CH-3-4 Workers’ Compensation – Management of Occupational Health and Safety : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 3 to 4 CHAPTER 3 Workers’ Compensation Essential Outcome After completing the lesson on this chapter, if nothing else, students should be able to describe the role and function of Workers’ Compensation Boards (WCBs) and appreciate the challenges and complexities involved with compensating workers for their work-related injuries and illnesses. Learning Outcomes After completing this chapter, students should be able to: outline the goals and methods of Workers’ Compensation Boards (WCBs) discuss the problems associated with compensating for psychological conditions and occupational illnesses describe the assessment methods of WCBs understand the methods of calculating injury frequency and severity rates Key Concepts Workers’ Compensation is a form of insurance governed by an act of Parliament to help workers who are injured on the job return to work. Workers’ Compensation in Canada is based on the principle of compulsory and collective liability, meaning that all employers (organized by category known as class or group) are legally required to participate in and share liability for the costs of accidents or occupational diseases that may occur in the course of their work operations. Other principles on which the system is based include compensation based on the injured workers’ loss of earnings; a “no fault” approach; and a process for determining compensation that is non-adversarial in that (with a few exceptions) the system does not involve the courts as a means of settling disputes. The system is administered in all provinces and territories through Workers’ Compensation Boards, which have the authority and responsibility for fixing and collecting assessments, determining the right to compensation, and making payments to eligible injured workers. Once separated, there is now a shift towards WCBs once again playing a key role in workplace accident and illness prevention. WCBs provide financial incentives for employers to be proactive in prevention through the use of premium reductions and surcharges based upon the safety records of particular employer classes, groups, or organizations. Compensation rates and methods used to determine how much compensation an injured worker receives are based on either the workers’ net earnings or their average earnings, depending on the jurisdiction. Compensation is based on the injured workers past salary record, not the loss or potential loss of future earnings. Compensation Boards strive to provide fair and reasonable compensation without creating a financial incentive for injured workers to remain off work. Depending on the factors of the individual case, compensation to injured workers may include wage loss benefits, permanent disability benefits, dependency benefits, and rehabilitation. The provision of medical aid also accompanies compensation, and may include medical and surgical care, hospitalization, nursing care, drugs and supplies, and occupational therapy. There are two primary social goals of Workers’ Compensation: (1) to provide service intended to prevent injuries or reduce the psychological impact of injuries when they occur; and (2) to provide training and development needed to help prepare an injured worker for return to work. Occupational diseases (such as certain types of cancer, skin diseases, and allergic reactions to various workplace materials) and workplace stress (both physical and mental) have over the years become more widely recognized as compensable illnesses. Because of the difficulty that may arise in attributing such illnesses directly to the workplace rather than non-work- related factors, special claim units are often employed to handle such potentially complex cases. Employers’ WCB premiums are assessed on the basis of their industry classification. All employers within a particular industry group are assessed at the same rate based on the injury experience of the group as a whole. All employers are required by law to report work-related accidents, and an analysis of these data is used to calculate injury frequency and severity rates, which are then used to determine assessments for each employer. Experience ratings may also be applied to effectively lower or increase the assessment for an individual employer based upon their calculated incident cost per worker (see point above re incentives for employers to take a proactive role in accident prevention). Student Motivation At a very basic level, most participants in the workplace are self-interested in knowing that should they be unfortunate enough to be injured at work, there is a system of supports in place to assist them. By understanding the basic principles of Workers’ Compensation and the principles and mechanics behind it, students can build on this general self-interest. Additionally, students may be quite interested in learning about how the system is funded through employer assessments, and in working through the sample calculations of how those assessments are set. Finally, as prospective human resources practitioners, students may be able to see themselves in roles where they can help their organization proactive manage their WCB experience rating and assessment. Barriers to Learning The section on calculating injury frequency and severity rates (pages 66 and 67) may be challenging to some students who struggle with math. Taking the time to work through the examples provided on a chalkboard or whiteboard may be helpful to students who are either unfamiliar (or out of practice) with mathematical operations. Engagement Strategies and Lesson Plan 1. Engaging Students at the Outset a. Learning objective: At the completion of this activity, students will be able to empathize with injured workers and relate to the various challenges they may face as a result of their workplace injury or illness. To help students put themselves in the shoes of an injured worker, ask them to consider what challenges they may face should they suddenly find themselves seriously injured at work. In small groups, ask them to consider how such an event could impact them physically, emotionally, and financially. Then ask them to list the supports they think they might require in order to help them recover from such an injury, and use this as a way to bridge in to the topic of Workers’ Compensation. 2. Lesson Engagement Strategies b. Learning objective: At the completion of this activity, students will have considered some of the benefits as well as some of the problems related to Workers’ Compensation programs. Organize students into two teams (or multiples of two if the class is large). Have students read OH&S Notebook 3.1 to gain a basic understanding of Workers’ Compensation. Have one team (or half of the teams) brainstorm as many benefits of Workers’ Compensation as they can think of, and list them on flip chart paper. Have the other team (or half of the teams) do the same exercise, but with their focus on potential problems. Once the teams have exhausted their lists, have them trade places to see if they can add more to the other list. Post the flip charts and compare the lists, using them to help assess students’ understanding of the topic and their perceptions of it, and to address any apparent misconceptions or misunderstandings the exercise may reveal. c. Learning objective: At the completion of this activity, students will have considered and discussed some of the complexities related to Workers’ Compensation claims involving occupational diseases and workplace stress. Using a “values line” activity, ask students to form a line in the middle of the classroom (or hallway, if there is insufficient space in the classroom) based on their response to the statement “Workers’ Compensation programs should automatically cover employees who suffer from occupational diseases and/or workplace stress.” Have students self-organize along the line, with those who “completely agree” at one end, those who “completely disagree” at the other, and those who have mixed feelings or who are undecided arranging themselves in the middle, according to their own particular point of view. Once students have arranged themselves, engage them in a stand-up conversation related to where they are standing, and why (if room permits, “bend” the line into a u-shape to facilitate discussion). Facilitate the discussion as time permits, ensuring that students close to both ends and several positions in the middle contribute to the conversation. Before concluding the discussion, invite the students to reposition themselves along the line (if they feel so inclined) based on the points of view expressed. d. Learning Objective: At the completion of this activity, students will be able to calculate injury frequency ratio by following the example provided in the text. In pairs, have students work through the example of how-to injury frequency and severity rates are calculated. Allow them a few minutes to work through the example with their partner, then go through the calculations step by step using a whiteboard or chalkboard. As an alternative, ask for a student volunteer to come up and walk the class through the step-by-step calculations. 3. Lesson Plan Notes and Lecture Outline * A guest speaker from the WCB can be asked to describe the historical, present, and future roles responsibilities, regulations, and administration of the WCB in your province. *A list of DVD titles on Workers’ Compensation can be accessed at WorkSafeBC Library Services, www.worksafebc.com/about_us/library_services/assets/pdf/videos_titles.pdf. A. Historical Roots of Workers’ Compensation in Canada Engage students in a discussion about the various problems that existed in the early 1900s that led to the creation of the WCB system. Discuss the historical roots of WCBs and how their responsibilities have changed over the years since the inception of Ontario Workers’ Compensation Act of 1914. The first WCA maintained the following goals and principles: collective liability for employers, workers compensated regardless of the employer’s financial condition, compensation based on loss of earnings, a “no-fault” system, and little recourse to the courts. The goals of WCB at that time were to ensure that injured workers received compensation and that employers accepted liability, and to prevent workplace accidents and illnesses. The Workers’ Compensation Board continued throughout the 20th century to retain these earlier principles, but broadened its mandate from employee wage replacement to include vocational rehabilitation and health care. Its role and responsibilities continue to expand to include a focus on prevention, training, promoting a culture of commitment, and public awareness. Refer to the answer provided in Discussion Question 1. B. Workers’ Compensation in Canada Ask students to form small groups to discuss the questions below. You can refer them to OH&S Notebook 3.2, “Contact Information for the Provincial and Territorial Workers’ Compensation Boards,” and OH&S Notebook 3.1, “Overview of Workers’ Compensation.” • What are the OH&S laws that apply to your organization? (Answer: Workers’ Compensation Act, regulations, etc.) • Who enforces these laws? (Answer: Refer to OH&S Notebook 3.2, “Contact Information for the Provincial and Territorial Workers’ Compensation Boards”) • How are these laws administered and financed? (Answer: refer to OH&S Notebook 3.1, “Overview of Workers’ Compensation”) Engage students in a question-and-answer discussion. Ask them if any of the pieces of legislation they discussed were missing from the OH&S Notebook 3.2, “Contact Information for the Provincial and Territorial Workers’ Compensation Boards” (i.e., dederal, Bill C-45, environmental, transportation, WHMIS). This is a good review of Chapter 2 and clarification of OH&S legislation. Connect to the Human Resource Development website (www.hrsdc.gc.ca) and review the sections on OH&S under the Canada Labour Code. Use the links to explore the provincial and territorial laws. Go to the section of your provincial WCB legislation and explore the WCB’s roles, responsibilities, and regulations. The Workers’ Compensation Board system today retains the earlier principles of compulsory and collective liability and wage replacement, but with an expanded mandate that includes vocational rehabilitation, health care, prevention, training, and public awareness. Ask students for their understanding of WCB (with workplace examples). In summary, refer students to OH&S Notebook 3.1, “Overview of Workers’ Compensation.” C. WCB Employee Compensation Rates and Methods, Medical Aid and Incident Prevention, Social Goals and Rehabilitation. As an extension of the first student engagement activity (see Engaging Students at the Outset, above), ask students to form small groups to discuss what kind of assistance they might receive if they were injured on the job and what kind of support they might expect from the HRM to help them return to health and/or work. Ask them to share their answers with the class. Engage students in a discussion on the WCB benefits in your jurisdiction. Use PowerPoint slides to provide more details on your provincial WCB employee compensation rates and methods, medical aid and incident prevention, and rehabilitation programs. Workers’ Compensation is a form of no-fault insurance governed by an act (i.e., BC Workers Compensation Act) to help injured workers return to work safely and effectively as well as receive fair compensation for any workplace injuries or diseases. They ensure that the injured worker receives immediate medical treatment, benefits while recuperating, proper treatment for any injury, and compensation for lost income. The types of benefits an injured worker in BC can expect to receive are as follows: wage loss compensation, permanent disability benefits, death benefits, health care, rehabilitation, and return to work assistance (similar types of benefits, with procedural variations, are offered throughout other jurisdictions in Canada). The HRM will need to communicate immediately and regularly with the employee (as well as doctors, health professionals, WCB, their insurance company, and staff as required) about the details of their disability and support the most appropriate, effective, timely, and efficient treatment so that the employee can return to work as safely and quickly as possible. OH&S Today 3.4, “Workers’ Compensation at Work,” can be used to summarize the students’ discussion. Students can discuss Discussion Question 2 as an alternative learning activity. Refer to the answer provided in the Suggested Answers, Question 2. D. Occupational Diseases and Work Place Stress (see Lesson Engagement Strategy b, above). E. WCB Assessments and Experience Rating Students can complete Discussion Question 3 as homework and bring their researched information to share in class as an alternative learning activity for understanding the assessment methods of the WCB, including classification, rate setting, and experience rating. Refer to Suggested Answers, Question 3. For a good example of how assessments are calculated in one provincial jurisdiction, show students the “8 Steps to Employers Assessment Rates 2013” on the Workers Compensation Board of Manitoba website, www.wcb.mb.ca/8-steps-to-employers-assessment-rates-2013. F. Reporting Requirements Review the section on reporting requirements, and show students an example of an online reporting service (such as the one available on the Workers Compensation Board of Manitoba website, www.wcb.mb.ca/incident-reporting). Even accident reporting is facilitated through online resources such as this, there is still an issue with reporting. Ask students to consider reasons why or why not accidents may be reported, and what the impact may be on the management of OH&S. Discuss the reporting requirements that are required by law. Give an overview of the reporting forms in your jurisdiction or refer to the forms in Figure 3.1, “Employer Incident Report—Manitoba,” and Figure 3.2, “Worker Report—Manitoba.” Assessment Tools To quickly assess student learning against the chapter learning outcomes, at the end of the class: Ask students to briefly describe (without referring to their notes) the goals and methods of Workers’ Compensation Boards (WCBs). Referring back to the “values line” exercise, ask students to re-cap some of the issues involved with compensating for psychological conditions and occupational illnesses. Use the student engagement exercise on calculating injury frequency and severity rates as a way to assess students’ grasp of this concept and method. Reflections on Teaching Good teaching requires ongoing self-assessment and reflection. On the completion of this lesson, you may find it helpful to reflect on the following, and consider whether you want or need to make any adjustments for subsequent lessons. What worked in this lesson? What didn’t? Were students engaged? Were they focused, or did they go off on tangents? Did I take steps to adequately assess student learning? Did my assessments suggest that they understood the key concepts? What (if anything) should I do differently next time? How can I gather student feedback? How can I use this feedback for continuous improvement of my teaching? Additional Resources Weblinks Workers Compensation Board of Manitoba website: 8 Steps to Employers Assessment Rates 2013, www.wcb.mb.ca/8-steps-to-employers-assessment-rates-2013. Workers Compensation Board of Manitoba website: Incident Reporting, www.wcb.mb.ca/incident-reporting. Videos A list of DVD titles can be accessed at WorkSafeBC Library Services: www.worksafebc.com/about_us/library_services/assets/pdf/videos_titles.pdf. Suggested answers to cases and exercises Discussion Questions Outline the responsibilities of WCBs today. Describe how these responsibilities have changed over the years since the inception of workers’ compensation in 1914. Answer: A hundred years ago, workers began being exposed to an array of occupational health and safety dangers. Cultural and political attitudes influenced the legal system in the early 1900s that resulted in employees and employers having to resolve their occupational health and safety issues through the courts. Employees had to undertake expensive and lengthy lawsuits in order to be compensated for their workplace injuries. Not only was it difficult for employees to be compensated, but employers could become bankrupt due to the high legal costs. In 1914, Ontario was the first province to address this problem by enacting compensation legislation with the passage of the Workmen’s Compensation Act. Subsequently, workers’ compensation acts were passed and systems developed in all the provinces and territories in Canada. They incorporated the following principles: collective liability for employers, workers to be compensated regardless of the employer’s financial condition, compensation based on loss of earnings, a “no-fault” system, and little recourse to the courts. This represented a win–win solution for both the employee and employer by providing a mutual insurance system with collective participation of employers to meet the individual needs of the injured worker. The goals of WCB at this time in history were to ensure that injured workers received compensation and that employers accepted liability, and to prevent workplace accidents and illness. The boards were empowered to fix and collect assessment, determine the right to compensation, and pay the amount due to the injured worker. They were involved in inspections, investigations, and inquiries. Workers’ Compensation Boards continued throughout the 20th century to retain these earlier principles, but broadened their mandate from employee wage replacement to include vocational rehabilitation and health care. Their role expanded to helping the injured worker return to health and return to work. Their role and responsibilities continued to expand to include a focus on prevention, training, promotion of a culture of commitment, and public awareness. They offer premium reductions based on safety records and are actively involved in projects to prevent accidents. There is more responsibility on the employer to assess risks and hazards and to conduct due diligence through increasingly performance-based occupational health and safety. 2. Imagine that you are a truck driver. An accident on the road has left you with two broken legs and a head concussion. What type of assistance might you expect from workers’ compensation? What could your manager do to expedite your return to work? Answer: Workers’ Compensation is a form of no-fault insurance governed by an act (e.g., BC Workers Compensation Act) to help injured workers safely and effectively return to work, as well as to ensure they receive fair compensation for any workplace injuries or diseases. They ensure that the injured worker receives immediate medical treatment, benefits while recuperating, proper treatment for any injury, and compensation for lost income. Employers are required by law to participate in the WCB system, which means that most workers are covered. If the truck driver was self-employed, he may not have WCB coverage. He would have to seek automobile insurance (e.g., ICBC). If a workplace injury occurs, the employer, employee, health care worker, and WCB all have responsibilities, which range from reporting the accident/injury within a specific period of time to arranging medical treatment as soon as possible to supporting recovery and an early safe return to work. WCB websites provide employers with information on WCB compensation services and assessments; step-by-step instructions on how to file a claim, the responsibilities of workers and employers when an accident occurs, types of benefits, and return-to-work programs. The types of benefits an injured worker in BC can expect to receive are the following (similar types of benefits with procedural variations can be found in all other jurisdictions in Canada): wage-loss benefits (base payments are 90% of the average net earnings after taxes at the time of injury based on earnings during the last 12 months); wage loss compensation for injured workers or their dependents; permanent disability benefits (worker receives a life pension based on either the loss of function or the reduction in earning capacity); death benefits (paid to dependants); health care benefits (medical and surgical care, hospitalization, nursing care, drugs and supplies, physical and occupational therapy, prostheses, compensation for loss of functional capacity); and rehabilitation and return to work assistance (vocational rehabilitation for injured workers) Employee rehabilitation and retraining costs are paid by the WCB. The WCBs’ focus has become more on ensuring the future earning power (rather than on wage loss payment) of the worker by proactively helping the injured employee stay at work or return to employment as soon as possible. See OH&S Today 3.4, “Workers’ Compensation at Work.” The HRM will need to manage the WCB claim. This involves ensuring that all the necessary employer, employee, doctor, and WCB reports and application forms are completed immediately. It is important to have early and ongoing discussions and plans that enable the employee to return to work safely and as quickly as possible. The HRM will need to communicate regularly with the employee, doctor, and health professional about the details of their disability and support the most appropriate, effective, timely, and efficient treatment. The HRM needs to ensure that organizational policies and procedures are established that will allow the employee to stay connected to the workplace (i.e. modified and transitional work opportunities). Support, cooperation, and education among staff at all levels of the company, as well as health care professionals and insurance companies are important. The WCB Comprehensive Return to Work Manual (www.wcb.ns.ca/return-to-work/) provides employers with general information on establishing a return-to-work program. 3. If you are employed, talk with the health and safety manager in your organization. (If you are a student, ask to speak to the safety officer at your school.) Obtain information about the organization’s sector, assessment, and record of experience ratings. Answer: The WCB system is one of compulsory and collective liability. The WCB collects insurance premiums from employers to cover the cost of workplace insurance. Employers are assessed at a rate of the percentage of their payroll, which is determined by the injury cost of their classification (companies are classified and assessed according to their industry). WCB sets an annual base rate to be applied to the payroll of the employer. Employers in industries with similar claim costs pay similar base rates. The same base rate applies to all employers in a classification unit. The rate is expressed as an amount per $100 of assessable payroll. Premiums are based on the assessable earnings of your workers. Under experience rating, the assessment for each firm may be higher or lower than the basic rate for the industry group. Firms with lower-than-average accident costs per worker pay lower premiums than firms with above-average accident costs. Experience rating is intended to offer incentive to employers to reduce injuries, return workers to their jobs as early as possible, and reduce compensation claims. The premium the employer pays to WCB is determined by the following formula: The Workers Compensation Board of BC has an illustrated PowerPoint presentation that gives an example of how to calculate a veterinary hospital’s WCB premiums. It discusses the organization's sector, classification unit, rate groups, base rate, assessment, record of experience ratings, and premiums: Introduction to WCB Classification, Rate Setting, and Experience Rating, www.worksafebc.com/insurance/premiums/2011_rates/classification/browse_ sectors_and_subsectors/default.asp. Using the Internet Check the Workers’ Compensation Board in your area. What cost savings are available to firms that improve their health and safety record? What obligations exist to implement return-to-work procedures? Answer: Experience ratings are intended to offer an incentive to employers to reduce injuries, return workers to their jobs as early as possible, and reduce compensation claims. Organizations with lower-than-average accident costs per worker pay lower premiums than firms with above-average accident costs. Organizations with an average above the group rate pay a surcharge. Refer to OH&S Notebook 3.4, “Experience Rating Programs in Ontario.” Return-to-work programs are based on research that has found that many employees can safely perform productive work during the recovery process while maintaining their employability. The employer, the injured employee, the WCB, and the physician are all involved in helping an employee return to work by identifying transitional duties and/or a gradual return to work. All of these stakeholders have a moral, economic, and social obligation to help employees return to the workforce. Return-to-work programs are now recognized as an important part of an injured employee’s medical treatment plan and rehabilitative process. Employers have a substantial cost savings when they are able to reduce the length of time an employee is away from the workplace. Most WCBs publish their current rates online. Pick a single industry and find the appropriate rate group assessment across the provinces. Who pays the highest assessments? Who pays the lowest? Answer: To obtain information about the organization’s sector, classification unit, rate groups, and base rate, students can go to the WCB websites listed in OH&S Notebook 3.2, “Contact Information for the Provincial and Territorial Workers’ Compensation Boards.” To analyze workers' compensation rates across Canadian provinces (WCBs), we need to choose a specific industry and compare the rate group assessments for that industry. Let's select the Construction industry as it is widely present across all provinces, and the rates are typically available online. Step-by-Step Breakdown: 1. Select an Industry: Construction. 2. Look up Rates by Province: Each province has a Workers' Compensation Board (WCB) that provides assessment rates per industry. These rates are usually grouped by similar industries. I will compile information on construction-related WCB rates from across several provinces, showing who pays the highest and lowest assessments. Let me fetch the latest data for you. For the construction industry across Canadian provinces in 2024, workers' compensation board (WCB) rates can vary significantly depending on factors like injury rates and return-to-work outcomes. Highest and Lowest Assessment Rates: • WorkSafeBC (British Columbia): The 2024 average base premium rate for industries, including construction, is $1.55 per $100 of payroll. This has remained unchanged from previous years • WorkSafeNB (New Brunswick): The average 2024 assessment rate is $1.18 per $100 of payroll, one of the lowest rates in Atlantic Canada • WorkSafe Alberta: The average 2024 rate for construction ranges between $1.18 and $3.06 per $100 of payroll, depending on the specific construction sub-industry Summary: • New Brunswick tends to have one of the lowest rates at $1.18. • British Columbia and Alberta are on the higher end, especially for sub-industries like commercial construction. These variations reflect the unique risk factors and safety outcomes in each province's construction sector. Exercises 1. Various jurisdictions have struggled with how employees should be compensated for stress-related disabilities. Using the websites listed in OH&S Notebook 2.3 in the preceding chapter, check to see how the following scenarios are handled in your jurisdiction. (a) mental/mental—stress at work results in a psychological disorder (e.g., depression) (b) mental/physical—stress at work results in a physical disorder (e.g., heart attack) (c) physical/mental—an accident at work results in a psychological disorder (e.g., anxiety attacks) Answer: Stress-related claims are continuing to challenge HRMs and all health insurance companies. The Human Rights Tribunals have been consistently maintaining that stress-related disorders and other psychological disabilities are to be treated the same as physical disabilities in employment settings. Currently the Workers’ Compensation Boards exclude some stress-related disorders. A physical injury or occupational disease leading to a mental disability (e.g., depression resulting from a spinal cord injury) or mental stress resulting in a physical disability (myocardial infarction after a robbery) may be compensated, but are subject to some selection. There must be a causal relationship between the disability and employment. Mental stress resulting in a mental condition is seldom compensated by WCBs. Employees may receive STD and LTD if the company provides these benefits. Some benefits may be claimed through Employment Insurance. Evidence needs to be established that some form of psychological impairment or injury exists, and then consideration needs to be given to whether the impairment was “traumatically induced” in order to determine if it arose out of the employment. The HRM has to gather sufficient medical evidence from a physician or registered psychologist indicating that the employee’s mental stress is due to a sudden or traumatic event that arose out of and in the course of employment. A causal relationship between disability and employment has to be established in order for an employee to receive workers’ compensation. Some questions that can be asked are: Did the worker’s psychological condition constitute personal injury arising out of and in the course of employment? Did the workplace circumstances or events involve unusual stimulus? Were the workplace circumstances or events reasonably capable of causing psychological injury? Were the workplace circumstances or events of causative significance with respect to the worker’s psychological condition for which compensation is sought? You may want to discuss some current statistics and research with the students to illustrate the spectrum of the problem of stress in the workplace and that a preventative stress management approach that recognizes that the health of an organization and its employees are interdependent should be established. The HRM focus should be on primary organizational and individual interventions encouraging the reduction of stressors in the workplace. Health programs that deal with the management of occupational stress and strain should also be provided. 2. Company X operates one 12-hour shift per day for 220 days per year. It employs 315 people. The company records show a history of accidents and injuries: 3 medical aid injuries with no days lost 15 property damage accidents with a total of 35 days lost 11 equipment failures that caused a total of 20 days lost 19 injuries requiring medical attention with a total of 75 days lost Calculate the following (see the appendix at the end of this chapter for the formulas): a. frequency b. severity Explain how the company's severity rate can have a significant increase while the frequency rate has a very minor increase. Answer: Frequency = (3+19/315 × 220 × 12) × 200,000 = 5.28 Severity = (35 + 20 + 75/315 × 220 × 12) × 200,000 = 31.36 Cases Case 1: The Employer’s Duty If a workplace injury occurs, the employer, employee, health care worker, and WCB all have responsibilities, which range from reporting the accident/injury within a specific period of time, to getting medical treatment as soon as possible to support recovery and an early safe return to work. WCB websites provide employers with information on WCB compensation services and assessments. It outlines the step-by-step instructions on how to file a claim, the responsibilities of workers and employers when an accident occurs, types of benefits, and return-to-work programs. The HRM will need to manage the WCB claim, which involves ensuring all the necessary reports and application forms are completed immediately. It is important to have early and ongoing discussions and plans that enable the employee to return to work safely as quickly as possible. The HRM will want to clarify the organization’s disability benefits, procedures, related health programs, and related return-to-work policies with the employee. Communication with the employee and completing all the required reports will begin the process of clarifying the details of the problem, barriers to the employee’s ability to work, and some realistic solutions to the health issues. The HRM should immediately gather sufficient medical evidence from a physician diagnosing the health issue. The HRM will need to communicate regularly with the employee (and doctors and health professionals) about the details of their disability and support the most appropriate, effective, timely, and efficient treatment. Musculoskeletal disorders, such as chronic pain, require a detailed diagnosis and aggressive treatment plan where the worker receives treatment for their injury. The HRM needs to ensure that organizational policies and procedures are established that will allow the employee to stay connected to the workplace (i.e. reduced hours, modified job duties, transitional work opportunities, change departments, and retraining). Support, cooperation, and education among staff at all levels of the company, as well as among health care professionals and insurance companies, are important. The WCB Comprehensive Return to Work Manual (www.wcb.ns.ca/return-to-work/) provides employers with general information on establishing a return to work program. The HRM will want to create data systems to review and identify absenteeism, disability management practices and policies, trends, health costs, health and safety issues, return to work programs, and workplace issues, and to measure improvements. Rising disability costs can be managed if long- and short-term disability, non-occupational injuries, sick leave, workers’ compensation, and occupational injuries are managed in their entirety. Case 2: A Stressful Job HRMs must keep current on the issues, laws, insurance coverage, and practices concerning workplace stress. It is important to educate managers and employees about the organization’s disability coverage. Mental stress resulting in a mental condition is seldom compensated by WCBs (refer to Exercise 1 above). Employees with non-occupational illnesses or injuries may receive short- and/or long-term disability coverage if the company provides these benefits (i.e., private rate shared plans). Some benefits may be claimed through employment insurance. You will want to clarify the organization’s disability benefits, procedures, related health programs, and related return-to-work policies with the employee. The HRM will want to identify the problems and health concerns immediately. Workplace or job stress occurs when the requirements of the job (working conditions) do not match the capabilities and resources of the employee (worker characteristics). The NIOSH model described in the text identifies the following major categories of workplace stressors: workload and work pace, role stressors, career concerns, work scheduling, interpersonal relations, and job content and control. It is the individual’s appraisal of the stressors that cause that individual’s stress and possible strain, which leads to increased risk to mental and physical health. It is difficult to define a direct causal effect with the workplace. This may be a case of chronic stress, which is the result of a cumulative build-up of pressures over a long time. Strain may be caused by a variety of factors, one of which may or may not be the workplace. Often chronic stress is difficult to assess. It would be important for the HRM to find and identify the causative factors (stressors). Questions that can be asked are: What are the psychological barriers to the employee’s ability to work (i.e., conflict, change, work schedule, work demands, personal and family issues)? What are some realistic solutions to the health issues? A preventative integrative approach to managing stress in the workplace would encourage the reduction of stressors, as well as the recognition and management of occupational stress and strain using both organizational and individual primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions. Immediate interventions and the use of an interdisciplinary team approach involving health care professionals, management, and supervisors is important. The focus should be on organizational and individual primary interventions that involve the reduction or removal of the actual stressors listed above. You will want to focus on education and on preventing accidents or health problems from happening. Focusing on minimizing negative outcomes once a person is feeling stress can include secondary and tertiary interventions such as stress management nutrition, relaxation, exercise, and employee assistance programs. The HRM should gather sufficient medical evidence from a physician and/or registered psychologist diagnosing the health issue immediately. The HRM will need to communicate regularly with the employee about the details of his or her disability and support the most appropriate, effective, timely, and efficient treatment. Usually the HRM would encourage the employee to access an employee assistance program and set up other supports that allow the employee to stay connected to the workplace (e.g., reduced hours, modified and light duty, change of departments, counselling support, stress management program), depending on the details of the problem. Support, cooperation, and education from staff at all levels of the company, as well as health care professionals and insurance companies, are important. Create data systems to review and identify absenteeism, disability management practices and policies, trends, health costs, health and safety issues, and workplace issues, and to measure improvements. CHAPTER 4 Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control Essential Outcome After completing the lesson on this chapter, if nothing else, my students should be able to describe the processes for recognizing, assessing, managing, and controlling workplace hazards and risks, and be familiar with the types of injuries that workplace hazards can cause. Learning Outcomes After completing this chapter, students should be able to: define key terms used in the field of occupational health and safety identify the sources of workplace hazards describe the types of injuries caused by workplace hazards identify types of workplace hazards describe methods for systematically examining workplace hazards and risk describe the processes for controlling hazards and managing risk Key Concepts The terms hazard, incident, and risk all have specific meanings in the context of occupational health and safety, and need to be understood and used appropriately to avoid any potential misunderstandings when setting or following OH&S processes. Hazard recognition and identification involves five categories of hazard types: people, equipment, environment, materials, and processes. Hazard identification programs involve the use of systematic procedures to identify and record hazards in the workplace. Typically, these programs include task and job inventories to help identify and understand where hazards and risks may arise in specific jobs, reports and audits to help with the documentation of incidents and accidents, and hazard analysis, to acquire specific hazard and failure information about a specific system. The types of injuries that may occur as the result of workplace hazards can be classified as overt traumatic injuries (e.g., cuts, fractures, burns) or overexertion injuries (e.g., sprains, back pain, tendonitis, carpal tunnel syndrome). Traumatic injuries usually are the result of coming into contact with an energy source, such as falling down or being struck by something; overexertion injuries usually are the result of excessive physical effort, repetitive motions, or working at awkward angles or positions. Hazard control programs or processes seek to establish preventive and corrective measures to eliminate, reduce, or control hazards and thereby minimize injuries or losses. Three levels of hazard control intervention are precontact control (addressing issues before an accident or incident can occur); contact control (identifying ways hazardous situations can be prevented from becoming worse and causing harm); and post contact control (putting medical and clean-up operations in place and ensuring that the event or incident cannot be repeated). Work processes, equipment, and materials can be modified through engineering control to reduce exposure to hazards. Tools can be made more ergonomically, controls and displays can be visually enhanced, workstations and lighting can be improved, processes can be modified, isolated, or segregated to enhance safety, efficiency, and exposure to risk, and machines can be guarded to protect workers from potentially dangerous moving parts. Administrative controls include management involvement, employee training, employee rotation, and environmental sampling, and use techniques such as safety awareness and incentive programs along with good housekeeping practices and preventative maintenance to help control hazards and protect individuals. Often viewed as the third line of defence behind engineering and administrative controls, the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) includes things like protective clothing, helmets, goggles, all of these designed to protect individuals from specific hazards. Although usually simple and effective, because they are often easy to misuse or avoid using altogether, PPEs are recognized as the least preferred means of controlling hazards and are viewed more as a “backup” to other methods of keeping workers safe. Student Motivation Almost everyone at one point or another has either suffered from a work-related accident or incident, has experienced a close call and narrowly avoided being injured, or has witnessed or at least known someone who has been injured at work. This common experience will cause most students to relate on some personal level to the topic of workplace hazards because they will be able to relate hazards to their own direct experience. Barriers to Learning The content of this chapter should not pose too many difficulties for students. It is a long chapter with a large amount of content and a considerable number of definitions, so some learners may need time to study and absorb the volume of information the chapter contains. The essential terminology (hazard, incident, and risk) may challenge some learners who ascribe different definitions or understandings to these terms, so reinforcing their meaning in the context of occupational health and safety is important. Engagement Strategies and Lesson Plan 1. Engaging Students at the Outset a. Learning objective: At the completion of this activity, students will be able to personally relate to the seriousness of workplace hazards and appreciate how commonly they are experienced. Ask students to pair up and discuss any accidents, incidents, or “near-misses” they have either experienced or witnessed (preferably work-related). Invite them to describe the situation, conditions, and type of hazard that was involved. After a few minutes, invite a few students to share some work-related examples. The purpose of this activity is to engage students in the topic by helping them personally identify and relate to the seriousness of workplace hazards. 2. Lesson Engagement Strategies Learning objective: At the completion of this activity, students will be able to accurately define the terms hazard, incident, and risk within the proper context of occupational health and safety. To introduce students to the terminology used in this chapter (pages 82–83), organize students into triads and ask them to discuss the three terms as they might normally understand them. Have each student in the triad focus on one of the three terms, and review it in the text (pages 82–83). Next, have each student explain and summarize their assigned definition to the other two students in their triad. Ask for volunteers or call on students to share their summary with the class. Learning objective: At the completion of this activity, students will have reflected on their own attitudes towards personal protective equipment (PPE), and will have related attitudes towards using PPEs to their effectiveness in protecting individuals from workplace hazards. Many students in the class will have at least some experience with personal protective equipment (PPE). Using the think–pair–share technique, ask students to take a minute to jot down some thoughts about their experiences with using PPEs—their attitude towards using them, their level of compliance in proper usage, and so on. Have students pair up and share their reflections with one another. Finally, ask for a few examples and discuss how attitudes towards PPEs and their proper use factor in to the generally held notion that PPEs are the “third line of defence” (as described on page 109). Learning Objective: At the completion of this activity, students will be able to summarize and process the key concepts related to hazard recognition, risk assessment, and control. In the last 10 minutes of the class, assign students to write a “minute paper” briefly describing two or three key learning points that stand out for them from this lesson, and one thing discussed during the lesson that is still unclear or “fuzzy” to them. Ask students to quickly share one of the learning points with the class, moving quickly around the room to capture as many points as possible as a way of recapping key concepts and content. Ask students to hand in their minute papers on the way out of class, so that you can read them and identify the “fuzzy” areas for clarification at the beginning of the next class. 3. Lesson Plan Notes and Lecture Outline * Short videos/DVDs such as the Workers’ Compensation Board of BC’s “The Occupational Safety Regulation: Identifying Hazards and Assessing Risks” are available through government departments in the different jurisdictions (www.worksafebc.com/publications). These videos define and give examples of the terms hazard and risk. Examples from the video can be used as examples in later class discussions. A list of DVD titles on Workers’ Compensation can be accessed at WorkSafeBC Library Services, www.worksafebc.com/about_us/library_services/assets/pdf/videos_titles.pdf. A. Hazard Recognition, Assessment, and Control (RAC). Introduction and Terminology (See Lesson Engagement Strategy a, above) B. Types of Injuries: Overt and Overexertion Use PowerPoint slides to define and give examples of the two types of injuries: overt injuries (i.e., individuals coming in contact with objects and equipment) and overexertion injuries (i.e., excessive physical effort, repetitive motions, and awkward working positions). Examples of overt injuries are cuts, fractures, and burns. Overt injury prevention focuses on recognizing the source of the hazard, eliminating the hazard, and protecting workers from exposure to the energy source. Ask students to discuss in small groups what they believe are the top workplace dangers and what are the most dangerous industries for young workers. Ask the student groups to list their group’s ideas on the whiteboard. Access the WCB website in your jurisdiction to illustrate the most common injuries among young workers. The most common workplace accidents involve coming in contact with objects or equipment in the workplace (overt injuries). Other sources of overt injuries are falls. You can refer to Worksafe BC’s publication “Be a Survivor,” www.worksafebc.com/publications/health_and_safety/by_topic/assets/pdf/be_survivor.pdf. It lists lifting, ladders, knives, hot substances or equipment, vehicles, food slicers, and working near machinery as the most common cause of workplace accidents. See also Ten Top Dangers, www2.worksafebc.com/Topics/YoungWorker/Top-Seven-Dangers.asp; and Young Injury Rate by Industry Sector, www2.worksafebc.com/Topics/YoungWorker/Statistics.asp. Ask students how they would prevent overt injuries.Overt injury prevention focuses on recognizing the source of the hazard, eliminating the hazard, and protecting workers from exposure to the energy source. C. Overexertion Injuries: Lifting and Lower Back Pain—Lifting Calculations Using the NOISH Model Use PowerPoint slides to explain and give a few examples of the many overexertion or repetitive strain injuries. Highlight that most result from one of three basic causes: (1) lifting, (2) working in awkward positions, and (3) repetition. Examples of overexertion injuries are back pain, back strain, and carpal tunnel syndrome. Lower back pain disability claims account for over 50% of all musculoskeletal workplace injuries, which are impacting an increasing number of employees. You will want to model or have a student model the two proper lifting positions illustrated in Figure 4.1, “Lifting Positions,” and Figure 4.2, “Relationship Between Load Position and Lower Back Stress,” while describing the 12 rules of proper lifting listed in the Occupational Health and Safety Notebook 4.1. Ask students to form small groups to discuss and select any lifting task at their workplace, or to simulate one at home. Using the NIOSH lifting equations, calculate the acceptability of the lift and recommend ways to make it less risky and more efficient. If time permits, students can answer Using the Internet, Question 3 (An online calculator for the equations is found at www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/niosh/calculating_rwl.html. Use the calculator to assess the lifting limits for a worker who has to lift a package weighing approximately 16 kg onto a shelf that is 60 cm from where he or she is standing. The worker picks up the load from a point 30 cm from the floor; the final position on the shelf is 170 cm from the floor. The lift is repeated once each minute. Calculate the AL and the MPL, and determine the acceptability of the operation. Refer to WCB Publication “BACK TALK: An Owners’ Manual for Backs,” www.worksafebc.com/publications. Materials handling should be mechanized (e.g., with a fork lift), automated, or computer controlled if lifting activities are identified a hazard. D. Overexertion Injuries: Repetitive Strain Injury/Musculoskeletal Injury and Ergonomics Use PowerPoint slides to define and give examples and injury statistics on RSIs/MSIs. Refer to OH&S Today 4.2, “Artistic Occupations at Risk.” Ergonomics-related issues are becoming increasingly prominent and important. About one-third of all WCB claims for time off work are for injuries due to overexertion and repetitive motions. Go online to access your provincial legislation relevant to RSIs/MSIs. Ask students to answer the following: Define ergonomics and RSIs/MSIs. How can an HRM recognize the signs, symptoms and potential health effects of RSIs/MSIs? What are the factors that contribute to the risk of RSIs/MSIs, and how can a HRM identify these risk factors? What steps can an HRM take to prevent RSIs/MSIs in the workplace? Refer to the WCB publications “Preventing Musculoskeletal Injury: A Guide for Employers and Joint Committees,” and “Understanding the Risks of Musculoskeletal Injury (MSI): An Educational Guide for Workers on Sprains, Strains, and other MSIs,” at www.worksafebc.com/publications. Musculoskeletal injury (MSI) often begins with discomfort in muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, nerves, blood vessels, or related soft tissue, including a sprain, strain, and inflammation that may be caused or aggravated by work. MSI usually develops when a stressful action is performed again and again. It is often a form of discomfort and is reported too late to intervene. Early symptoms can progress into serious conditions such as back strain, tendonitis, and carpal tunnel syndrome, which can have long-term health effects. The risk factors commonly relate to physical demands such as repetition, force exerted (i.e., lifting, pushing, pulling, and carrying), and posture (i.e., how long you stand or sit). Other factors include duration, speed, layout of the workstation (e.g., reaching and heights), characteristics of objects handled (e.g., size, weight), environmental conditions (e.g., temperature). MSIs can be treated more effectively if recognized and treated early. Education that teaches the employees the early signs of MSI and how to identify the risk factors is critical to reducing MSI injuries. The provision of this education as well as employee access to immediate medical treatment is a critical role for HRMs. Ergonomics considers how the design of jobs, equipment, and tools affects employee’s health. The goal of ergonomics is to try to design workstations and job tasks to fit people. The purpose of the ergonomic (MSI) sections 4.46 to 4.53 of the BC Occupational Health & Safety Regulation is to eliminate or, if that is not possible, to minimize the risk of musculoskeletal injury to workers. The ergonomic regulation specifically requires that the employer demonstrate that it is attempting to decrease injury at the workplace. The role of the employer and HRM is to ensure that the WCB regulations are met and to structure a program that identifies hazards (physical demands, workstation design), assesses risk and controls hazards (e.g., engineering controls [arrangement, design, or an alteration of the physical environment, equipment, tools and materials] and administrative controls [scheduling of resources and staffing to improve how the work is organized and performed, such as training, job rotation, scheduling work breaks, variety of tasks, reducing long work shifts]) The employer/HRM must work collaboratively with many individuals (i.e., OH&S committees, physiotherapists, supervisors, unions) to monitor, keep records, and evaluate the effectiveness of the measures taken to comply with the ergonomics (MSI) requirements. Health and safety committee minutes, first aid, accident, and inspection reports are valuable sources of information. Observing jobs and asking employees questions through regular inspections would help with early intervention. MSI Risk Factor Identification and Assessment Forms, Investigation Checklists, and Common Risk Control Options Forms can be developed for particular organizations or jobs. Have workers mentioned sore necks, backs shoulders, or wrists? Are employees feeling tired, uncomfortable and in pain? Does the location of supplies, tools, and equipment work efficiently and conveniently to perform job tasks? Has the employer considered employees’ ideas for solutions that would make their job tasks safer and easier? Some other interventions may include giving rest periods, rotating job duties, and/or training. Control measures need to be reviewed and evaluated to determine their effectiveness. E. Hazard Identification Mention to students that the preceding discussions on overt and overexertion injuries involved a process of Recognition, Assessment, and Control (RAC.). The first step in all risk assessments is the accurate and orderly identification (R) of hazards. Hazards can come in many different forms, but generally it is the thing or condition that may injure or that has potential to do harm to workers. Hazard is defined as “a thing or condition that may expose a person to a risk of injury or occupational disease.” Ask the students for examples of hazards they have seen in the workplace. Some examples include: Physical hazards (e.g., becoming caught in machinery, or a box falling off a shelf) Equipment/tools (e.g., a blade that comes off a skill saw) Fire (e.g., resulting from a gasoline spill) Hygiene (e.g., hazardous substances, or high noise levels) Human factors (e.g., placement of controls and their relative ease of use) Security and violence (e.g., physical harm from members of the general public or other workers) Divide the students into the following four groups for hazard analysis. Ask them to prepare a brief presentation on the definition, and well as examples of their factor: 1. Ergonomic factors 2. Human factors (unsafe acts) 3. Situational factors (unsafe conditions) 4. Environmental factors Summarize by stating that these factors interact with one another to cause accidents. An additional summary learning activity is to have students discuss Case 1, “Industrial Hazard Assessment,” to test their understanding of human factors (unsafe acts) and situational factors (unsafe conditions). Also refer to Case 1. F. Components of a Hazard Identification Program Ask students how they would find hazards. List their suggestions on the board and support it with the requirements from the Workers’ Compensation Act. Use PowerPoint slides to define and give examples of various components of a hazard identification program. Safety Committee. The Workers’ Compensation Act states that a joint committee is required to “identify situations that may be unhealthy or unsafe for workers and advise on effective systems for responding to those situations.” Inspections. The Workers’ Compensation Act states that “every employer must ensure that regular inspections are made of all workplaces, including buildings, structures, grounds, excavations, tools, equipment, machinery and work methods and practices, at intervals that will prevent the development of unsafe working conditions.” Incident Investigations. The Workers’ Compensation Act states that an investigation “must be carried out by persons knowledgeable about the type of work involved and, if they are reasonably available, with the participation of the employer or a representative of the employer and a worker representative” First Aid Records, Reports, and Audits. Accident, injury, and claims records along with first aid records from your workplace and your industry generally can tell you what types of injuries and occupational diseases are associated with the jobs or tasks you are assessing. Walk-Through Survey. A survey in which a safety professional walks through a worksite and notes hazards. Safety Sampling. A systematic survey undertaken by safety personnel, who record their observations of unsafe practices on a sampling document. Publications. Trade or industry magazines and WorkSafeBC publications describe incidents and accident trends that may apply to your workplace. These can be an excellent source of information and increase your ability to identify and eliminate hazards in your workplace. Hazard alerts from trade and industry magazines. Analysis of the Plant, Tasks, and Jobs. Always consider whether a specific hazard requires immediate attention to prevent possible injury. This immediate action could involve stopping work in the area or ensuring that the hazard is controlled without delay. G. Safety Inspections Ask students to discuss Using the Internet, Question 1. Short videos and DVDs such as the Workers’ Compensation Board of BC’s “Workplace Inspections and Correction of Unsafe Conditions” and the BCGEU’s “Health and Safety Inspections” are available through the government departments in the different jurisdictions: www.worksafebc.com/publications. H. Definition of Risk Assessment and Conducting a Risk Assessment Once hazards have been identified, a risk assessment should be done. Use PowerPoint slides to define and give examples of risk. Risk is defined as “a chance of injury or occupational disease.” “Risk” is the likelihood that the hazard will lead to injury, or the probability of harm actually occurring. When determining “risk,” you have to determine whether it is certain that the hazard will result in injury, or one-in-a-million, or somewhere in between. The question here is, ‘What is the chance that the injury will occur?” When the “risk” is high or it is likely that the hazard will result in injury, immediate action may be required. Use PowerPoint slides to define and explain the purpose of a risk assessment. A risk assessment is defined as a systematic examination of all aspects of the work undertaken to consider what could cause injury or harm, whether the hazards could be eliminated, and if not, what prevention or protection measures are or should be in place to control the risk. Risk assessment is a way of thinking, not a specific procedure. The purpose of a risk assessment is to determine whether enough has been done to control the risk or whether further control measures need to be put in place. Ask students how insurance companies determine how much each driver will pay for his or her insurance. How much do they pay as first-time young drivers? The rates that drivers pay are predicated on a risk evaluation that determines the susceptibility of humans to accident or death (i.e., young drivers pay higher insurance rates). Use a whiteboard or laptop/tablet to illustrate the equation below. Then define consequence, exposure, and probability. Refer to Table 4.1, “Risk Assessment,” to define the degrees of consequence, exposure, and probability. Ask the students to help you calculate the risk, which is the probability of injury or death expressed as a percentage, using a motor vehicle accident as an example. Risk = Probability × Consequences × Exposure Consequences: The worst probable results of an accident due to hazard (not worst possible). A determination must be made to determine what the probable results are. Exposure: How often workers are exposed to hazard that could result in accident. Time schedules and an understanding of the task or process being assessed typically allow for an accurate determination of how long or how often workers are exposed to the hazard. The longer the exposure or the more frequently workers are exposed to the hazard, the greater the likelihood that an injury could result. Evaluating the extent of exposure to assess how great the risk is includes determining magnitude (how much), duration (how long), and frequency (how often, how fast). Have students ask the following questions, using their own workplace examples to assess the amount (low, moderate, high) of exposure they experience in their workplace. What is the magnitude of the exposure (how much or how severe)? How long is the worker exposed to the risk (total time)? How frequently is the worker exposed to the risk (repeated many times or occasionally)? Probability: The likelihood that the hazard will lead to an undesired consequence. This calculation considers how likely is it that the hazard will result in an injury after the hazard event has occurred. Ask students: What are the hazards (a thing or condition that may expose a person to a risk of injury) when driving a motor vehicle (e.g., deer jumps on road)? What has to happen before you get into a vehicle accident? (Answer: you lose control of your vehicle, starting the accident sequence). What is the risk, or likelihood, that the hazard will lead to injury or death? Is it a 50/50 or one in a million? What is being considered here is, what is the chance that the injury or death will occur? What are the worst “probable” results of a vehicle accident (consequences)? Students may suggest the worst “possible” results, such as a death. Remind the students that the worst possible thing to happen rarely happens, such as a fatality. The reality is that only a very small percentage of automobile accidents actually result in a fatality. Statistics show that there are thousands of motor vehicle accidents but a relatively small number actually result in death. There are a lot of fender benders. When calculating the consequences you want to consider the worst probable result (e.g., deer jumps on road, 3/minor consequence) Ask students how often the hazard occurs (exposure)? (i.e., deer jumps on road, loose control, 3/rare) Ask students what the chance is that the consequence they previously determined will happen once the driver loses control of their vehicle? (probability) (i.e., deer jumps on road, 6/possible) chance. The likelihood that the hazard (losing control when a deer jumps out on the road and will lead to minor injury is 5.4% (low risk score). The same concept is applied to health and safety. Use PowerPoint slides to illustrate Table 4.2, “Sample Hazard Inventory and Risk Evaluation.” Additional Learning Activity: Refer the students to examples from the video and/or real workplace examples to determine the consequence, exposure, and probability calculations. Have students form small groups to determine the “Consequence Rating” for the video or real workplace examples using the consequence rating in Table 4.2. Have the student groups share their ratings with the class. Have them calculate the risk score for the video and/or real workplace examples by simply multiplying the consequences, exposure, and probability as a percentage out of a maximum of 1,000. Generally, when the consequence rating is high the probability of the consequence occurring is low, and when the consequence rating is low, the probability of that consequence occurring is high. From the highway driving example, it is easy to see that the worst probable consequence is death and that the probability of this is quite low; but when the worst probable consequence is minor cuts and bruises, the probability is quite high. This typically results in very similar risk score calculations for a specific hazard but different consequences. After a risk assessment is completed and a risk score has been calculated, the next obvious question is, “What should be done about the hazard and the calculated risk of someone being injured?” This question leads into the next topic, hazard control. I. Hazard Control: Definitions, Goals and Steps Use PowerPoint slides to define hazard control (a program or process used to establish preventative and corrective measures). It is the final stage of Hazard Recognition, Assessment and Control (RAC), precontact control, contact control, and post contact control. Precontact control addresses issues before an incident or accident occurs. Contact control identifies ways in which a hazardous situation can be prevented from becoming worse and harming workers. Post contact control is putting in place medical and cleanup operations and ensuring that the event cannot be repeated. Engage students in a discussion on the goals of hazard control (eliminate, reduce, or control hazards so as to minimize injuries and losses). Refer students to the prior discussions in H. Definition of Risk Assessment and Conducting a Risk Assessment. Then ask them to form small groups to discuss this question: “Once the risk assessment has been completed, what follow-up steps need to be taken?” Have the students list the steps they would include on the whiteboard. Once the risk assessment has been completed (information gathered, hazards identified, their consequences, exposure, and probability of each hazard defined as high, medium or low), the following steps need to be taken. 1. Document the assessment. 2. Set suitable and attainable control objectives. 3. Evaluate and prioritize control measures. 4. Identify necessary control measures to meet objectives and where practicable provide the highest level of protection against risk. 5. Monitor and evaluate control measures. There are a variety of solutions that can be considered but it is important to evaluate and prioritize the control measures, to identify the necessary hazard control measures that meet the objectives, and, where practicable, to provide the highest level of protection against risk. Other considerations are the degree of risk to workers, the availability and suitability of control measures, how often the task is performed, duration of the exposure, and cost-benefit analysis. J. Source–Path–Human Controls and Hierarchy of Control Use PowerPoint slides to illustrate Figure 4.7, “Source–Path–Human Controls.” This diagram provides a summary on hazard control and also illustrates the importance of attacking the hazard at the source (i.e., elimination or substitution controls). It is an easy way for students to memorize and apply hazard control to the workplace. Focus students’ attention back to step 4 listed above: identify necessary control measures to meet objectives and where practicable provide the highest level of protection against risk. Ask the class, “What is the highest level of hazard protection against risk?” Incorporate their answers as you refer them to the following hierarchy of hazard control and hierarchy of control questions. The matter of how control measures should be ordered or placed in order is referred to as the Hierarchy of Control. It is best to start with elimination and work down to personal protective equipment, eliminating each measure in turn before moving on to the next. 1. Elimination 2. Substitution 3. Engineering Control 4. Administrative Control 5. Personal Protective Equipment Hierarchy of Control Questions 1. Elimination Can the task be avoided? Can a portion of the task be eliminated? Does task need to be done to achieve the desired result? Can the hazardous part of the task be removed? Can it be done in a way workers are not exposed to hazard? 2. Substitution Can the task be modified by substituting materials? Can different work practices be developed? Can part of process employ other materials or methods? Can less hazardous materials be substituted to reduce risk? Can different work practices be developed to reduce exposure to hazard? 3. Engineering Controls Can a physical separation between the workers and hazard be provided? Can the hazard be controlled at its source? Can the hazard be enclosed? Can a physical barrier be provided? 4. Administrative Controls Can work be scheduled to reduce exposure – regular breaks or job rotation? Can total time workers are exposed be limited or restricted? Can housekeeping measures be implemented? Can workplace be organized to create distance between hazard and workers? Can susceptible workers be transferred to other duties? 5. PPEs Is personal protective equipment provided? Is the exposure only temporary? Are training and safe work procedures required and available? K. Precontact Controls Ask students to form five small groups. Have each group define and give workplace examples of one of the five hazard controls. Have the five students’ groups share their definition and workplace examples with the class. Use PowerPoint slides to define and give some common examples of precontact controls. Hazard control at the precontact stage is better than hazard control at the contact and post contact stages because the precontact stage addresses health and safety issues before an incident or accident occurs. Emphasize that administrative control is the second level of priority for worker protection after engineering controls. Ask students to form small groups to define and give five examples of administrative controls and five examples of engineering controls. Administrative precontact controls are the use of management involvement, training and rotation of employees, environmental sampling, and medical surveillance to protect individuals. Administrative control is the second level of priority for worker protection after engineering controls and before personal protective equipment. Some common examples of administrative controls include safety awareness programs, awards and incentives, housekeeping programs, preventative maintenance, and development of policies and training. Engineering precontact controls is the modification of work processes, equipment, and materials in order to reduce exposure to hazards. Various methods of controlling hazards through engineering are design of hand tools, substitutions, workstation design, process modification, isolation or segregation, purchase of equipment and machinery, and machine guarding. You will want to ensure that the students know the requirements for machine guarding, lockout procedures, and confined space entry. Refer to Discussion Question 3. L. Contact and Post contact Controls Ask the students to form small groups to discuss Case 3, “Hazard Control.” Refer to Case 3 for the five categories of contact controls and the eight steps of post contact controls. Contact control steps are required to prevent a hazardous situation from becoming worse and harming workers (suppression, barriers, modifications, substitution, and isolation). Post contact control involves ensuring that the injured worker receives immediate emergency care, that machinery is locked out, that unauthorized people are kept out of the area, that waste is disposed of, that the safety committee, affected managers, and government agencies are informed of the event, that accident reports are completed and used to make recommendations to ensure that the accident will not be repeated, and company procedures are reviewed and revised and communicated to workers. M. Audit Program and Record Keeping Engage students in a discussion on why the monitoring, auditing, and record keeping of hazard controls is important. Use PowerPoint slides to describe what should be included in both an audit program and a database. N. Summary: Risk Assessment and Hierarchy of Control (See Lesson Engagement Strategy c, above) Assessment Tools To quickly assess student learning against the chapter learning outcomes, at the end of the class: Refer back to “Lesson Engagement Strategy a” above concerning the terminology used in this chapter. Ask students to recall and state the main sources of workplace hazards as described in the text. Verbally give a few examples of injuries (e.g., numbness in dominant hand, finger laceration, speck of metal in eye). Ask students to identify whether these are examples of overt traumatic injuries or overexertion injuries. On the chalkboard or whiteboard, write the headings “engineering controls” and “administrative controls” in two columns. As a way of helping students recall the primary methods of each, quickly go each the various methods and ask students to tell you under which column each method belongs. Reflections on Teaching Good teaching requires ongoing self-assessment and reflection. At the completion of this lesson, you may find it helpful to reflect on the following, and consider whether you want or need to make any adjustments for subsequent lessons. What worked in this lesson? What didn’t? Were students engaged? Were they focused or did they go off on tangents? Did I take steps to adequately assess student learning? Did my assessments suggest that they understood the key concepts? What (if anything) should I do differently next time? How can I gather student feedback? How can I use this feedback for continuous improvement of my teaching? Additional Resources Weblinks Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety website: Hazard Control, www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hazard_control.html. Videos A list of DVD titles can be accessed at WorkSafeBC Library Services, www.worksafebc.com/about_us/library_services/assets/pdf/videos_titles.pdf. Suggested answers to cases and exercises Discussion Questions 1. Explain why hazard control at the precontact stage is better than hazard control at the other stages. Answer: Hazard control at the precontact stage addresses health and safety issues before an incident or accident occurs rather than after an accident occurs, such as at contact control (preventing the situation from becoming worse and harming workers) and post contact control (putting in place medical and cleanup operations and ensuring that the event cannot be repeated). 2. In recent years there has been a move to make ergonomic design and ergonomic standards mandatory in workplaces. Should your jurisdiction implement legislation requiring ergonomic analysis and design of work processes? Why or why not? Answer: Ergonomics-related issues are becoming increasingly prominent. About one-third of all WCB claims for time off work are for injuries due to overexertion and repetitive motions. Research shows that musculoskeletal injury (MSI) is preventable. It often takes the form of discomfort in muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, nerves, blood vessels, or related soft tissue including a sprain, strain, and inflammation that may be caused or aggravated by work and is usually reported to late to intervene. Early symptoms can progress to become serious conditions such as back strain, tendonitis, and carpal tunnel syndrome, which can have long-term health effects. Ergonomics considers how the design of jobs, equipment, and tools affects employees’ health. The goal of ergonomics is to design workstations and job tasks to fit people and thereby eliminate or at least minimize the risk of musculoskeletal injury to workers (see Sections 4.46 to 4.53 of the BC Occupational Health & Safety Regulation). BC’s ergonomic regulation specifically requires that employers demonstrate that they are attempting to decrease injury at the workplace. Workplace MSI prevention programs should include the following elements: Identification and assessment of workplace risk factors for MSI. Control of such risk factors. Education and training of workers in specific measures to control risk factors and recognition of early signs and symptoms of MSI. Management commitment and worker participation. Employees need to be educated on the risk factors commonly related to physical demands such as repetition, force exerted (e.g., lifting, pushing, pulling, carrying) and posture (e.g., how long you stand or sit). Other factors include duration, speed, layout of the workstation (i.e., reaching and heights), characteristics of objects handled (i.e., size, weight), environmental conditions (i.e., temperature). Employees also need to be educated on how to recognize the early signs and symptoms of MSIs because they can be treated more effectively if recognized and treated early. Employees require immediate access to medical treatment. For online information on tools, publications, and other resources to help prevent musculoskeletal injuries, visit the following: ergonomics.healthandsafetycentre.org/s/Home.asp ergonomics.healthandsafetycentre.org/s/Resources.asp www.ccohs.ca/products/subjects/ergonomic.html www.worksafebc.com/publications 3. A maintenance crew has been hired to enter an underground sewer line to do some minor repair work. They call and ask you for advice about necessary equipment and procedures. Briefly outline your response. Answer: Confined space entry refers to a space that is potentially deficient in oxygen and could contain toxic aerosols. Such sites include sewers, tanks, boilers, long or small tunnels, shower, stalls, computer equipment rooms, and wine vats. Refer to Figure 4.11, “Hazard Rating of Confined Space Before Entry,” to establish whether confined space procedures are necessary, and to determine the extent of testing required before actual entry. If a confined space exists, then the nine steps on page 108 of the text should be taken. Refer to the WorkSafe BC publications at: www.worksafebc.com/publications/health_and_safety/by_topic/assets/pdf/confined_space_entry_bk84.pdf www2.worksafebc.com/Topics/ConfinedSpaces/Home.asp www.worksafebc.com/publications 4. When a worker does not wear PPE or wears it incorrectly, who is responsible? The company? The individual? Answer: This can be approached by initially asking some critical questions to determine the root causes of the unsafe behaviours. Here are some questions that can be asked are: What can the owner, management supervisors, and employees do to prevent these unsafe acts? Was the owner and management team showing due diligence and a commitment to employee safety? Was there an OH&S program (policies, procedures, inspections, health and safety committees, training, maintenance of records, and investigations are the core elements of an occupational health and safety program)? Was there an OH&S committee established to identify and resolve health and safety problems in the workplace? Did the supervisor ensure the employee was adequately trained and aware of all the health and safety hazards? Were the employees aware of the risks and hazards involved in working with chemicals and neglecting to wear proper eye protection? Did the employee show a lack of caution, poor judgement, or inappropriate behaviour? Did the employee deviate from standard job procedures or practices that would require disciplinary action from the supervisor (e.g., failure to use personal protective equipment)? While the employer is ultimately responsible for the overall safety of all the employees, the supervisor is responsible for ensuring the OH&S of all workers under his/her supervision, and the employee is responsible for following safe workplace procedures and reporting health and safety problems to the health and safety committee responsible for identifying and recommending solutions. Chapter 10 discusses motivating safety behaviour, safety climate, and safety leadership. 5. Examine available literature and catalogues to determine how many methods and accessories are available to prevent keyboard-related RSIs. How many of these devices do you have in your own installation? Answer: Methods, accessories, and position considerations to prevent keyboard-related RSI include the following: Provide ergonomically designed computer workstations (e.g., ergonomically designed mouse, check posture and adjust chair and monitor, use foot and back rests). (engineering controls) Modify work processes or equipment (e.g., check lighting, use headsets and shoulder rests). (engineering controls) Adjust keyboard to correct height so that wrists are straight. Provide training and education. (administrative controls) Organize work area and improve job design. Ensure safe work practices are used. Take regular exercise. Take posture breaks. Use palm and wrist supports and mouse pad. Provide physiotherapy for the management of symptoms. Provide exercise programs. Rotate job duties. Provide training and EAP to help employees identify risk factors. Provide counselling and education on how to prevent RSI through correct posture and good work practices. Keep mouse at the same height and close to the keyboard. Refer to the WCB Publications “How to Use a Mouse to Prevent Injury” and the WCB Publication “How to Make Your Computer Workstation Fit You” for a checklist to help assess computer work stations www.worksafebc.com/publications/ There are several methods and accessories available to prevent keyboard-related repetitive strain injuries (RSIs), including: 1. Ergonomic Keyboards: Designed to reduce strain by promoting a more natural hand position (e.g., split keyboards, curved designs). 2. Keyboard Trays: Adjustable trays that help position the keyboard at the right height and angle. 3. Wrist Rests: Supportive pads placed in front of the keyboard to reduce strain on the wrists. 4. Keyboard Covers: Soft silicone covers that reduce the force required to press keys. 5. Typing Technique Improvement Tools: Software that encourages better posture and typing habits. 6. Anti-fatigue Mats: Help reduce strain for users who stand while typing. 7. Gloves and Splints: Designed for those recovering from or preventing severe RSI symptoms. 6. Outline all the methods that a manager of a small plant could use to identify hazards. What could a safety professional add to this manager's hazard identification program? Answer: A variety of methods can be used to identify hazards: plant, job, and task analysis (the first step is to identify the hazards and risks of each task and process), reports and audits, monitoring equipment, and safety experts. There are many occupational health and safety professionals who are trained in specific areas of occupational health and safety and hazard analysis who can help an organization with the recognition and assessment of hazards. They can also help the organization understand what is a hazard, what is a risk, and why certain tasks and processes are considered hazards or risks (i.e., the level of hazard and level of risk). 7. Choose any operation in your workplace or at school and identify the hazards associated with it. Perform a risk analysis to determine whether these hazards are dangerous or not. Outline the changes that could be made to reduce the level of risk associated with the hazards. Answer: Refer to the layout similar to Table 4.1, “Sample Hazard Inventory and Risk Evaluation,” and Table 4.2, “Factors for Evaluating Risk.” Students may want to refer to their text and/or use the Internet to search for potential means of elimination and/or control of these hazards. The matter of how control measures should be ordered or placed in order is called the Hierarchy of Control. 1. Elimination 2. Substitution 3. Engineering Control 4. Administrative Control 5. Personal Protective Equipment Example: Handling Industrial Cleaning Products (chemicals) Hazard Inventory and Risk Evaluation A few examples of changes that could reduce the level of risk and some possible controls: Use less hazardous chemicals. (engineering controls) Ensure proper storage and ventilation. (engineering controls) Modify work processes or equipment. (engineering controls) Train employees in WHMIS (MSDS and labels), proper lifting, and first aid (administrative controls) Use all PPEs recommended by manufacturer (i.e., including gloves, respirators). Make first aid equipment immediately available. Ensure safe work practices are used. Post warning signs. (administrative controls) Lock storage area. (administrative controls) Use proper lifting techniques. (administrative controls) Ensure good housekeeping practices. (administrative controls) Refer to the WCB Publication “WHMIS”: www.worksafebc.com/publications. Hazard: Technology Use in Classroom • Ergonomic Risks: Prolonged sitting, poor posture. • Risk Level: Moderate. • Mitigation: Adjustable chairs, regular breaks. • Electrical Hazards: Faulty wiring, overloaded outlets. • Risk Level: Moderate to High. • Mitigation: Regular inspections, surge protectors, safety training. • Eye Strain: Screen exposure. • Risk Level: Low to Moderate. • Mitigation: 20-20-20 rule, blue-light filters. • Tripping Hazards: Loose cables. • Risk Level: Low to Moderate. • Mitigation: Secure cables, clear walkways. • Fire Hazard: Overloaded circuits. • Risk Level: Moderate to High. • Mitigation: Avoid overloading outlets, install smoke detectors. Changes: Improve ergonomics, ensure equipment safety, and reduce clutter for lower risk. Using the Internet 1. Human resource managers are responsible for ensuring that workplace safety inspections take place regularly. Using your text and online resources, describe how you would conduct an effective safety inspection program. (Hint: visit www.worksafebc.com/publications/health_and_safety/by_topic/assets/pdf/safety_inspections.pdf Answer: The BC Occupational Health & Safety Regulation Sections on Inspections—3.3, 3.5 to 3.11—state that employers are required to have an OH&S program, which must include carrying out regular safety inspections of premises (buildings, structures, grounds), equipment and tools, and work methods and work practices at appropriate intervals, to ensure that prompt action is undertaken to correct any hazardous conditions found. Developing a Safety Inspection Program would involve the following four steps: 1. Develop and implement standards, planning, preparation, participation. and training. Effective safety and health inspections are one of the most important incident/accident prevention tools in a company’s safety and health program. For HRMs, inspections are an ongoing task that involves working with properly trained inspectors and the heath and safety committee or worker health and safety representatives to ensure that both day-to-day observations and regular formal inspections take place. Inspections should include the supervisor and employees. Inspectors must be trained to know what needs to be inspected and to maintain consistency of inspections. 2. Inspect frequently and use checklists. Inspections are generally done in accordance with the hazards associated with a particular industry and its potential for serious incidents. Regular and spot inspections need to be done because the workplace is constantly changing. Inspectors need to look for hazardous acts and conditions. Organizations can use a checklist to ensure consistent, comprehensive, and thorough inspections each time they are done. Appropriate checklists should be developed for each job site and provide a guide to the various standards expected to be in place. A checklist should inform inspectors what to look at (e.g., job site and floor plans of building structure and equipment) and what to look for (e.g., manufacturer’s instructions, PPE, emergency procedures). They can focus on the most common tasks or a particular workplace issue, such as back injuries. 3. Correct unsafe conditions and actions, document, record, and report. Specific detailed action plans outlining what needs to be corrected, who is responsible, and when it will be done need to be communicated. An inspection report will establish the location of the condition or action observed and give it a hazard rating. The inspection team needs to record and report any deficiencies and recommend corrective action to management, the safety committee, and supervisors. HRMs can make records, plot trends, and develop statistics on the hazards found in the workplace. Employers and HRMs are required to keep certain records of work-related injuries and illnesses. This allows organizations to compute their incidence rates. WCB of BC compiles data that employers can use to measure their safety records against those of other organizations. 4. Monitor and Follow Up A follow up and ongoing monitoring of any deficiencies identified should involve the joint health and safety committees or worker health and safety representatives. Communication should take place with all staff concerning the inspection program. 2. Table 4.3 presented a series of special events. Visit the Web to determine (a) how these events are celebrated or implemented in your local area and (b) what other safety awareness events are held in your area. Answer: North American Occupational Safety and Health (NAOSH) Week encourages employers, workers, and all partners in occupational health and safety to focus on preventing injury and illness in the workplace by setting new goals for workplace health and safety, creating awareness of these goals within and outside their organizations, and making plans to accomplish these goals. Exercises In law, the “thin skull argument” refers to a perfectly healthy person whose minor trauma caused serious injury. Were it not for the trauma, the individual would not have been hurt. However, other individuals who experience the trauma are not hurt. Imagine four workers who are struck in the head by flying objects. Three workers suffer no injury whatsoever; the fourth (perhaps because of an abnormally thin skull) suffers serious brain damage. Is the damage a result of the hazard or the individual’s pre-existing conditions? How should health and safety programs account for individual variability like this? Answer: A flying object is a hazard and in itself possesses a risk to workers. The worker with an abnormally thin skull has an increased risk due to a pre-existing condition. All of the employees are at risk and all would suffer a compensable injury. The employer is required by law to control all hazards and risks. If all workers are protected from the hazard and an individual experiences a trauma, then it may be the cause of the individual’s pre-existing condition. Identify a hazard in your workplace (or a workplace you are familiar with). List all the approaches you could undertake to control or minimize the hazard. Answer: Once the risk assessment has been completed (information gathered, hazards and their consequences identified, exposure probability ranked, the risk of each hazard defined as high, medium, or low) the following follow-up steps need to be taken: Document the assessment. Set suitable and attainable control objectives. Evaluate and prioritize control measures, identify necessary control measures to meet objectives, and where practicable provide the highest level of protection against risk. Monitor and evaluate control measures. A variety of solutions can be considered, but it is important to evaluate and prioritize the control measures and identify the hazard control measures necessary to meet the objectives and where practicable provide the highest level of protection against risk. Other considerations are the degree of risk to workers, availability and suitability of control measures, how often the task is performed, the duration of the exposure, and cost-benefit analysis. Refer to Figure 4.13, “Source–Path–Human Controls.” This diagram provides a summary on hazard control and also illustrates the importance of attacking the hazard at the source first (i.e., elimination or substitution controls). A variety of hazard control solutions can be considered, but it is important to evaluate and prioritize the control measures and identify the necessary hazard control measures that meet the objectives and where practicable provide the highest level of protection against risk. Other considerations are the degree of risk to workers, availability and suitability of control measures, how often the task is performed, the duration of the exposure, and cost-benefit analysis. The matter of how control measures should be ordered or placed in order is referred to as the Hierarchy of Control. It is best to start with elimination and work down to personal protective equipment, eliminating each measure in turn before moving on to the next. 1. Elimination 2. Substitution 3. Engineering Control 4. Administrative Control 5. Personal Protective Equipment Hierarchy of Control Questions 1. Elimination Can the task be avoided? Can a portion of the task be eliminated? Does task need to be done to achieve desired result? Can the hazardous part of the task be removed? Can it be done in such a way that workers are not exposed to hazard? 2. Substitution Can the task be modified by substituting the materials? Can different work practices be developed? Can part of the process employ other materials or methods? Can less hazardous materials be substituted to reduce risk? Can different work practices be developed to reduce exposure to hazard? 3. Engineering Controls Can a physical separation between the workers and hazard be provided? Can the hazard be controlled at its source? Can the hazard be enclosed? Can a physical barrier be provided? 4. Administrative Controls Can work be scheduled to reduce exposure (e.g., regular breaks or job rotation)? Can the total time workers be exposed be limited or restricted? Can housekeeping measures be implemented? Can the workplace be organized to create distance between hazard and workers? Can susceptible workers be transferred to other duties? 5. PPEs Is Personal Protective Equipment provided? Is the exposure only temporary? Are training and safe work procedures required and available? Cases Case 1: Industrial Hazard Assessment Some examples of unsafe acts are: Unauthorized operation of equipment Improper use of equipment Use of defective equipment Failure to lock out power when servicing equipment Removal or disabling of safety devices Improper lifting, loading, or positioning Failure to use personal protective equipment Improper use of personal protective equipment Some examples of unsafe conditions are: Defects in design Substandard construction Defective equipment and materials Inadequate planning, layout, and design Ineffective personal protective equipment Continuance of improper procedures or practices Some examples of possible energies involved are: Mechanical Kinetic A hazard recognition, assessment and control process need to be implemented. Case 2: Danger in the Grocery Store Refer to the WCB Publications “Preventing Musculoskeletal Injury: A Guide for Employers and Joint Committees,” and “Understanding the Risks of Musculoskeletal Injury (MSI): An Educational Guide for Workers on Sprains, Strains, and other MSIs” at www.worksafebc.com/publications. Musculoskeletal injury (MSI) often begins with discomfort in muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, nerves, blood vessels, or related soft tissue. It can involve a sprain, strain, and inflammation that may be caused or aggravated by work. MSI usually develops when a stressful action is performed again and again. It is often a form of discomfort and is reported too late to intervene. Early symptoms can progress into serious conditions that can have long-term health effects. The risk factors commonly relate to physical demands such as repetition, exerted force (e.g., lifting, pushing, pulling, carrying), and posture (e.g., how long you stand or sit). Other factors include duration, speed, layout of the workstation (i.e., reaching and heights), characteristics of objects handled (i.e., size, weight), and environmental conditions (i.e., temperature). MSIs can be treated more effectively if they are recognized and treated early. Education that teaches the employees the early signs of MSI and how to identify the risk factors is critical to reducing MSI injuries. It is vital for HRMs to provide this education as well as ensure that employees have access to immediate medical treatment. HRMs must identify the hazards including ergonomic, human, situational and environmental factors. Workplaces need to be designed around ergonomic principles that consider how the jobs, equipment, and tools can be designed to reduce the risk of MSIs to employees. The goal of an ergonomic program is to design workstations and job tasks to fit people. Once hazards and risks are identified and assessed they need to be controlled through engineering controls (arrangement, design, or alteration of the physical environment, equipment, tools, and materials) and administrative controls (scheduling of resources and staffing to improve how the work is organized and performed). The employer/HRM must work collaboratively with many individuals (e.g., OH&S committees, physiotherapists, supervisors, unions) to monitor, keep records, and evaluate the effectiveness of the measures taken to comply with legal ergonomics (MSI) requirements. Health and safety committee minutes, first aid, accident, and inspection reports are valuable sources of information. Observing jobs and asking employees questions through regular inspections would help with early intervention. MSI Risk Factor Identification and Assessment Forms, Investigation Checklists, and Common Risk Control Options Forms can be developed. Case 3: Hazard Control Contact controls are the steps taken immediately after an accident has occurred to prevent a hazardous situation from becoming worse and harming workers. These steps include suppression (stop the process), barriers, modifications, substitution, and isolation (shut off energy source). Post contact controls are the steps that should be taken in the aftermath of an event. This involves establishing medical and cleanup operations and ensuring that the event cannot be repeated. This includes ensuring that the injured worker receives immediate emergency care, machinery lock out (assess fluid lock out failure), keeping unauthorized people out of the area, determining what can be salvaged and what waste must be disposed of, informing the safety committee, affected managers, and government agencies of the event, completing all accident reports, and using report recommendations to ensure that the accident will not be repeated, and reviewing, revising, and communicating company procedures. Where was the person responsible for managing, coordinating, communicating, and controlling the work project? Where was the maintenance task check-off sheet that outlined the detailed job responsibilities/tasks at each step in the process? Solution Manual for Management of Occupational Health and Safety Kevin E. Kelloway, Lori Francis, Bernadette Gatien 9780176532161, 9780176657178