allow for moving furniture may make group work more difficult. B. Assign brands. 1. Each group should be assigned a single brand on which to focus. a) Consider using local brands, including both products and services. b) Consider using brands that are not the leaders in their categories (i.e., not Coca-Cola or McDonald’s). c) Consider bringing samples of the brands to the class for students to study and review in their groups (e.g., a box of crackers, a candy bar, a cola can). C. Specify actions for groups. 1. The groups are responsible for analyzing the brand’s present marketing initiatives (based on the 4Ps) and proposing marketing initiatives that will utilize the concepts discussed in the chapter. 2. Questions to be answered by small groups a) What specific actions can/are being used to ensure that consumers are exposed to this brand? b) How can consumer perception of this brand be enhanced? c) What would you propose be done to increase attention paid to this brand? 3. Large-group discussions a) First, have groups present their ideas about the first question, and then proceed to discuss each of the subsequent questions. b) If there are many groups, share the discussion among all groups, though not all groups may answer all of the questions. III. Debrief and Unveil Concepts A. Discuss the activity itself. 1. The purpose of this discussion is to allow students to express what they felt about the experience itself. 2. Ask students to describe their experiences of “doing” the activity. a) Likes and dislikes about what just happened b) How they felt during the experience c) What is realistic, unrealistic about the exercise? d) What will be different when they do this for their own brand? B. Discuss the content of the experience. 1. The purpose of this discussion is to ensure that students “take away” important learning points. 2. Ask students to describe the important points the experience teaches. a) The role of marketing initiatives in exposing potential users to a brand b) The role of perception in creating marketing initiatives c) The role of attention in creating marketing initiatives 3. Use the chalkboard to record student responses. a) Write down their ideas as they are presented. b) Concentrate on the principles being discussed rather than the examples being used. c) Help them to see the interrelationships between their responses. IV. Execute A. Apply what has been learned. 1. Lead a discussion on how the concepts can be applied in organizations. a) What barriers may be faced in applying the concepts from the exercise? b) What can be done to help others understand the concepts when you use them at work? B. Transfer and use the knowledge. 1. Encourage students to make a record in their notes about how they will use the ideas in the workplace. 2. Even if they do not have a specific job, how will they remember to use what they have learned? Chris Sorenson, “An Underdog with Attitude,” Maclean’s, September 12, 2011, p. 46; Rosemary Feitelberg, “Under Armour’s Unofficial All-Star Team,” WWD, December 1, 2011, p. 12c; Andrea K. Walker, “Under Armour’s Rookie Strategy for Endorsement Deals,” Baltimore Sun, July 25, 2011, www.baltimoresun.com; and “Football or Fashion Show?” New York Times, October 24, 2011, p. 4. Solution Manual for Consumer Behavior Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. MacInnis, Rik Pieters 9780357721292, 9781305507272, 9781133435211