CH-3 Biological and Environmental Contexts of Psychopathology – Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology : Exam Guide

Chapter 3 Biological and Environmental Contexts of Psychopathology TRUE OR FALSE 1. The development of the brain and nervous system begins relatively late in the embryonic period. Answer: False 2. Together, the brain and spinal cord form the central nervous system (CNS). Answer: True 3. The two subsystems of the peripheral nervous system are the somatic system and the autonomic system. Answer: True 4. The medulla, located in the hindbrain, is involved in movement and cognitive processing. Answer: False 5. The small gap between neurons is called the axon. Answer: False 6. Neurotransmitters can excite or inhibit neurons. Answer: True 7. The term perinatal refers to the period of time during pregnancy. Answer: False 8. Research indicates that the fetus is surprisingly resistant to high levels of maternal stress. Answer: False 9. Timing of exposure to teratogens can have varying effects. Answer: True 10. From the moment of conception, development is influenced by constitutional, economic, social, and cultural factors. Answer: True 11. The overall rate of prematurity in the U.S. is 25%. Answer: False 12. The notion that a child's nervous system is “plastic” refers to the seeming artificial manner in which the child is behaving. Answer: False 13. A person's observable characteristics are referred to as his or her phenotype. Answer: True 14. Recent research indicates that the human genome can be modified by exposure to environmental toxins. Answer: True 15. In order for a dominant gene to be expressed, it has to be genetically transmitted by both parents. Answer: False 16. The intellectual stimulation offered in a family is an example of a shared environmental influence. Answer: True 17. Reinforcing a nonverbal child to first make sounds, then to say words, then to say sentences is an example of generalization. Answer: False 18. Negative reinforcement results in a decrease in the behavior it follows. Answer: False 19. The lack of forethought and planning exhibited by an impulsive child is an example of a cognitive distortion. Answer: False 20. Two dimensions of parenting styles that have been identified are acceptance/warmth and degree of control. Answer: True 21. Research indicates that parental psychopathology is only influential when the child inherits vulnerability genes. Answer: False 22. The only major forms of maltreatment are physical, sexual, and emotional abuse. Answer: False 23. Over one million youth a year experience divorce. Answer: True 24. Multiple divorces increase the child’s risk for adjustment problems. Answer: True 25. Research on the effects of divorce on children indicates that the effects are clearly greater on boys. Answer: False 26. Authoritarian/restrictive parenting is associated with positive social behavior and peer acceptance. Answer: False 27. Young people experience higher rates of poverty than any other age group. Answer: True 28. Hanson and colleagues (2011) found a direct association between poverty and the volume of gray matter of the hippocampus. Answer: True 29. According to Tienda and Haskins (2011), in 2008 almost 25% of youth age 17 and under lived with an immigrant parent. Answer: True MULTIPLE CHOICE 30. Which of the following is true regarding brain development? A. Neurons chemically transmit impulses within the nervous system and to other parts of the body. B. Myelin is a neurotransmitter associated with inducing sleep. C. The human brain is fully developed by adolescence. D. The various areas of the brain develop simultaneously. Answer: A 31. The _________ has two branches, the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, and is the part of the nervous system that helps regulate arousal and emotions. A. peripheral nervous system B. somatic nervous system C. autonomic nervous system D. voluntary nervous system Answer: C 32. The brain has three major divisions: A. forebrain, thalamus, cerebellum. B. cerebellum, cortex, limbic system. C. hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain. D. hippocampus, amygdale, forebrain. Answer: C 33. The _________, which includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and parts of the cerebral hemispheres, thalamus, and hypothalamus, plays a central role in memory and the regulation of emotions and biological urges. A. limbic system B. libido system C. hindbrain system D. autonomic system Answer: A 34. The part of the brain that is involved in higher mental functioning, including information processing, learning, and memory is the A. thalamus. B. hypothalamus. C. cerebellum. D. cerebral hemispheres. Answer: D 35. _________ receive chemical messages from other neurons. A. Axons B. Dendrites C. Synaptic vesicles D. Nuclei Answer: B 36. Norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine are all examples of A. bodily humors. B. synaptic clefts. C. neurotransmitters. D. growth hormones. Answer: C 37. A toxic substance that may cause damage to the developing fetus is known as a A. placenta. B. barrier. C. teratogen. D. diathesis. Answer: C 38. The exposure of the developing fetus to alcohol consumed by the mother is an example of a A. prenatal influence. B. perinatal influence. C. postnatal influence. D. genetic influence. Answer: A 39. Mr. and Mrs. Smith have recently adopted Jimmy, age 9. They do not know much about his birth history. They are concerned because Jimmy exhibits slow growth and poor motor skills. He also has small eyes and a thin upper lip. Finally, Jimmy seems to have difficulty learning and is quite hyperactive. His pediatrician suspects that A. Jimmy was exposed to lead early in life. B. Jimmy’s mother had Rubella while pregnant with Jimmy. C. Jimmy’s mother drank while pregnant with Jimmy. D. Jimmy was born breech. Answer: C 40. Anoxia at the time of birth is an example of a A. prenatal influence. B. perinatal influence. C. postnatal influence. D. genetic influence. Answer: B 41. The genetic code is the basis for the _________ or synthesis of messenger RNA. A. translocation B. transmission C. transference D. transcription Answer: D 42. The genetic code on DNA is made up of which of the following nucleotides? A. Guanine B. Glycolic acid C. Glucose D. Glutamate Answer: A 43. Many complex human characteristics, such as intelligence and behaviors implicated in behavior disorders, are believed to be associated with A. a single gene. B. a single gene in combination with environmental influences. C. multiple genes. D. multiple genes in combination with environmental influences. Answer: D 44. Tom has been diagnosed with a particular disorder as a result of behavior genetic research. Tom’s relatives are examined to determine if they resemble Tom with respect to this disorder. In this research, Tom is described as the _________. A. proband or index case B. concordant or the genetic base proband C. monozygote or dyzygote D. first degree relative Answer: A 45. In twin studies, genetic influence is suggested when A. monozygotic twins are more concordant than dyzygotic twins. B. dyzygotic twins are more concordant than monozygotic twins. C. there is no difference between monozygotic and dyzygotic twins. D. the twins are more concordant with non-twin siblings than each other. Answer: A 46. Children who have disorder X and were adopted at birth are studied to determine the degree of genetic contribution to disorder X. Which of the following results is most likely to support the hypothesis of genetic influence in the etiology of disorder X? A. The rate of the disorder in these adopted children is the same as in the general population. B. The rate of the disorder is greater in the biological siblings of these children than in adoptive siblings. C. The rate of the disorder is greater in the adoptive siblings of these children than in their biological siblings. D. The rate of the disorder is the same in the biological and adoptive siblings of these children. Answer: B 47. Results from behavior genetic research suggest that heritability estimates for behavioral disorders A. rarely exceed 10 percent. B. rarely exceed 50 percent. C. frequently exceed 50 percent. D. frequently exceed 75 percent. Answer: B 48. Which of the following are two major molecular genetic research methods? A. linkage analysis and association analysis B. linkage analysis and adoption studies C. linkage analysis and twin designs D. association analysis and adoption studies Answer: A 49. The term _________ refers to differential sensitivity to experience due to differences in genotype. A. gene-environment interaction B. gene-environment correlation C. linkage analysis D. association analysis Answer: A 50. Adopted children are more likely to have criminal records when the adoptive parent has a criminal record, but only when they also have a biological parent with a criminal record. This is an example of A. gene-environment interaction. B. gene-environment correlation. C. linkage analysis. D. association analysis. Answer: A 51. The term _________ refers to genetic differences in exposure to environments. A. gene-environment interaction B. gene-environment correlation C. quantitative genetics D. molecular genetics Answer: B 52. Michael inherits a genetic propensity for high-activity level from his parents and the parents have created a family environment that is highly active. This is an example of a _________ gene-environment correlation. A. active B. passive C. reactive D. redundant Answer: B 53. In Mary Cover Jones’ (1924) study of Peter, she used _________ to treat his fear of furry objects. A. punishment B. counterconditioning C. extinction D. cognitive behavioral therapy Answer: B 54. In Watson and Rayner's study of Little Albert the conditioned stimulus was A. a white rat. B. the fear. C. a loud noise. D. anxiety. Answer: A 55. Operant conditioning emphasizes the _________ of behavior. A. unconscious aspects B. consequences C. interpretation D. symbolism Answer: B 56. A particular child develops a fear of all men with mustaches similar that of his uncle, who is stern. This is an example of the operant conditioning process of A. negative reinforcement. B. shaping. C. generalization. D. discrimination. Answer: C 57. The phenomenon of disinhibition in observational learning is illustrated by A. a child observes another child being punished for talking to a peer during a lesson and becomes quieter in other ways. B. a child observes another child push a peer and thereby get to the head of the line. The first child then uses physical force to get what he wants. C. a shy child is nervous in his new class. He doesn’t participate in learning a new art project. D. a child in a class learns how to do a new kind of art project by observing her “buddy” do that same art project. Answer: B 58. Attention, memory, concept formation, strategies to mentally manipulate information, and problem solving are examples of A. instrumental processes. B. observational processes. C. cognitive processes. D. unconscious processes. Answer: C 59. _________ are schema for representing information stored in memory. A. Cognitive processes B. Cognitive structures C. Cognitive content D. Cognitive products Answer: B 60. A depressed child views herself as less capable than her peers, whereas others do not view her this way. This is an example of A. cognitive deficiency. B. cognitive distortion. C. thought disorder. D. protective cognition. Answer: B 61. A depressed youngster has come to view negative events in his life as due to his lack of intelligence. According to Kendall (2006), this is an example of A. cognitive structure. B. cognitive content. C. cognitive process. D. cognitive product. Answer: D 62. In an ecological model of development, _________ contexts would be expected to have relatively more direct impact. A. cultural B. distal C. proximal D. pathological Answer: C 63. Which of the following is true regarding the research of Livingston and Parker, Pew Research Center (2011), depicted in Figure 3.5 of the text? A. In 2010, 27% of fathers lived apart from their children. B. White fathers are more likely to live apart from their children than Black or Hispanic fathers. C. Families with incomes exceeding $50,000 were more likely to have fathers that lived apart from their children. D. Fathers with higher education were more likely to live apart from their children. Answer: A 64. Children who are allowed much self-regulation and whose parents make few demands for mature behavior are said to have parents with which parenting style? A. indulgent/permissive B. authoritative C. secure D. neglectful Answer: A 65. Which parental style is associated with the tendency of children to be independent, socially responsible, and self confident? A. authoritative B. permissive C. indulgent D. authoritarian Answer: A 66. In defining child maltreatment, an act of omission by a parent or caregiver that involves failure or delay in providing care or supervision would be considered A. physical abuse. B. sexual abuse. C. neglect. D. emotional abuse. Answer: C 67. The most common form of child maltreatment is A. emotional maltreatment. B. neglect. C. physical abuse. D. sexual abuse. Answer: B 68. According to the book, the definition of _________ is probably the most difficult and controversial. A. emotional maltreatment B. neglect C. physical abuse D. sexual abuse Answer: A 69. Which of the following statements regarding abuse is correct? A. Physical abuse is harder to detect than other forms of maltreatment. B. Sexual abuse of boys is more common than that of girls. C. Refusing special education when needed can be considered neglect. D. According to the book, in 2009 there were less than 200,000 cases of maltreatment reported in the U.S. Answer: C 70. Which of the following is true about child maltreatment? A. Maltreatment occurs equally across socioeconomic classes. B. Parents are rarely the perpetrators of abuse. C. Parents who have children later in life are at higher risk for perpetrating abuse. D. Social isolation of the parent from family and friends contributes to abuse. Answer: D 71. Which of the following children is at the highest risk for abuse? A. A one year-old with physical disabilities B. A 12 year-old from a large family C. A 17 year-old with failing grades D. A 13 year-old Black male living in an impoverished neighborhood Answer: A 72. Single-parent families makeup _________ percent of all families with children. A. 5 B. 19 C. 30 D. 48 Answer: C 73. Which of the following variables is thought to contribute to a youngster’s adjustment to divorce? A. The youngster’s prior level of adjustment B. Individual characteristics of parents C. The youngster’s prior level of adjustment and individual characteristics of parents D. The youngster’s prior level of adjustment, individual characteristics of parents, and ethnic differences Answer: D 74. Which of the following is an example of molecular family stability? A. Living in a family with no divorce history B. Living in the same home and never moving C. Consistency in who lives in the home D. Having a regular bed time Answer: D 75. In 2010, the percentage of U.S. youth under 18 living in poverty was about A. 2 percent. B. 10 percent. C. 15 percent. D. 22 percent. Answer: D 76. Which of the following statements regarding the impact of poverty on youth is accurate? A. Rates of poverty are equal across racial groups. B. Single female-headed households are at higher risk for poverty than married households. C. Childrearing practices do not vary by social class. D. Poverty is most damaging to middle schoolers. Answer: B 77. Leventhal and Brooks-Gunn have suggested three potential mechanisms or pathways whereby communities might affect youngsters’ development. They are A. genetics, family environment, and neighborhood B. socioeconomic status, school structure, and crime C. community resources, relationships, and community norms/collective efficacy D. individual, intrafamilial, and cultural Answer: C 78. The term acculturation refers to A. the elimination of cultural influences so as to understand the effect of individual variables. B. changes in culture resulting from different cultures coming in contact with each other. C. the attempt to provide cultural experiences, such as music and art to at-risk children. D. interventions to overcome the negative impact of a youngster’s cultural background. Answer: B BRIEF ESSAY QUESTIONS 79. Describe the parts of the neuron and how electrical messages are transmitted between neurons. Answer: Neurons are specialized cells in the nervous system that transmit information in the form of electrical signals. They consist of several key parts: 1. Cell Body (Soma): This is the main part of the neuron containing the nucleus and other organelles necessary for cellular functions. 2. Dendrites: These are branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors. They act like antennas, collecting incoming signals. 3. Axon: A long, slender projection that carries electrical signals (action potentials) away from the cell body towards other neurons, muscles, or glands. 4. Axon Terminal (Synaptic Terminal): At the end of the axon, this small swelling forms junctions with other cells (often other neurons) at synapses. Now, let's discuss how electrical messages are transmitted between neurons: Transmission of Electrical Messages (Action Potentials) 1. Resting Potential: When a neuron is not transmitting signals, it maintains a stable resting potential due to the difference in ion concentrations inside and outside the cell. The inside is more negatively charged compared to the outside (around -70 millivolts). 2. Depolarization: When a stimulus (such as from another neuron) causes the neuron to reach its threshold potential (around -55 millivolts), voltage-gated sodium channels in the neuron's membrane open. Sodium ions rush into the cell, reversing the charge briefly and causing depolarization. 3. Action Potential: The influx of sodium ions triggers an action potential—a rapid, transient change in electrical potential that travels down the axon. This is an all-or-nothing event; once initiated, it continues along the axon without decreasing in strength. 4. Propagation: As the action potential travels down the axon, it triggers the opening of voltage-gated ion channels sequentially along the axon. This allows the action potential to propagate in one direction (from the cell body to the axon terminals). 5. Synaptic Transmission: When the action potential reaches the axon terminals, it triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules stored in synaptic vesicles. These neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft (the gap between neurons) and bind to receptors on the dendrites or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron. 6. Postsynaptic Potential: The binding of neurotransmitters to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron can lead to changes in its electrical potential, either making it more likely (excitatory) or less likely (inhibitory) to generate an action potential. 7. Integration and Signal Transmission: If the combined excitatory signals reach the threshold potential at the initial segment of the axon (the axon hillock), it triggers another action potential, continuing the transmission of the electrical message to downstream neurons. In summary, neurons transmit electrical messages (action potentials) from one neuron to another through a series of electrochemical events involving changes in ion concentrations and neurotransmitter release at synapses. This process underlies the complex network of communication that forms the basis of nervous system function. 80. Briefly describe a prenatal, a perinatal, and a postnatal biological influence thought to affect the functioning/behavior of the developing child. Answer: Here's a brief description of each biological influence: 1. Prenatal Influence: Prenatal influences refer to factors that affect the developing child before birth. One significant prenatal influence is maternal nutrition. Adequate nutrition during pregnancy is crucial for the proper development of the fetus, including brain development and overall growth. Nutritional deficiencies or excesses can impact the developing child's cognitive abilities, physical health, and susceptibility to certain diseases later in life. 2. Perinatal Influence: Perinatal influences occur around the time of birth and can affect the child's development. A key perinatal influence is birth complications. Complications during labor and delivery, such as oxygen deprivation (hypoxia), birth trauma, or premature birth, can have long-lasting effects on the child's neurological development and may contribute to conditions such as cerebral palsy or developmental delays. 3. Postnatal Influence: Postnatal influences occur after birth and continue to shape the child's development. An important postnatal influence is parental caregiving and interaction. Positive caregiving practices, such as responsive parenting, nurturing interactions, and a supportive environment, contribute to healthy emotional, cognitive, and social development in children. Conversely, neglectful or abusive caregiving can lead to developmental delays, behavioral problems, and emotional difficulties. These biological influences underscore the importance of prenatal care, supportive perinatal practices, and nurturing postnatal environments in promoting optimal development and well-being in children. 81. Discuss the reasons why research involving harmful influences on the fetus must be interpreted with caution. Answer: Research involving harmful influences on the fetus must be interpreted with caution due to several ethical and methodological considerations: 1. Ethical Concerns: Conducting research that intentionally exposes fetuses to potentially harmful substances or conditions raises significant ethical dilemmas. There are strict ethical guidelines and regulations in place to protect the welfare of human subjects, especially vulnerable populations such as pregnant women and fetuses. Researchers must adhere to principles of beneficence (maximizing benefits and minimizing harm), non-maleficence (do no harm), and respect for autonomy when conducting studies involving fetuses. 2. Complexity of Effects: Studying harmful influences on fetuses involves complex interactions between genetic factors, environmental exposures, and developmental stages. It can be challenging to isolate the specific effects of a single factor (e.g., a toxin or medication) on fetal development due to the multitude of variables involved. Factors such as timing and duration of exposure, maternal health, and genetic predispositions can all influence outcomes. 3. Long-term Consequences: Assessing the long-term consequences of fetal exposure to harmful influences requires longitudinal studies that track individuals over many years. Such studies are costly and resource-intensive, and attrition rates can be high. Additionally, ethical considerations arise regarding the long-term monitoring and support for individuals who may have been affected by prenatal exposures. 4. Animal Studies vs. Human Relevance: Much of our understanding of harmful influences on fetal development comes from animal studies, which may not always translate directly to humans. Species differences in physiology, metabolism, and developmental processes can limit the applicability of findings from animal studies to human populations. Thus, extrapolating findings from animal studies to human health risks requires careful consideration and additional human research. 5. Confounding Factors: It can be challenging to control for confounding factors in studies involving harmful influences on fetuses. Factors such as maternal health behaviors (e.g., smoking, alcohol consumption), socioeconomic status, and maternal stress levels can independently impact fetal development. Separating the effects of these factors from the specific influence being studied is crucial but can be difficult in practice. 6. Publication Bias: Research involving harmful influences on fetuses may be subject to publication bias, where studies that find significant effects are more likely to be published than studies with null results. This can skew the overall understanding of the risks associated with certain exposures. In summary, while research on harmful influences on fetuses is essential for understanding developmental risks and informing public health policies, it must be approached with caution due to ethical concerns, methodological challenges, and the complexity of factors influencing fetal development. Researchers, policymakers, and healthcare providers must carefully weigh the potential benefits and risks of such research to ensure ethical standards are maintained and findings are interpreted accurately. 82. Briefly describe two different behavior genetic research methods that might be employed to study heritability of childhood behavior disorders. Answer: Behavioral genetic research employs various methods to study the heritability of childhood behavior disorders. Here are two different methods commonly used: 1. Twin Studies: • Method: Twin studies compare the similarity of traits between identical (monozygotic, MZ) twins, who share 100% of their genetic material, and fraternal (dizygotic, DZ) twins, who share, on average, 50% of their segregating genes. • Rationale: By comparing the similarity of MZ twins, who are genetically identical, to DZ twins, who share about half of their genes, researchers can estimate the heritability of a trait. Greater similarity between MZ twins compared to DZ twins suggests genetic influence. • Application: In studying childhood behavior disorders, researchers use twin studies to quantify the genetic contribution to disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), conduct disorder, and others. Through statistical models, heritability estimates can be calculated based on the degree of trait similarity between MZ and DZ twins. 2. Adoption Studies: • Method: Adoption studies examine the similarity of traits between adopted children and their biological relatives (genetic relatives) versus their adoptive relatives (environmental relatives). • Rationale: By comparing adopted children's traits to those of their biological relatives (with whom they share genes but not environment) and their adoptive relatives (with whom they share environment but not genes), researchers can disentangle genetic and environmental influences. • Application: Adoption studies are particularly useful for studying childhood behavior disorders because they allow researchers to assess the extent to which genetic factors contribute to these disorders independent of shared environmental influences. For example, if adopted children show more similarity to their biological relatives in terms of behavior disorders compared to their adoptive relatives, this suggests a genetic contribution to the disorder. These methods—twin studies and adoption studies—complement each other in behavioral genetic research by providing insights into the relative contributions of genetics and environment to the development of childhood behavior disorders. They help researchers understand the interplay between genetic predisposition and environmental factors in shaping behavior and susceptibility to disorders during childhood. 83. Define the terms shared and nonshared environmental influences. Give an example of each. Answer: Shared and nonshared environmental influences are concepts used in behavioral genetics to distinguish between types of environmental factors that contribute to individual differences in traits or behaviors. 1. Shared Environmental Influences: • Definition: Shared environmental influences refer to environmental factors that contribute to similarities among individuals raised in the same family or household. • Example: An example of shared environmental influence is parenting style. Children growing up in the same household tend to experience similar parenting practices, which can influence their behavior, personality traits, and cognitive development similarly. For instance, siblings raised by parents who consistently enforce strict rules and expectations may exhibit similar levels of conscientiousness and obedience. 2. Nonshared Environmental Influences: • Definition: Nonshared environmental influences refer to environmental factors that contribute to differences among individuals raised in the same family or household. • Example: An example of nonshared environmental influence is peer relationships. Siblings growing up in the same household may have different peer groups, experiences, and interactions outside the family. These differences in peer relationships can lead to variations in social skills, interests, and behaviors among siblings. For instance, one sibling may have a close group of friends who are academically oriented, while another sibling may have friends who are more focused on sports, leading to different academic and social outcomes. In summary, shared environmental influences contribute to similarities among individuals raised in the same family or household, whereas nonshared environmental influences contribute to differences among individuals, even if they share the same family environment. These concepts are important in understanding how both family dynamics and individual experiences shape development and behavior across different contexts. 84. Describe the purpose of linkage analysis, association analysis, and genome wide linkage/association analysis. Answer: Linkage analysis, association analysis, and genome-wide linkage/association analysis are three important methods used in genetics and genomics research to identify genetic variants associated with traits or diseases. Here’s a description of each and their purposes: 1. Linkage Analysis: • Purpose: Linkage analysis is used to identify regions of the genome that are co-inherited with a trait or disease within families. It relies on the fact that genetic variants physically close to each other on a chromosome tend to be inherited together (in linkage disequilibrium). • Method: Researchers examine the segregation of genetic markers (such as SNPs) across multiple generations of families with affected individuals to detect regions of the genome where genetic variants may be linked to the trait or disease. • Application: Linkage analysis is particularly useful for identifying rare, highly penetrant genetic variants that contribute to Mendelian disorders (disorders caused by a single gene mutation). It helps map the location of disease-associated genes and can provide insights into disease mechanisms. 2. Association Analysis: • Purpose: Association analysis aims to identify genetic variants that are statistically associated with a trait or disease in a population. Unlike linkage analysis, association studies do not require familial relationships; instead, they analyze genetic markers and phenotypic data from unrelated individuals. • Method: Researchers compare the frequency of genetic variants (typically SNPs) between individuals with and without the trait or disease of interest. Statistical tests are used to determine if specific genetic variants are significantly associated with the phenotype. • Application: Association analysis is widely used in complex diseases and traits influenced by multiple genetic and environmental factors, such as diabetes, hypertension, and psychiatric disorders. It can identify common genetic variants (SNPs) that contribute to disease susceptibility or traits. 3. Genome-Wide Linkage/Association Analysis: • Purpose: Genome-wide linkage/association analysis combines the strengths of linkage and association approaches to comprehensively study the genetic basis of complex traits and diseases across the entire genome. • Method: Researchers analyze genetic markers across the entire genome (genome-wide) to identify regions of linkage and perform association tests simultaneously. This approach allows for the identification of both rare variants (through linkage) and common variants (through association) associated with the phenotype. • Application: Genome-wide linkage/association analysis is used to discover genetic loci and variants involved in complex traits and diseases with polygenic inheritance patterns. It has been instrumental in advancing our understanding of the genetic architecture of conditions like cardiovascular diseases, cancer susceptibility, and neurodevelopmental disorders. In summary, linkage analysis, association analysis, and genome-wide linkage/association analysis are powerful tools in genetics research, each serving distinct purposes in identifying genetic factors contributing to traits and diseases, from rare Mendelian disorders to complex multifactorial conditions. These methods have revolutionized our ability to uncover genetic influences on human health and disease susceptibility. 85. What are the three types of gene-environment correlation? Give an example of each. Answer: Gene-environment correlation (or genotype-environment correlation) refers to the concept that genetic factors can influence exposure to certain environments, and these environments can in turn affect traits or behaviors. There are three types of gene-environment correlation: 1. Passive Gene-Environment Correlation: • Definition: Passive gene-environment correlation occurs when the biological parents, who contribute both genes and environment to their children, also provide an environment that is correlated with their own genetic predispositions. • Example: A child inherits genes for musical talent from their parents. Additionally, the parents, who are both musically talented, provide a home environment rich in musical instruments, exposure to music, and opportunities for lessons. In this case, the child's genetic predisposition for musical talent is correlated with the environment provided by the parents. 2. Evocative (or Reactive) Gene-Environment Correlation: • Definition: Evocative gene-environment correlation occurs when an individual's genetically influenced traits evoke or elicit certain responses from others in their environment. • Example: A child with a naturally outgoing and friendly temperament may evoke positive responses from peers and adults. These positive responses may lead to increased social interactions, opportunities for leadership roles, and supportive relationships. In this example, the child's genetically influenced temperament evokes a social environment that further enhances their social skills and development. 3. Active (or Niche-Picking) Gene-Environment Correlation: • Definition: Active gene-environment correlation occurs when individuals seek out environments that are compatible with their genetic predispositions. • Example: A genetically predisposed athletically gifted teenager actively seeks out and joins sports teams, participates in athletic competitions, and engages in physical activities. By actively choosing these environments, the teenager enhances their athletic skills and competencies. In this case, the individual's genetic predisposition for athleticism drives them to seek out and create environments that support and nurture their athletic abilities. These types of gene-environment correlation illustrate the bidirectional relationship between genetic factors and environmental influences, highlighting how genetic predispositions can shape individuals' exposure to environments and how these environments, in turn, can influence the expression of genetic traits and behaviors. 86. Use examples to describe classical conditioning and operant learning. Answer: Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two fundamental forms of associative learning that explain how behaviors are acquired and modified based on environmental stimuli and consequences. Here are examples of each: Classical Conditioning Definition: Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate two stimuli, such that one stimulus begins to evoke a response that originally was evoked only by the other stimulus. Example: Pavlov's Dogs • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): In Pavlov's classic experiment, food is the unconditioned stimulus because it naturally triggers a response (salivation) in dogs. • Unconditioned Response (UR): Salivation is the unconditioned response, an unlearned reaction to the food (US). • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) that, after being repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food), triggers a conditioned response. • Conditioned Response (CR): Eventually, the bell alone elicits salivation in the dogs, even when no food is presented. Salivation to the bell is the conditioned response. Process: Through repeated pairing of the bell (CS) with the presentation of food (US), the dogs learned to associate the bell with food, leading to the development of a conditioned response (salivation) to the bell alone. Operant Conditioning Definition: Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on their consequences (reinforcement or punishment). Example: Skinner's Box • Behavior: A rat presses a lever in Skinner's operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box). • Consequences: • Positive Reinforcement: When the rat presses the lever, it receives a food pellet. The presentation of the food pellet increases the likelihood that the rat will press the lever again in the future. • Negative Reinforcement: If pressing the lever results in the termination of an electric shock (aversive stimulus), the rat is more likely to press the lever again to avoid or escape the shock. • Punishment: If pressing the lever results in an electric shock, the rat is less likely to press the lever in the future, decreasing the behavior. Process: Through reinforcement (positive or negative) and punishment, the consequences of the rat's behavior (pressing the lever) modify its likelihood of performing the behavior again in the future. Comparison • Association: Classical conditioning involves associating two stimuli (one natural and one previously neutral), while operant conditioning involves associating a behavior with its consequences. • Response: Classical conditioning elicits automatic responses (reflexes), whereas operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors. • Examples: Classical conditioning is evident in emotional responses (like fear or liking) triggered by unrelated stimuli (like a tone or image), while operant conditioning governs how voluntary actions (like pressing a lever) are shaped by their outcomes 87. What variables influence whether or not a child imitates a model in observational learning? What cognitive processes are needed for observational learning to occur? Answer: Observational learning, a form of social learning where individuals learn new behaviors by observing others, is influenced by several variables and requires specific cognitive processes to occur effectively. Here's an overview of the variables influencing imitation and the cognitive processes involved in observational learning: Variables Influencing Imitation in Observational Learning: 1. Characteristics of the Model: • Authority and Status: Children are more likely to imitate models they perceive as authoritative or high-status (e.g., parents, teachers, older siblings). • Similarity: Children are also more likely to imitate models who are similar to them in characteristics such as age, gender, or interests. 2. Characteristics of the Observer: • Attention: Children are more likely to imitate behaviors that they pay attention to and actively observe. • Motivation: The observer's motivation or interest in the behavior or the outcome influences their likelihood of imitating the model. • Self-efficacy: Children's belief in their ability to perform the behavior (self-efficacy) affects their willingness to imitate. 3. Consequences of Imitation: • Rewards and Punishments: Observers consider the consequences experienced by the model for their behavior. If the model is rewarded or avoids punishment, the observer is more likely to imitate the behavior. 4. Contextual Factors: • Social Norms: Observers are influenced by cultural and social norms that dictate which behaviors are acceptable or desirable to imitate. • Immediate Environment: The presence of other people, distractions, or competing behaviors in the environment can influence the likelihood of imitation. Cognitive Processes Needed for Observational Learning: Observational learning involves several cognitive processes that facilitate the acquisition and reproduction of behaviors: 1. Attention: Observers must pay attention to the model and the specific behavior being demonstrated. This requires focusing cognitive resources on relevant stimuli and filtering out distractions. 2. Retention: Observers need to retain or remember the observed behavior. This involves encoding details of the behavior into memory and mentally rehearsing or rehearsing it. 3. Motor Reproduction: Observers must be able to physically replicate or reproduce the behavior they observed. This requires motor skills and coordination to imitate the actions demonstrated by the model. 4. Motivation: Observers are more likely to imitate behaviors if they are motivated to do so. Motivation can stem from the perceived consequences of the behavior, the model's characteristics, or internal factors such as self-efficacy and personal goals. 5. Reinforcement and Vicarious Reinforcement: Observers learn from the consequences experienced by the model. Positive reinforcement (reward) or negative reinforcement (avoidance of punishment) experienced by the model increases the likelihood of imitation. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when observers see the model being rewarded or punished, influencing their own likelihood of imitating the behavior. In summary, observational learning is influenced by various factors including characteristics of the model and observer, consequences of imitation, and contextual factors. Effective observational learning requires attention to the model, retention of the observed behavior, motor skills for reproduction, motivation to imitate, and learning from the consequences experienced by the model. These cognitive processes facilitate the acquisition of new behaviors through observation and imitation in social contexts. 88. Using children, give an example of a cognitive deficiency and of a cognitive distortion. Answer: Cognitive deficiencies and distortions are concepts often discussed in cognitive psychology and can manifest differently in children. Here are examples of each: Cognitive Deficiency: Example: Deficiency in Theory of Mind (ToM) • Definition: Theory of Mind refers to the ability to understand and attribute mental states (beliefs, intentions, desires) to oneself and others, and to recognize that others may have different beliefs, knowledge, or perspectives than one's own. • Example in Children: A cognitive deficiency in Theory of Mind might be observed in a child who has difficulty understanding that others can hold beliefs different from their own. For instance, a child might insist that everyone must know about a surprise birthday party because they themselves know about it, failing to grasp that others (who were not told) do not share the same knowledge. Cognitive Distortion: Example: Cognitive Distortion in Perceived Threat • Definition: Cognitive distortions refer to irrational or exaggerated thoughts or beliefs that distort one's perception of reality. • Example in Children: A cognitive distortion related to perceived threat might involve a child misinterpreting harmless situations as dangerous or threatening. For instance, a child with an exaggerated fear of dogs might perceive every dog, even a friendly and calm one, as aggressive and likely to attack them. This distorted perception can lead to anxiety or avoidance behaviors around dogs, impacting their daily life and interactions. Explanation: • Cognitive Deficiencies typically involve a lack of development or ability in specific cognitive processes, such as Theory of Mind, executive functions, or memory capabilities. These deficiencies can impact social interactions, problem-solving skills, and understanding of abstract concepts. • Cognitive Distortions, on the other hand, involve faulty or biased thinking patterns that lead to misinterpretations of reality or exaggerated perceptions of events or situations. These distortions can contribute to emotional distress, maladaptive behaviors, and difficulties in coping with everyday challenges. Both cognitive deficiencies and distortions can significantly influence children's cognitive and emotional development, affecting their interactions with others and their ability to navigate the world around them. Identifying and addressing these issues early can be crucial in providing appropriate support and interventions to promote healthy cognitive and emotional growth. 89. What is meant by an ecological model for understanding the development of maladaptive behavior in a young person? What are the domains described in the model? Give an example of each. Answer: An ecological model for understanding the development of maladaptive behavior in a young person refers to a framework that examines how various environmental systems and contexts interact with the individual to influence their behavior and development. This model emphasizes the complex interplay between different levels of influence, ranging from immediate surroundings to broader societal factors. The key domains described in an ecological model typically include: 1. Microsystem: • Definition: The microsystem refers to the immediate environments in which the individual directly interacts on a regular basis. • Example: In the microsystem, relationships with family members, peers, teachers, and caregivers play crucial roles. For instance, a child's relationship with their parents (e.g., parenting style) can significantly impact their emotional regulation and social behavior. If a child experiences inconsistent discipline and lack of emotional support at home, they may exhibit externalizing behaviors like aggression or defiance. 2. Mesosystem: • Definition: The mesosystem involves the interactions between different microsystems in the individual's life. • Example: An example of the mesosystem influence is the connection between home and school environments. If a child experiences conflicts or inconsistency between parental expectations and school rules, they may struggle academically or socially. Conversely, positive coordination and support between home and school can enhance the child's academic performance and social integration. 3. Exosystem: • Definition: The exosystem encompasses environments that indirectly influence the individual, even though they do not directly interact with them. • Example: An exosystem influence could be a parent's workplace environment. For instance, if a parent experiences high stress or job insecurity, it may impact their parenting style and emotional availability at home. This, in turn, can affect the child's emotional stability and behavior. 4. Macrosystem: • Definition: The macrosystem includes broader cultural, societal, and institutional factors that shape the individual's experiences and opportunities. • Example: Cultural norms and societal values regarding gender roles can influence a young person's beliefs and behaviors. For instance, in cultures where boys are expected to be tough and suppress emotions, a young boy may adopt aggressive behaviors to conform to these expectations. Conversely, in cultures promoting emotional expression and sensitivity in boys, the same child may exhibit different behaviors. 5. Chronosystem: • Definition: The chronosystem involves changes and transitions that occur over time, affecting the individual's development. • Example: A significant family event, such as divorce or the birth of a sibling, can disrupt established routines and relationships, leading to emotional challenges for a young person. These transitions can impact their behavior and adjustment both in the short-term and over the long-term. Explanation: • Ecological Model: This model emphasizes the interconnectedness of various environmental systems and contexts in shaping the development of maladaptive behaviors in young people. It highlights that understanding and addressing behavioral issues require consideration of multiple levels of influence, from immediate interpersonal relationships (microsystem) to broader cultural norms (macrosystem) and developmental changes over time (chronosystem). • Domains: Each domain (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem) represents a different level of influence that contributes to a young person's development and behavior. By examining interactions across these domains, researchers and practitioners gain a comprehensive understanding of the factors contributing to maladaptive behaviors and can implement targeted interventions to support positive development. In summary, an ecological model provides a holistic framework for understanding the complexities of development and behavior in young people, emphasizing the importance of considering environmental influences at multiple levels to promote healthy outcomes and address maladaptive behaviors effectively. 90. Contrast the authoritative, authoritarian, neglectful, and indulgent/permissive styles of parenting and the child characteristics associated with each style. Answer: Parenting styles describe the overall approach that parents use to raise their children, encompassing attitudes, behaviors, and strategies for discipline and nurturing. Here's a contrast between four common parenting styles—authoritative, authoritarian, neglectful, and indulgent/permissive—along with the child characteristics associated with each style: 1. Authoritative Parenting Style: • Parental Characteristics: • Warmth and Responsiveness: Authoritative parents are warm, nurturing, and responsive to their children's needs. • Structure and Control: They also provide clear expectations and rules but are flexible and willing to negotiate. • Communication: They encourage open communication and reasoning with their children. • Child Characteristics: • Behavior: Children raised by authoritative parents tend to be self-disciplined, responsible, and cooperative. • Social Skills: They often have good social skills, assertiveness, and self-esteem. • Academic Performance: Authoritative parenting is associated with higher academic achievement. 2. Authoritarian Parenting Style: • Parental Characteristics: • High Demand, Low Warmth: Authoritarian parents are demanding, with high expectations and strict rules, but they show little warmth or responsiveness. • Control: They use punitive discipline and strict control methods. • Communication: Communication tends to be one-way, with limited explanation or negotiation. • Child Characteristics: • Behavior: Children raised by authoritarian parents may be obedient and conforming but may also be anxious, withdrawn, and have lower self-esteem. • Social Skills: They may struggle with social competence and independence. • Academic Performance: While initially obedient, they may not develop strong self-regulation skills, which can affect long-term academic success. 3. Neglectful Parenting Style: • Parental Characteristics: • Low Demand, Low Warmth: Neglectful parents are uninvolved and emotionally detached, providing little structure, guidance, or support. • Communication: Limited communication and little attention to the child's needs or activities. • Child Characteristics: • Behavior: Children of neglectful parents may exhibit behavioral issues, including delinquency, impulsivity, and aggression. • Emotional Development: They may struggle with emotional regulation, attachment issues, and low self-esteem. • Academic Performance: Neglectful parenting is associated with lower academic achievement and school engagement. 4. Indulgent/Permissive Parenting Style: • Parental Characteristics: • High Warmth, Low Demand: Indulgent parents are nurturing and loving but have few expectations or rules for their children. • Structure: They provide little structure or guidance, often allowing their children to make their own decisions. • Discipline: Discipline is inconsistent or non-existent. • Child Characteristics: • Behavior: Children raised by indulgent parents may exhibit impulsivity, difficulty with self-control, and defiance. • Social Skills: They may struggle with boundaries and authority figures, affecting their social competence. • Academic Performance: Indulgent parenting may lead to lower academic achievement due to lack of structure and accountability. Summary: • Authoritative Parenting: Associated with positive outcomes such as self-regulation, social competence, and academic success. • Authoritarian Parenting: Linked to obedience but also to anxiety, low self-esteem, and social difficulties. • Neglectful Parenting: Leads to behavioral and emotional issues, as well as poor academic performance. • Indulgent/Permissive Parenting: Results in impulsivity, defiance, and challenges with authority and self-control. Understanding these parenting styles helps elucidate their impact on children's development and behavior, highlighting the importance of warmth, structure, and consistency in fostering positive outcomes for children. 91. What are the four types of child maltreatment described in the literature? Give an example of each type. Answer: Child maltreatment refers to harmful behaviors towards children or youth, typically by caregivers or other individuals in a position of power or trust. The four types of child maltreatment described in the literature are: 1. Physical Abuse: • Definition: Physical abuse involves the deliberate use of physical force against a child that results in, or has the potential to result in, physical injury, harm, or impairment. • Example: A parent repeatedly hits a child with a belt, leaving bruises and marks on the child's body. 2. Sexual Abuse: • Definition: Sexual abuse includes any sexual activity or behavior with a child where consent is not or cannot be given. This includes activities ranging from touching to penetration. • Example: An adult family member engages in inappropriate touching or sexual acts with a child, causing emotional trauma and distress. 3. Neglect: • Definition: Neglect is the failure to provide for a child's basic needs, including adequate food, shelter, clothing, medical care, supervision, and education. • Example: A caregiver consistently fails to provide sufficient food and nutrition for a child, resulting in the child being malnourished and underdeveloped. 4. Emotional or Psychological Abuse: • Definition: Emotional or psychological abuse involves behaviors that harm a child's emotional well-being or development. This can include verbal abuse, constant criticism, threats, or withholding love and support. • Example: A caregiver constantly belittles, humiliates, or threatens a child, causing severe emotional distress and impacting the child's self-esteem and mental health. Impacts and Consequences: Each type of child maltreatment can have severe and lasting effects on a child's physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. The consequences may include developmental delays, behavioral problems, difficulties in forming relationships, mental health disorders (such as anxiety and depression), and even physical health issues. Identifying and addressing child maltreatment early is crucial to mitigate these impacts and ensure the safety and well-being of children. 92. Discuss the consequences of maltreatment including neurobiological outcomes and the factors that can influence outcomes. Answer: Maltreatment of children, whether through physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, or emotional abuse, can have profound and lasting consequences on their development, including neurobiological outcomes. Here's a discussion on the consequences of maltreatment and the factors that can influence these outcomes: Consequences of Maltreatment: 1. Neurobiological Outcomes: • Brain Development: Maltreatment can disrupt normal brain development, particularly in areas related to stress response, emotional regulation, and cognitive functioning. Chronic stress due to maltreatment can lead to alterations in brain structure and function, such as changes in the size and connectivity of the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex. • Neuroendocrine System: Maltreatment can dysregulate the neuroendocrine system, leading to abnormalities in stress hormone (e.g., cortisol) production and response. This dysregulation can have long-term implications for the child's ability to manage stress and regulate emotions. • Epigenetic Changes: Maltreatment can induce epigenetic changes—modifications in gene expression without changes in DNA sequence—that may affect how genes involved in stress response and emotional regulation are activated or silenced. 2. Psychological and Emotional Consequences: • Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Many maltreated children develop PTSD or symptoms resembling PTSD, including intrusive memories, hyperarousal, and avoidance behaviors. • Anxiety and Depression: Maltreatment increases the risk of anxiety disorders and depression throughout childhood and into adulthood. • Attachment Issues: Maltreated children often experience disruptions in attachment patterns, leading to difficulties in forming secure and trusting relationships. 3. Behavioral and Social Consequences: • Aggression and Conduct Problems: Children who experience maltreatment are more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviors and conduct problems both at home and in school. • Social Withdrawal: Some maltreated children may withdraw from social interactions and have difficulties in social settings due to fear, anxiety, or distrust. • Academic Difficulties: Maltreatment can impair cognitive development and academic performance, affecting learning and educational attainment. 4. Physical Health Consequences: • Physical Injuries: In cases of physical abuse, children may sustain injuries ranging from bruises and fractures to more severe harm. • Health Problems: Neglected children may suffer from health issues due to inadequate nutrition, medical neglect, or exposure to unsafe living conditions. Factors Influencing Outcomes: 1. Age and Developmental Stage: The age at which maltreatment occurs and the developmental stage of the child can influence how they perceive and respond to the abuse or neglect. 2. Duration and Severity: The duration and severity of maltreatment play a significant role in determining its impact. Chronic and severe maltreatment tend to have more detrimental effects than isolated incidents. 3. Supportive Relationships: Positive and supportive relationships with caregivers, teachers, or other trusted adults can mitigate the impact of maltreatment and promote resilience. 4. Resilience Factors: Individual resilience factors, such as temperament, cognitive abilities, and coping strategies, can buffer against the negative effects of maltreatment. 5. Interventions and Support Services: Access to timely interventions, therapeutic support, and child protection services can help mitigate the consequences of maltreatment and promote healing and recovery. Understanding the complex interplay of neurobiological, psychological, social, and environmental factors in the consequences of maltreatment is crucial for designing effective interventions and support systems to protect and promote the well-being of maltreated children. Early identification, intervention, and prevention efforts are essential to minimize the long-term impact of maltreatment on children's development. 93. Choose and describe (give examples) of 3 predictors of children’s adjustment following divorce and remarriage. (Hint: think of Figure 3.10 in your book). Answer: In the context of divorce and remarriage, several predictors influence children's adjustment outcomes. Drawing from Figure 3.10 in developmental psychology literature, which typically outlines factors impacting children's adjustment following family transitions, here are three predictors along with examples: 1. Parental Conflict and Co-parenting Quality: • Definition: The level of conflict between parents during and after divorce, as well as the quality of co-parenting (how well parents work together to raise their children), significantly impact children's adjustment. • Example: If divorced parents engage in high-conflict interactions, such as arguing during custody exchanges or criticizing each other in front of the child, it can lead to emotional distress and behavioral problems in the child. Conversely, parents who communicate effectively, respect each other's roles, and collaborate on parenting decisions can create a more stable and supportive environment for their children. 2. Parental Psychological Adjustment and Well-being: • Definition: The mental health and emotional well-being of parents post-divorce play a crucial role in children's adjustment. This includes factors such as parental depression, anxiety, coping strategies, and resilience. • Example: A parent who experiences significant depression or anxiety following divorce may have reduced emotional availability for their child, leading to feelings of insecurity or abandonment. Conversely, parents who prioritize self-care, seek support, and demonstrate resilience can model adaptive coping skills and provide a more stable emotional environment for their children. 3. Parental Remarriage and Family Stability: • Definition: The timing and quality of parental remarriage, as well as the stability of the new family unit, influence children's adjustment post-divorce. This includes factors like step-parent relationships, step-sibling dynamics, and household routines. • Example: A well-managed transition into a blended family, where step-parents are supportive, boundaries are clear, and family routines are established, can enhance children's sense of security and adjustment. Conversely, rapid or unstable remarriages, frequent changes in household composition, or conflicts between step-siblings can increase stress and disrupt children's adjustment. Explanation: These predictors highlight the complex interplay of family dynamics, parental factors, and environmental stability in shaping children's adjustment following divorce and remarriage. Understanding these predictors can inform interventions and support strategies aimed at promoting positive outcomes for children experiencing family transitions. Effective co-parenting strategies, parental well-being, and the establishment of stable family routines are crucial for mitigating the challenges associated with divorce and remarriage, thereby supporting children's emotional and behavioral adjustment over time. 94. Why are peer relationships important? What is an example of a protective factor and a risk factor for having a close friend? Answer: Peer relationships play a crucial role in child development and well-being, influencing social, emotional, and cognitive growth. Here's why peer relationships are important, along with examples of protective factors and risk factors associated with having a close friend: Importance of Peer Relationships: 1. Social Development: • Peer relationships provide opportunities for children to learn social skills such as cooperation, negotiation, empathy, and communication. Interacting with peers helps them understand social norms, develop friendships, and navigate group dynamics. 2. Emotional Development: • Positive peer relationships contribute to emotional development by offering support, companionship, and validation. Friends can provide emotional comfort, encouragement, and help children regulate their emotions. 3. Cognitive Development: • Interacting with peers promotes cognitive development through activities such as collaborative play, problem-solving, and sharing ideas. Peer interactions stimulate intellectual curiosity and creativity. 4. Identity Formation: • Peers serve as important role models and sources of influence in shaping children's identities and self-concept. Friendships provide opportunities for self-exploration, self-expression, and developing a sense of belonging. Protective Factor and Risk Factor for Having a Close Friend: 1. Protective Factor: Supportive Peer Relationships: • Definition: Supportive peer relationships where friends offer emotional support, encouragement, and positive influence can act as protective factors. • Example: A child has a close friend who listens to their concerns, offers advice during challenging times, and shares enjoyable activities. This supportive relationship buffers against stress, enhances self-esteem, and promotes healthy emotional development. 2. Risk Factor: Negative Peer Influence: • Definition: Negative peer relationships characterized by conflict, aggression, or risky behaviors can pose risks to children's well-being. • Example: A close friend who engages in delinquent behaviors like substance use, skipping school, or bullying may influence the child to participate in similar behaviors. This negative peer influence can lead to academic problems, social isolation, and involvement in risky activities. Explanation: Understanding the importance of peer relationships helps emphasize their role in children's social, emotional, and cognitive development. Supportive peer relationships provide opportunities for learning, growth, and emotional support, contributing positively to children's well-being. Conversely, negative peer relationships or influences can undermine healthy development and contribute to behavioral problems or emotional distress. Promoting positive peer interactions and teaching children effective social skills can foster resilient relationships and enhance their overall adjustment and happiness. 95. Describe the variables that contribute to dropping out of school or repeating a grade. Answer: Dropping out of school or repeating a grade are complex educational outcomes influenced by a variety of interconnected variables. Understanding these variables is essential for developing effective interventions and support systems to prevent dropout and promote academic success. Here are several key variables that contribute to dropping out of school or repeating a grade: 1. Academic Factors: • Academic Achievement: Persistent academic struggles, low grades, and failure to meet academic standards can increase the likelihood of dropping out or repeating a grade. • Learning Disabilities: Students with undiagnosed or unaddressed learning disabilities may face significant challenges in keeping up with academic demands, leading to academic underachievement and potential grade retention. • School Engagement: Lack of interest in school, disengagement from learning, and poor attendance patterns contribute to academic difficulties and increase dropout risk. 2. Individual and Family Characteristics: • Socioeconomic Status: Lower socioeconomic status is associated with increased dropout rates due to factors such as limited access to resources, financial pressures, and unstable living conditions. • Family Support: Lack of parental involvement in education, family instability (e.g., frequent moves, family conflicts), and lack of emotional support can hinder academic success and increase dropout risk. • Student Behavior: Behavioral issues such as disciplinary problems, defiance towards authority, and involvement in delinquent activities can disrupt learning environments and contribute to dropout or grade retention. 3. Psychosocial and Emotional Factors: • Self-esteem and Motivation: Low self-esteem, lack of motivation, and feelings of inadequacy can impact academic performance and contribute to disengagement from school. • Mental Health Issues: Untreated mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, or substance abuse can interfere with school attendance, concentration, and overall academic functioning. • Peer Relationships: Negative peer influences, bullying, and social isolation can affect students' emotional well-being and their ability to engage positively in school activities. 4. School Environment: • School Climate: Negative school climate, characterized by lack of support from teachers or peers, unsafe school environments, or perceived discrimination, can contribute to students feeling disconnected from school and opting to drop out. • Educational Practices: Ineffective teaching methods, inadequate support for diverse learning needs, and insufficient resources (e.g., overcrowded classrooms, lack of extracurricular activities) may contribute to academic struggles and dropout rates. 5. Community and Societal Factors: • Community Resources: Availability of community resources such as after-school programs, tutoring services, mentorship opportunities, and access to healthcare can influence students' academic success and retention. • Cultural Factors: Cultural beliefs, norms, and values regarding education, as well as language barriers for students and families, can impact academic engagement and school outcomes. Summary: Dropping out of school or repeating a grade is influenced by a complex interplay of academic, individual, family, psychosocial, school environment, and community factors. Effective interventions aimed at reducing dropout rates and promoting academic success should address these multifaceted variables comprehensively, providing targeted support and resources to students, families, educators, and communities. Early identification of risk factors and proactive intervention strategies are crucial for supporting at-risk students and fostering positive educational outcomes. 96. Discuss several ways in which poverty puts children at developmental risk, including how parents may mediate the effects of poverty. Answer: Poverty significantly impacts children's development across various domains, and understanding these effects is crucial for addressing disparities and promoting child well-being. Here are several ways in which poverty puts children at developmental risk, along with how parents can potentially mediate these effects: 1. Health and Nutrition: • Malnutrition: Poverty often limits access to nutritious food, leading to malnutrition which can impair physical and cognitive development. • Healthcare: Lack of access to healthcare results in higher rates of untreated illnesses, chronic conditions, and developmental delays. Parental Mediation: Parents can mitigate these risks by accessing public health programs, ensuring children receive regular medical check-ups, and utilizing community resources like food banks and nutrition assistance programs. 2. Educational Opportunities: • Access to Quality Education: Poor families may reside in neighborhoods with underfunded schools and limited educational resources. • Educational Attainment: Children from impoverished backgrounds may face barriers in completing education due to financial constraints or needing to work to support their families. Parental Mediation: Parents can support children's education by advocating for better school resources, participating actively in their education, and seeking out educational enrichment opportunities such as libraries and afterschool programs. 3. Psychosocial Development: • Stress and Adversity: Poverty often exposes children to chronic stressors such as unsafe living conditions, violence, and family instability. • Mental Health: Higher rates of anxiety, depression, and behavioral problems are observed among children in poverty. Parental Mediation: Parents can provide emotional support, create stable and nurturing home environments, and seek mental health services if needed. Positive parent-child relationships and supportive family structures can buffer the negative effects of stress and adversity. 4. Social and Emotional Development: • Peer Relationships: Limited access to social activities and resources can impact children's social skills and ability to form positive peer relationships. • Self-Esteem and Identity: Economic hardship may contribute to feelings of shame or stigma, affecting children's self-esteem and sense of identity. Parental Mediation: Parents can facilitate social interactions through community activities and encourage positive peer relationships. Building a supportive family environment where children feel valued and respected is crucial for fostering healthy emotional development. 5. Cognitive Development: • Language and Cognitive Skills: Poverty is associated with reduced exposure to language-rich environments and cognitive stimulation, which are critical for brain development. • Academic Achievement: Lower cognitive stimulation and educational resources can lead to academic underachievement. Parental Mediation: Parents can promote cognitive development through reading, engaging in stimulating conversations, and providing educational toys and games. Involvement in children's learning and encouraging curiosity can help compensate for limited external resources. In summary, poverty poses multifaceted risks to children's development across physical, cognitive, emotional, and social domains. While the challenges are significant, supportive and responsive parenting plays a crucial role in mitigating these risks. Access to community resources, advocacy for better services, and nurturing family environments are essential strategies in supporting children growing up in poverty to reach their full potential. 97. What are the three pathways or mechanisms that Leventhal and Brooks-Gunn suggest may explain the effect of the community on youngsters’ development? Give an example of each. Answer: Leventhal and Brooks-Gunn proposed three pathways or mechanisms through which communities can influence youngsters' development: 1. Social Organization of the Community: • This pathway refers to the social structure and organization within a community, including the presence of social networks, institutions, and norms that shape interactions and opportunities. • Example: A close-knit neighborhood with active community organizations and resources like recreational centers, after-school programs, and local support groups. These resources provide children with positive role models, opportunities for skill development, and social connections that promote healthy development. 2. Institutional Resources and Services: • This pathway focuses on the availability and quality of institutional resources and services within the community, such as schools, healthcare facilities, libraries, and social services. • Example: A community that invests in high-quality public education, ensuring all schools have adequate funding, qualified teachers, and access to modern educational resources. This environment supports children's academic achievement, social skills development, and overall well-being by providing them with equitable educational opportunities. 3. Physical Environment and Resources: • This pathway considers the physical characteristics of the community, including housing quality, safety, access to green spaces, and exposure to environmental hazards. • Example: A neighborhood with safe playgrounds, well-maintained parks, and clean streets encourages physical activity and outdoor play among children. Conversely, neighborhoods with environmental pollutants or unsafe infrastructure can pose health risks and limit opportunities for safe recreation and exploration, potentially impacting children's physical and cognitive development. These pathways underscore how communities can shape children's development through a combination of social, institutional, and physical factors. Understanding these mechanisms helps in designing policies and interventions aimed at improving community environments to support positive outcomes for youngsters. 98. How might prejudice and discrimination impact young people? Discuss the research noted in the textbook. Answer: Prejudice and discrimination can have profound impacts on young people across various aspects of their lives, affecting their social, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral development. Research highlighted in textbooks and studies points out several key ways in which prejudice and discrimination can impact young people: 1. Psychological and Emotional Impact: • Internalization of Negative Stereotypes: When young people experience prejudice or discrimination based on their race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or other characteristics, they may internalize these negative stereotypes. This can lead to lower self-esteem, feelings of shame or inadequacy, and internalized racism or sexism. • Psychological Distress: Discrimination is associated with increased levels of stress, anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues among young people. These psychological effects can hinder academic performance, social relationships, and overall well-being. 2. Social and Behavioral Impact: • Social Exclusion and Isolation: Discrimination can lead to social exclusion and isolation from peer groups, communities, or social activities. This lack of social integration can negatively impact social skills development and exacerbate feelings of loneliness and alienation. • Behavioral Responses: Some young people may respond to discrimination with aggression, hostility, or withdrawal. They may also engage in risky behaviors or substance abuse as a coping mechanism. 3. Academic and Cognitive Impact: • Reduced Academic Achievement: Discrimination can undermine academic performance by creating stress and distractions, reducing motivation, and limiting access to educational opportunities. • Cognitive Functioning: Chronic exposure to discrimination has been linked to impaired cognitive functioning, including difficulties with attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. This can further hinder academic success and overall cognitive development. 4. Physical Health Impact: • Health Disparities: Discrimination contributes to health disparities among young people, including higher rates of chronic illnesses, obesity, and physical health problems. These disparities are often linked to stress-related physiological responses and reduced access to healthcare services. In summary, prejudice and discrimination not only perpetuate social inequalities but also have significant detrimental effects on the development and well-being of young people. Addressing these issues requires comprehensive strategies at multiple levels, including education, policy changes, community interventions, and promoting positive social norms. By fostering inclusive environments and combating prejudice, societies can better support the healthy development and future success of all young people. Test Bank for Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology Rita Wicks-Nelson, Allen C. Israel 9781317351344, 9780205036066, 9780205901128