This Document Contains Chapters 3 to 4 CHAPTER 3 SUSTAINABILITY: MANAGING FOR THE TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE GET IN TOUCH! This instructor’s manual can only cover a small initial selection of relevant advice. Please visit the website of the Center for Responsible Management Education www.responsiblemanagement.net or write to Oliver Laasch through [email protected] to share your ideas for new contents, experiences in teaching with the book, constructive criticism, and, of course, questions. The textbook is a snapshot of a quickly developing field that aims to educate responsible managers, and to create responsible businesses, which requires constant updating. We invite you to become part of a growing community of academics and practitioners taking on this task. INTRODUCTION This chapter illustrates sustainability, its origins, concepts, and management methods. In the first section we have a detailed look at the historic development of the field of sustainability, from ancient societies´ success or failure in achieving sustainability, to the industrial roots of today´s unsustainability, and to future scenarios. The second section introduces basic concepts of sustainability, including the three types of capital, weak and strong sustainability, and the relationship between economic development and sustainable development. The third section deals with the management of the triple bottom line through the tool of life-cycle impact management. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should… . . . know and understand the history of sustainable development. . . . know the central tools needed to manage sustainability. . . . be able to manage a business for the triple bottom line. . . . understand the ideal goal of a sustainable business. CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Origins of Business Sustainability A. Roots: Indigenous Sustainability: Although global unsustainability is a problem that started in the twentieth century, sustainable and unsustainable behaviors have been an issue from the dawn of human civilization. Ancient practices may be a valuable source of inspiration for humanity today as we move toward sustainable global development. We cover the following cases: • The Australian Nhunggabarra: “Law stories” constituting social, economic, and ecological rules • Polynesian Maori people in New Zealand: Kaitiakitanga system of penalties and rewards; “Guardianship” realized through resource management system; Declaration of “Rahui” or untouchable, death sentence for violators • Easter Islands versus Tikopia • Overharvesting trees on the Easter Islands: Consequences: Soil and sweet water loss, resource wars, reduction two thirds reduction of population • Tikopia hits resource limits: Consequences: Practices sustainable agriculture, take measures to control human population, and species affecting the ecosystem (pigs). B. Historical Beginnings of Unsustainability: It is for a couple of primary developments in human history, that human population and lifestyles have exceeded the earth’s carrying capacity, creating today´s unsustainable socio-economic system. • Age of discovery and colonialism: North-south divide; “Outsourcing” of resource limitations • First industrial revolution: Factories; Population explosion • Second industrial revolution: Petroleum-based production; Dependence on fossil fuels • Green revolution: Monoculture, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides C. Theoretical Advances: Theoretical advances in sustainability can be subdivided into predictions (warnings) pointing to the necessity for sustainable development, analytical frameworks (concepts) for understanding the characteristics of sustainable development, and frameworks for the development of solutions for sustainable development (management tools). • Warnings: Malthus versus Condorcet, Cree-Prophecy, The Limits to Growth, Silent Spring • Concepts: Ecology, external effects and social costs, sustainable development • Management tools: Life-cycle assessment, triple bottom line, cradle-to-cradle D. Institutionalization of Sustainability: Global and local institutions related to sustainability have been created in an overwhelming variety, discussion of which exceeds the scope of this chapter. The following institutional developments reflect some of the most influential entities: • Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE), 1972 • Rio Earth Summit, 1992 • Kyoto Protocol, 1997 • World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), 1990 • Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), 1999 • Millennium Development Goals (MDG), 2005 E. The Status Quo and the Future: The future of sustainable development is hard to predict. The chapter illustrates four different potential future scenarios and showcases the World Business Council for Sustainable Development Mission 2050 as one possible scenario and path into a sustainable future. Two important elements of the current situation and their developmental trends are: • Human Footprint: In 1975: 1 Earth (sustainable); In 2010: 1,5 Earths • World population growth: In 2011: 7 Billion people; In 2050: 9 Billion people II. Concepts of Sustainability A. Defining Sustainability: A situation is sustainable when it is able to maintain itself, as in the case of sustainable development, where present generations´ needs fulfillment should be able to maintain the possibility of needs fulfillment for future generations. Sustainability is the degree to which a situation will maintain the three types of capital (social, environmental, and economic). We may also refer to social sustainability, following the question if social capital will be maintained, or to environmental and economic sustainability. It is important to note, that sustainability does not refer to conserving an exact situation, but the capital necessary to create this situation. B. The Three Dimensions of Sustainability: The three dimension of sustainability are based on social, environmental, and economic perspective which interact in the creation of sustainable situations. • Social capital is any qualitative value directly embodied in human beings. • Environmental capital (often called natural capital) quantitatively comprises the amount of both renewable and nonrenewable natural resources. • Economic capital is expressed in monetary terms. C. Interpreting Sustainability: The opposing views often encountered in discussions of sustainability and sustainable development can be summarized to the following two extreme positions: • Weak sustainability is a conformist, conservative, and uncritical approach to sustainable development. • Strong sustainability takes unconventional stances and approaches to criticize, challenge, and change existing beliefs and structures. D. Economic Development versus Sustainable Development: The effect of economic development on the social factor of income-distribution and environmental pollution can be described in a sustainability Kuznets curve, integrating social, environmental, and economic development factors. E. Sectorial Sustainability Footprints: Global sustainability will only be reached if all three sectors do their part. It is a necessary condition that people in the civil society sector live sustainable lifestyles, that businesses are managed sustainably, and that nations are governed sustainably. For any of the three sectors a “footprint” can be established which sums up one or several types of environmental, social, or economic impacts for one predefined entity. Independent from the sector, the degree of sustainability can be assessed and described through the following scheme: • A situation in which resource usage exceeds the global resource reproduction rate is unsustainable. • When both correspond exactly, the situation is neutrally sustainable. • When fewer resources are used up than are reproduced, the situation is termed restorative or restoratively sustainable. III. Managing for Sustainability A. The Goal: A Neutral to Positive Triple Bottom Line: The degree of sustainability achieved can be assessed by looking at the triple bottom line. • Below-average unsustainable business exerts a net negative triple bottom line impact on economy, society, and environment that is below the impacts of peer businesses. • Average unsustainable business exerts a net negative triple bottom line impact on economy, society, and environment that corresponds to the impact of a majority of its industry peers. • Sustainable business exerts a small net negative triple bottom line impact that does not exceed the planetary system’s restorative capacity. • Neutral impact business exerts a net neutral triple bottom line impact on economy, society, and environment. • Restorative business exerts a net positive triple bottom line impact, which means it replenishes at least one type of capital while not depleting any of the others. B. Process 1: Impact Accounting: Accounting for the three interconnected bottom lines is a highly complex task. The following two tools can be used to assess the triple bottom line and to make social and environmental impacts manageable: • Product life cycle impact assessment (short life-cycle assessment) is a framework to account for social, environmental and economic impacts along the three life-cycle stages of production, use, and end of useful life. • Foot printing sums up a selection of impacts along a pre-defined part of the overall life-cycle. C. Process 2: Impact Management: Sustainability management must be part of the tasks of any employee or department on any hierarchical level. Similar to financial performance, the cumulative triple bottom line of all activities in a business result in the company’s sustainability performance. Thus, each person in the company should base his or her actions on the following simple set of principles: • Balance (optimize) triple bottom line impacts to move toward sustainability. • Eliminate waste in whatever form. • Scale your sustainability management practices to have a larger impact. PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT: BASICS AND PROCESSES (SUMMARY) I. Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of present generations without compromising the needs of future generations. II. Sectorial sustainability is a necessary precondition to reaching sustainable development. The three sectorial sustainability goals are sustainable business, sustainable living, and sustainable governance. III. Three types of capital have to be sustained and balanced in order to reach sustainable development: social, environmental, and economic capital. Those three capitals comprise the elements measured by the triple bottom line. IV. The triple bottom line sums up all social, environmental, and economic impacts of an activity. V. An unsustainable business is one with a negative triple bottom line; a sustainable business is one with a neutral one; and a restorative business has a positive triple bottom line. VI. Sustainability management is the process of managing a business and every one of its activities in a way that reaches a neutral or positive triple bottom line. VII. The sustainability management process is based on the tool of product life-cycle impact management and can be subdivided into two main activities: impact accounting and impact management. VIII. Product life-cycle impact management administers all social, environmental, and economic impacts of a product through the stages of production, use, and end-of-useful product life. IX. The stages of life-cycle impact management are (1) goal and scope definition, (2) life-cycle inventory, (3) life-cycle impact assessment, and (4) life-cycle interpretation. TEACHING POINTS 1. Take home message(s): The concepts of the three capitals, best described in the triple bottom line, and the tool of life-cycle impact assessment are simple but important concepts in theory and practice that will be applied frequently throughout the Chapters 6-15. 2. Underlying chapter structure: This chapter is one out of three chapters, describing the important background domains of responsible management and business, sustainability, responsibility and ethics. The coverage of these domains in Chapters 3-5 is subdivided into three sections i) history and development ii) concepts iii) management. Highlighting this structure to students might facilitate easier learning. 3. Boundaries and overlaps: Sustainability, responsibility, and ethics are highly interrelated and often overlap in theory and in practice. The strategy assumed here to facilitate students´ understanding, is to focus on one the core concepts of each domain. The core-concept of sustainability, as illustrated in this chapter, is the triple bottom line, consisting of social, environmental, and economic capital. To discuss the overlaps of the triple bottom line with the stakeholder concept (responsibility), and moral dilemmas and opportunities (ethics), is recommendable so that students develop a feeling for. 4. Degrees and interpretations of sustainability: An important goal of the chapter is to have students develop an intuitive understanding and line of enquiry, questioning the degree of sustainability of single actions, and organizations. Important considerations in this respect are that what is often called sustainable is in reality just a little bit less unsustainable and that the ultimate goal cannot be to be “just sustainable”, but to be even restorative, not only maintaining, but recharging the three capitals of the triple bottom line. A related content area are the different interpretations of sustainability, typically divided into weak and strong sustainability. 5. Sectorial sustainability: This chapter focuses on business sector sustainability. Some lecturers, depending on the course curriculum might want to delve deeper into sustainable (public sector) governance or sustainable living. We recommend doing so through excellent complementary materials available online. For concrete recommendations, please get in touch with Oliver Laasch through [email protected]. 6. Inspirational interviews: The end-of-chapter interviews provide outstanding additional material. John Elkington, the very person who coined the term triple bottom line and one of the most eminent individuals in the field provides a glimpse of what might be the future of business sustainability. The interview with Judith Ruppert, a young sustainability professional in Australia showcases what it means to manage sustainability in practice and can serve as great inspiration for students who want to work in the same field. ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES A. Remember and Understand A.1. Note the Brundtland definition of sustainable development and explain its main components. The Brundtland definitions is “Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the needs of future generations.” • It is important to note that the emphasis is on “needs”, not “wants” and that future generations´ needs are hard to forecast. So we have to maintain the resources necessary to fulfill many different kind of potential needs. • Intergenerational justice is the concept standing behind the Brundland definition. It would not be fair if current generations should use up the resources required by future generations to fulfill their needs. A.2. Describe the two main stages of product life-cycle impact management and the two substages of each. [Comment: The question refers to an earlier version of the chapter and should be substituted by the following task: Describe the two main processes of sustainability management.] The first process is called impact accounting and refers to listing all social, environmental, and economic impacts along the product life-cycle. The second process is impact management, where concrete measures are taken throughout the business to optimize the triple bottom line, to eliminate waste (inefficiencies in creating social, environmental, and economic capital), and through scaling the impact. A.3. Define the following terms: triple bottom line, sectorial sustainability, and sustainability management. • The triple bottom line is the social, environmental, and economic performance of an organization or single activities. It is calculated by summing up all impacts. • Sectorial sustainability refers to sustainable living in the civil society sector, sustainable governance in the public sector and sustainable business in the private economy. • Sustainability management is the process of managing a business and every single one of its activities in a way that makes it reach a neutral or positive triple bottom line. A.4. Define and differentiate the following three terms unsustainable, sustainable, and restorative. An unsustainable situation is one in which the resource usage exceeds the planetary capacity to replenish the resources. Resources are being used up. In a sustainable situation the resource usage corresponds exactly to the planetary replenishing capacity. Resources are sustained.. In a restorative situation, the planetary resources are even fewer resources are used than replenished. Resources are being restored. B. Apply and Experience B.5. Look up a sustainability report of a business on its corporate website and make a list of the social, environmental, and economic performance indicators (three for each) used in the report. For instance, in Procter and Gamble´s 2013 “Sustainability Overview”, we can observe the following indicators: Social • Children in need reached through “Live-Learn and Thrive” program (400 Million) • Days of disease prevented (>170 Million) • Lives saved (>22,000) Environmental • Reduction of CO2 emissions since 2007 (-14%) • Reduction of waste since 2007 (-71%) • Reduction of water usage since 2007 (-22%) Economic • Cumulative sales revenues from sustainable innovation products since 2007 (52 Billion USD) • Operational cost reduction from environmental efficiency (almost one Billion USD) • Net Sales 2012 (83.68 Billion USD) B.6. Map the typical social, environmental, and economic life-cycle impacts through the three stages of the life cycle of a product type (e.g., a T-shirt, a kilo of coffee, a car) of your choice. Exemplary triple bottom line impacts of a T-Shirt Social Environmental Economic Production Labor conditions in cotton production; Toxicty of dyes and other chemicals used in the process. Effects of monoculture, pesticides, and water intensity of cotton production. CO2 intensive global logistics chain. Income generated through cotton production and textile processing in regions of low economic power. Use “Fashion value” of the shirt for user Energy used and CO2 emitted for washing and drying Cost of washing and maintenance. End-of Use Potential value through clothing donation for charity Waste to landfill of shirt and packaging. Costs of waste processing C. Analyze and Evaluate C.7. Compare two concrete products of two different brands by conducting in-depth research that deepens the initial assessment conducted in Exercise B.6. Decide which of the two products is the more sustainable one by ranking both products on a scale between 0 (highly unsustainable) and 10 (highly restorative). Here students should show that they are able to assess a product´s life cycle and to point out the sections that make a difference in products´ triple bottom line impact. The comparison of two different products should help them to develop a feeling for how differences in the product life-cycle design changes the overall impact of a product and of the company producing it. To reduce complexity, it makes sense to focus the analysis on “life-cycle hotspots”, sections of the life-cycle with a dominant and significant impact. In the following analysis we focus on the cotton production, the labor conditions in factories, washing and drying, and how shirt quality and fashion aspects influence the end-of-life impact of the shirt. Aspect T-shirt 1:- “Simple Store Brand Shirt” T-Shirt 2: “Brand Name Good Shirt”: Cotton production Chemical-intensive monoculture cotton production. Organic cotton production, with reduced environmental impact, especially in the use of chemical pesticides. Labor conditions Frequently-changing supplier factories with choice based on currently lowest price. No control of work conditions. Long-run supplier relationship with high and frequently controlled labor standards (International Labor Organization and Great Place to work) Price, margin, revenues Cheapest price in the market, little margin, high revenues through high sales volume. Same price as other external brand name shirts; higher costs of organic and responsible production is offset by lower design and marketing cost. A high margin is achieved and revenues are less than in T-shirt 1due to smaller overall sales volume. Washing and drying Highly negative water and CO2 impact through standard washing and tumble drying. T-shirt has a “tumble drying fuse” (does not allow to tumble dry) and is made of a special quick air dry cotton fabric; with the standard washing instructions, sewn to the shirt comes website information with tips and tricks for reducing the impact of shirt washing and drying. Quality and fashion Often-changing trendy designs and low shirt quality, designed for planned obsolescence 6 months to 1 year periods. Timeless design and high material quality so that T-Shirt can be used more than five times as long as the standard shirt. Score 2 8 The table form of comparison chosen here is just one out of many potential formats of analysis. We have chosen fictional, but realistic products here which might be an alternative to comparing real products. For more advanced students, the task can be to further specify each impact and research the quantified magnitudes. C.8. Analyze and broadly categorize all product groups of a corporation of your choice into unsustainable, sustainable, and restorative products. Then summarize your finding in a sustainability product portfolio that provides an overview of the main impacts of the company’s products. On most company webpages information about the main product groups (typically 3-5) can be found. For smaller or more focused companies, this might even be reducible to some main single products. For the energy producer AES Corporation, for instance, four main product groups of energy products can be found the businesses´ homepage (http://www.aes.com/Aboutus/Home). The percentages in the table describe what percentage of the overall amount of energy produced by AES stems from each respective source. The assessment made here is mainly based on environmental sustainability. Including social and economic factors, might alter the picture considerably. As an example, several renewable energy types might not yet be economically sustainable. Social factors, such as pulmonary diseases triggered through some production methods´ air pollution might be another issue. The assessment made here is a very rudimentary one which requires further refinement. Classification Product types Comments Unsustainable Oil, diesel, Pet Coke (5%) Coal (36%) Natural gas (35%) It can be assumed that the order in which the unsustainable products are mentioned here, is one that reflects their degree of unsustainability, with Sustainable Renewables (24%) Renewable energies, such as water, wind, or solar power do not necessarily have to be sustainable. A more profound case-by-case assessment is required. Restorative Due to the complex nature of the task, it will be necessary to partly rely on intuition and patchy knowledge. Thus, the main criteria for a good analysis in this exercise should rather be based on the soundness of argumentation than the depth of technical analysis of each product group. Students are likely to find no or very few restorative products which should inspire them to think about how to create (more of) such products. D. Change and Create D.9. Use the sustainability product portfolio of the company that you established in Exercise C.8 to describe concrete impact improvement proposals for the three most unsustainable products. Provide a strategy to make one product in the portfolio a restorative product. In the case of AES, for instance, a substitution strategy would be one possible idea. The company should, in the best case substitute the least sustainable product types by the most sustainable ones, in order to reach the quickest possible transition to sustainable energy provision. Another strategy might be an offsetting strategy, where a focus (if possible) on a regenerative (positively sustainable) type of energy production offsets the unsustainable products. D.10. Imagine and describe a restorative business with a focus on how this business will restore social, environmental, and economic capital through its products and processes. With enough creativity, we could imagine a restorative business in virtually any sector. An (oversimplified) example for a restorative business might be, for instance, an airline, that (environmentally) offsets all of its CO2 emissions through reforestation projects, to a degree that even more CO2 would be captured in the growing forests, than the airline emits. Socially, this airline might be such a great place to work and heavily investing into employees´ welfare and education to recharge the social and individual capital. The airline would have to assure that the negative community effect of noise from starting and landing planes is reduced, and the remaining impact offset by new social initiatives in the affected communities. Economically, such an airline would have to reinforce the economic system of supplier and partner businesses. D.11. Get in touch with a real company of your choice to explain your sustainability improvement ideas developed through the former exercises. You can do so through hotlines, online contact forms, or the contact provided in the company´s sustainability report. Document the company´s reaction. The underlying idea of this exercise type (which will be repeated in many other chapters), is to i) make students experience the reactions of real companies ii) foster an activist and entrepreneurial attitude of “we can do something” and iii) enter into a dialogue and provide feedback and ideas to companies. We have experienced one case where the improvement request led to a job opportunity for a student and several cases, where students stayed in touch with the company beyond the duration of the exercise. It is recommendable to reflect together with students during and after the process. Most students, when this exercise was tested, reported that a majority of companies answered back to their request within a week, some students called the companies and became a satisfactory answer. Only a small minority was not able to make contact. An increasingly productive channel is social media. On Facebook, for instance, many company stakeholder-engagement sites with a dedicated social community manager can be found. The key to good communication here is the identification of the contact department or even better the person who is most related to the respective request or proposal made. Another key point is a concise, but not to extensive description of the idea, and an open communication style rather with the tone of “why don´t you…” and “have you considered…” instead of “we think you should…”. TEST QUESTIONS 1. Which of the following “ancient examples” is not a success case for sustainability? a. Australian Nhunggabarra aboriginal tribe. b. The Polynesian Maori people. c. Tikopa. d. The Easter Islands. Answer: d 2. Who of the following people was involved in establishing the main definition of sustainable development? a. Rachel Carson. b. Gro Harlem Brundtland. c. Thomas Malthus. d. Edward Barbier. Answer: b 3. Who coined the term triple bottom line? a. Michael Braungart. b. Ernst Haeckel. c. John Elkington. d. Robert Costanza. Answer: c 4. A friend of yours is very excited about an interview that he had listened to with “that guy who talks about closing the loop and making and completely eliminating waste by re-integrating it into the production process”. About which of the following concepts is your friend talking? a. External effects. b. Triple bottom line. c. Life-cycle assessment. d. Cradle to cradle. Answer: d 5. Which of the following has provided a framework for business reporting on sustainability? a. GRI. b. WBCSD. c. Agenda 21. d. MDG. Answer: a 6 Which of the following statements about sustainable development is wrong? Sustainable development a. is based on inter-generational justice between the people living today on planet earth. b. is related to the triple bottom line. c. is a development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the needs of future generations. d. has been defined by the Brundtland Report. Answer: a 7. In the Venn diagram of sustainability, a situation that is satisfies all the social and economic dimensions is called a. bearable. . b. sustainable. c. economic. d. equitable. Answer: d 8. Imagine that from a local petroleum refinery chemical substances have leaked into the groundwater? As a consequence people drinking the water got sick, the local ecosystem was affected and the company had to pay a fine of 500 000 USD. Which of the following sentences is an accurate evaluation of the situation? a. The situation is an excellent example for “weak sustainability”. b. The triple bottom line of this event is negative in all three dimensions. c. The event must have happened in a sustainably developing country. d. Social and environmental capital was reduced, while economic capital was increased. Answer: b 9. You started discussing with a friend about sustainable development. Your friend opines that environmental sustainability is not a real issue. “All you have to do is to invent a machine that absorbs carbon dioxide better than any plant. That solves global warming and everything can go on as always. Who cares about a couple of extinct bugs and weeds, if they weren´t even of any use to us? We are the ones ruling the planet.” Which of the following statements describes the attitude of your friend accurately? a. Your friend could be characterized as a proponent of strong sustainability. b. Your friend asks for drastic systemic changes to make sustainability work. c. Your friend, among others, argues from a “substitutionist” viewpoint of sustainability. d. Your friend tends in the “masters versus equals” polarization toward the “equals” point of view. Answer: c 10. In the news you have heard about the country Bhutan which measures both the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the Gross National Happiness (GNH). This is an example for which of the following discussion points in sustainability? a. Well-having or well-being. b. Process or outcome. c. Growth or de-growth. d. Intergenerational or intragenerational justice. Answer: a 11. Imagine a country, in which the environmental footprint is still above the sustainability line, but decreasing and in which economic wealth is increasingly equal in distribution? Which would be the right term to describe the country on the sustainability Kuznets curve? a. Economically underdeveloped country. b. Sustainably developing country. c. Economically developing country. d. Sustainably developed country. Answer: b 12. Which of the following statements about sustainability and lifestyles is true? a. More sustainable lifestyles are not necessary as the world population is shrinking and we will soon be able to consume much more per person without endangering the planet. b. A lifestyle can be called environmentally sustainable, if it results in an environmental footprint equal or higher than 1. c. Transforming lifestyles is an important instrument to reach sustainable development. d. Sustainable lifestyles are the main business sector instrument to achieve sustainable development. Answer: c 13. A factory with an own wastewater treatment system is not able to completely filter all phosphates out of its wastewater, which is channeled into a local marsh area. Before the water was allowed to be channeled into the marsh, an environmental impact analysis had shown that the marsh is able to completely absorb the phosphate without negative effects. The environmental impact of the wastewater in this example is a. unsustainable. b. restoratively sustainable. c. restorative. d. neutrally sustainable. Answer: d 14. GreenInc, a small cleaning company addresses all good social and environmental practices of its sector. The company pays very fair wages which is often an issue in the cleaning industry, applies the most advanced ecological cleaning supplies, and has achieved to do so with a very decent profit margin. As none of the companies in the cleaning industry, also GreenInc is not able to apply cleaning supplies that can be fully neutralized by the local ecosystem. We can classify this business as a. an average unsustainable business.. b. a neutral impact business. c. a sustainable business. d. a restorative business. Answer: a 15. Which of the following statements about sustainability management is wrong? Sustainability management a. .relies on impact accounting as part of its process. b. has ecologic performance as THE main outcome. c. relies on impact management as part of its process d. has the triple bottom line as outcome. Answer: b 16. Which of the following terms describes “the process of mapping social, environmental, and economic impacts along the stages of production, use, and end-of-useful life of a product.” a. Impact. b. Life-cycle assessment. c. Life-cycle impact portfolio. d. Supply chain. Answer: b 17. Bird’s eye view: Which of the following conceptual statements about the chapter topic is right? a. A sustainably-developing country is typically doing better in sustainability than an economically developed country. b. A statement that would be characterized as weak sustainability thinking would be to say “we need to change the economic system drastically to make it sustainable.” c. The green revolution helped to reverse many of the negative effects of the industrial revolution. d. Malthus, Condorcet and the Club of Rome all three communicated the same message that environmental resources would sooner or later limit population growth. Answer: a 18. Bird’s eye view: Which of the following conceptual statements about the chapter topic is wrong? a. To achieve the global goal of sustainable development requires the sectorial contributions of sustainable business, sustainable living and sustainable governance. b. The product life-cycle model consists of the three phases of production, sales and consumption. c. To create a restorative business would be even better than to create a sustainable business. d. Sustainability is centered on the core concept of the triple bottom line. Answer: b 19. In practice: Which of the following statements about responsible management at Interface FLOR is correct? a. Interface FLOR has become one of the most sustainable web design businesses worldwide. b. The company used the “Intelliveyor”, a sophisticated environmental accounting tool. c. Through the “Cool Carpet” program, customers participate in a carbon-offsetting scheme, through which a part of the price paid for carpet is invested into activities such as renewable-energy programs and carbon-neutral initiatives. d. The company is a good example of how a business that has failed in its sustainability efforts. Answer: c 20. In practice: Which of the following short case descriptions is summarized correctly? a. The software company SAP was able to permanently de-couple economic growth from their environmental impact. b. The” swop shop” of the Lynedoch eco-village is about swopping things that affluent citizens would not need any more for a money refund. c. Apple was able to constantly decrease the environmental impact of their I-Pad with every new version. d. Danone has introduced a new product carbon footprint information system for, among others, their yoghurts. Answer: d CHAPTER 4 RESPONSIBILITY: MANAGING FOR STAKEHOLDER VALUE GET IN TOUCH! This instructor’s manual can only cover a small initial selection of relevant advice. Please visit the website of the Center for Responsible Management Education www.responsiblemanagement.net or write to Oliver Laasch through [email protected] to share your ideas for new contents, experiences in teaching with the book, constructive criticism, and, of course, questions. The textbook is a snapshot of a quickly developing field that aims to educate responsible managers, and to create responsible businesses, which requires constant updating. We invite you to become part of a growing community of academics and practitioners taking on this task. INTRODUCTION This chapter focuses on the topic of business responsibility and its core concept of stakeholder theory. The first section looks at the development of different theories of responsible business, including critics like Milton Friedman and conceptual milestones like Edward Freeman´s stakeholder concept. It follows a description of how the understanding and terminology of business responsibility has changed from its religious roots to the most current variant of corporate social entrepreneurship. The first section closes with facts and figures about important institutions in business responsibility and with an outlook on current advanced business responsibility implementation methods. The second section takes a conceptual perspective by defining and illustrating different domains and understandings of business responsibility. This section also provides a practical perspective on the concept of corporate social performance, and its use in assessing the degree of business responsibility achieved by a business. The third and last section introduces stakeholder management as the main management tool in business responsibility. An introduction of salient stakeholder management tools includes stakeholder identification, establishing stakeholder maps, stakeholder prioritization, and materiality assessment. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should… . . . know and understand the history of business responsibility. . . . be able to distinguish the central tools necessary to manage a business responsibility. . . . manage a business for the creation of stakeholder value. . . . able to conduct a stakeholder assessment and excel in stakeholder management. CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Origins of Business Responsibility A. Business Responsibility: Roots: Religious morality for so many fields has, as in different disciplines, defined the baseline for responsible business conduct, long before there was an acknowledged field studying the responsibilities of business. Once the field had begun to develop, the terminology used and the related understanding of business responsibility developed through many stages from “businessman responsibility” in the 1950s to the current understanding of corporate social entrepreneurship and corporate responsibility. B. Theoretical Advances and Institutionalization: The most significant theoretical advances of the business responsibility field came with Milton Friedman´s criticism “the only responsibility of business is profits”, with the popularization of stakeholder theory through Edward Freeman, and through the Archie B. Carroll´s responsibility pyramid. Prominent institutional developments are the European Union corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategy, the United Nations Global Compact (GC), and the ISO 26000 norm. C. Status Quo and the Future: During the early 2000s, assuming stakeholder responsibilities became a true business imperative for big businesses. Nevertheless, small and medium-sized businesses, businesses in developing countries are lagging behind in implementation. A new, advanced form of implementation of business responsibility, featuring the following characteristics is on the way: • Integration: Part of the core business • Transformation: Changes to structure, processes, and products • Scale: Large impact • Entrepreneurship: Opportunity and venture thinking II. Concepts of Business Responsibility A. Defining Business Responsibility: Business responsibility refers to voluntarily assuming accountability for social, economic, and environmental issues related to stakeholders aiming to maximize stakeholder value and applies to all types of business equally, independent of size, maturity, or organizational structure. B. Business Responsibility and Related Terms: Business responsibility can be subdivided into the two synonyms of corporate responsibility, and corporate social responsibility. The sub-group of business philanthropy is based on altruism, corporate citizenship on community thinking, and corporate social entrepreneurship on venture thinking. Business ethics is often seen as an important foundation of business responsibility, business sustainability, as one of its main purposes. C. Classifying and Interpreting Business responsibility: Business responsibility can be divided into four sub-domains: • Instrumental: Tool for profit generation • Political: Role of business for society • Integrative: Business can only survive, prosper, and grow if it integrates stakeholder demands into its activities. • Ethical: Business-society relationship as embedded into an ethical framework D. Assessing Corporate Social Performance: Corporate social performance (CSP) is an umbrella term referring to the assessment made by both qualitative and quantitative methods used to evaluate the degree of responsibility assumed by a company. A qualitative assessment of a company´s social performance may be based on the following four performance dimensions: 1) Responsibility category: Type of responsibility assumed based on the CSR pyramid 2) Social responsiveness: Mode of reaction to stakeholder claims 3) Issues maturity: Sophistication of issues covered 4) Organizational implementation stages: Degree to which stakeholder responsibilities are embedded into a company´s processes III. Responsibility Management as Stakeholder Management: Responsibility management is based on stakeholder management. Stakeholder management is the process of managing relationships with the various groups, individuals, and entities that affect or are affected by an activity. A. The Goal: Stakeholder Value: The goal of responsibility management should be to create shared value for the stakeholders and the company and to optimize the value created for the various internal and external stakeholder groups. To optimize stakeholder value we can resort to the following two principles: • Maximization suggests that we should aim to achieve the maximum possible stakeholder value. • Fairness suggests that stakeholder value distribution should be fair in process and outcome. B. Management Process 1: Stakeholder Assessment: Stakeholder assessment is the process of understanding stakeholders and their relationship to a specific activity; it can be subdivided into two steps, stakeholder identification and stakeholder prioritization. Tools and processes to be used for stakeholder assessment are stakeholder maps, stakeholder categories (e.g. external/internal, social/non-social, and prioritization models (e.g. power, urgency, legitimacy). C. Management Process 2: Stakeholder Engagement: Stakeholder engagement is the process of interaction with stakeholders and can be subdivided into stakeholder communication and the co-creation of joint activities. A crucial first step for stakeholder engagement is to involve into a stakeholder dialogue to define the materiality of issues. Materiality describes the shared importance of a specific issue to both company and stakeholders. PRINCIPLES OF RESPONSIBILITY: MANAGING FOR STAKEHOLDER VALUE (SUMMARY) I. Through business responsibility, a company voluntarily assumes accountability for social, economic, and environmental issues related to its stakeholders and aims to maximize stakeholder value. II. Responsibility management is an administrative practice centered on stakeholders and aimed at the maximization of stakeholder value, which is a necessary condition to become a responsible business. III. Stakeholder value is created in many different ways and differs from stakeholder to stakeholder. The goal of responsible business and management is to create shared value between external and internal stakeholders. IV. Corporate social performance (CSP) is a theoretical construct that aims at defining the degree of responsibility achieved by a company. Corporate social performance can be determined quantitatively and qualitatively. CSP provides an estimate for the amount of stakeholder value created. V. The process of stakeholder management consists of the two tasks: stakeholder assessment (understanding stakeholders) and stakeholder engagement (interacting with stakeholders). VI. Stakeholder assessment consists of the two steps of stakeholder identification, through which stakeholders are mapped, and stakeholder prioritization, through which stakeholders´ characteristics are understood and categorized by their priority for engagement. VII. Stakeholder engagement consists of the two steps: stakeholder communication, through which direct contact with stakeholders is established, and the co-creation of activities, through which stakeholders and the company start to collaborate for a joint objective. TEACHING POINTS 1. Take home message: Business responsibility, in spite of coming in many “flavors of the day”, is based on the core concept of the mutual relationship between a company and its stakeholders. It would be desirable that students do not only learn “what” stakeholder responsibility is, but that they learn “how” to implement stakeholder responsibility. Using the tools mentioned in the last section may support the development of this skill. 2. Avoiding confusion: In the chapter we use business responsibility and responsibility management to describe topics related to the core-concept of the stakeholder. These two terms should not be confused with the larger umbrella terms of responsible management and responsible business, which have been described in Chapter 2 as a referring to a responsibility for sustainability (triple bottom line), responsibility (stakeholders), and moral dilemmas and opportunities (ethics). It is recommendable to extensively communicate the difference to avoid confusion in concepts and application. 3. Hands on! Many of the tools introduced in the section on “Responsibility Management” are simple and insightful in their application. Why not asking students to think about a specific company (e.g. based on their responsibility report), and to prepare a stakeholder map, prioritize the stakeholders and simulate a materiality assessment? Alternatively, such an assessment could be done from an individual assessment, where students analyze their own stakeholders, such as parents, friends, professors, etc. Students will intuitively understand, how complex a task it is for a company to optimize stakeholders when the problem is transferred to their own personal sphere. 4. Seemingly complex CSP: Students might struggle with the complexity of the four dimensions of the qualitative corporate social performance (CSP) assessment. From experience we can say that the concept is easier understood when each stage of the four dimensions (Responsibility category, social responsiveness, issues maturity; organizational implementation stage) is first illustrated theoretically, stage by stage and then, together with students applied on a concrete example. Being a qualitative assessment, the focus of learning should be that students use the correct arguments corresponding to the respective stage, instead of insisting that all students arrive in the assessment at the same stage. There is room for interpretation. 5. Stakeholder classification pitfalls: Concepts often difficult to grasp is that of the “non-stakeholder stakeholder”, a group or individual which has no relationship to the company and of the “environmental stakeholder”, a stakeholder that is “around” the company, but that is neither important for survival nor success of the company. The latter is often misunderstood as a “natural environment stakeholder”, such as a river, an animal or a plant. 6. Insightful additional material: We have the honor to feature an exclusive interview with Edward Freeman, the godfather of the stakeholder concept at the end of this chapter. The practitioner interview with Sudhir Kumar Sinha provides interesting insights in the day-to-day business of managing responsibility and shows also the topic is not only important in a Western context as the interviewee represents a major Indian company. ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES A. Remember and Understand A.1. Define the following terms and explain how they are interrelated: (a) business responsibility, (b) stakeholder, and (c) shared value. • Business responsibility refers to voluntarily assuming accountability for social, economic, and environmental issues related to stakeholders, aiming to optimize stakeholder value. • Stakeholders are any groups, individuals, or entities that affect or are affected by an activity. • Shared value refers to the value creation for both the company and its stakeholders. Business responsibility is stakeholder responsibility and may lead to the creation of shared value, where both the business and the stakeholders benefit from business responsibility measures. A.2. Identify the four responsibility categories as they are displayed in Carroll´s responsibility pyramid. Economic, legal, ethical, philanthropic/discretionary responsibilities A.3. Explain the relationship, including similarities and differences, between business responsibility and (a) business sustainability and (b) business ethics. All three terms describe a distinct aspect of the umbrella terms of responsible management and responsible business. Business responsibility focuses on stakeholders, business sustainability on the triple bottom line, and business ethics on ethical dilemmas and opportunities. All three topics overlap. For instance, the social bottom line of business sustainability is often expressed in stakeholder value (business responsibility) and moral dilemmas and opportunities often have tangible social, environmental, and economic (business sustainability) consequences for stakeholders (business sustainability). A.4. List the four levels of stakeholder responsiveness, and give a practice example for each. Reactive (denying the validity of stakeholders’ claims and the resulting responsibilities): Nike saying “they do not make shoes” and that they do not own their supply chain, which was why, according to the company, there was no responsibility for bad labor conditions in supplier factories. Defensive (accepting responsibilities but trying to avoid them): The manager of the German soccer club Bayern Munich, Uli Hoeneß who files an amended return and this way accepted that he had had committed tax fraud, but who said he would step down from his manager job, only if he would . Hoeneß had filed an amended return only after his Swiss bank had informed him about investigations regarding his accounts. Accommodative (accepting stakeholder claims and acting on the resulting responsibilities): According to its “Sustainability Expert Report”2012, the company Carrefour actively detects stakeholder needs through over 30 communication channels with 12 main stakeholder groups and uses the finding to assume stakeholder responsibility. Proactive (Anticipating stakeholder claims and acting on them even before the claims are explicitly uttered): Cisco Systems created the Networking Academy program, through which individuals of local communities can learn the skills needed to work in the network industry, before such a model was even known to community stakeholders. B. Apply and Experience B.5. To which subdiscipline of responsible business—philanthropy, citizenship, or social entrepreneurship—does each of the following examples most apply? (a) Cisco Systems created the Networking Academy program, through which individuals of local communities can learn the skills needed to work in the network industry. Corporate citizenship (due to strong community involvement) (b) Microsoft founder Bill Gates transferred a large proportion of his personal money to the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Philanthropy (as the main motivation is altruistic, trying to do good without direct business benefit) (c) With its foundation, The Body Shop tapped into the lucrative and responsible market opportunity represented by organic cosmetic products, developed without animal testing. Social entrepreneurship (through venture thinking, The Bodyshop furthered the good cause of anti-animal testing) B.6. Look up a corporate social responsibility report of a company of your choice and identify how the company prioritizes stakeholders. In most reports the main stakeholders are reflected through the structure of headings directly mentioning main stakeholders. “Customer protection”, “community relations”, “our people” are typical examples. Also the CEO letter at the beginning often mentions which stakeholders the company focuses on. Materiality assessments and lists of stakeholder communication channels and activities are other salient sections for understanding the stakeholder relationship. B.7. Use the same report you analyzed in Exercise B.6 to classify the company stakeholders using one of the stakeholder prioritization frameworks illustrated in Figure 4.10. Here, students should prioritize stakeholders and provide a short explanation based on one of the three stakeholder prioritization frameworks illustrated in the chapter. Often, a one-sentence explanation, such as “The group of private wealth customers, is a core stakeholder for Example Bank as they could not survive without this key customer group” is sufficient to see that students have understood the underlying argument of prioritization. C. Analyze and Evaluate C.8. Pick one specific responsible business activity by a company of your choice, and analyze its corporate social performance in the four categories used in Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.6. The style and structure used in the in practice box titled “Intercontinental Hotel Group versus Starbucks: A CSP Challenge”. C.9. Prepare a materiality graph for a business with which you are familiar. First, identify typical issues encountered in the business. Second, assess the importance of those issues to the business and main stakeholders in a materiality graph similar to the one illustrated in Figure 4.11. The graph of Figure 4.11 may be used to plot the materiality of main issues addressed by the business. If students are not familiar with a particular business, basing the assessment on the corporate social responsibility report analyzed in exercises B6 and B7 is an alternative. C.10. Look up a leading institution in business responsibility in your region. (e.g., “CSR Europe” or “China CSR”), and analyze how it interprets responsible business by applying the considerations discussed in the section of this chapter entitled “Interpreting Responsible Business.” Students from Latin American countries, could, for instance, scrutinize the criteria of the “Empresa Socialmente Responsable (ESR)” certification, a regionally dominant business responsibility standard that includes hundreds of companies on a yearly basis. The ESR distinction, being a label mostly used for marketing purposes can be subsumed under the “instrumental” understanding of business responsibility. Also, ESR follows a “convergent” understanding of business responsibility, as it assumes that the fixed criteria catalogue of ESR has to apply for all participating business, assuming, that there is a one-fits-all baseline catalogue of business responsibility activities to be conducted. The ESR also is based on very low accountability, the achievement of the distinction is based on self-reported evidence, that is not public and is rarely verified by ESR. D. Change and Create D.11. Imagine you are the owner of a small grocery store in the suburb of one of the world´s capitals. Conduct a complete stakeholder assessment, including a stakeholder map, a stakeholder prioritization, and a materiality assessment. Based on this analysis, create three concrete lines of action that such a business could implement in order to create more stakeholder value. You could do the same exercise for an alternative business of your choice. Students should base the proposed lines of action on clues derived from the stakeholder assessment. A typical mistake in this exercise is that lines of action are rather derived from a brainstorming process, independent from the stakeholder assessment, than as answers to insights of the assessment. As an example for a good connection between assessment and proposed lines of action, students might have realized that a business has a strong bias toward covering customer issues, while the stakeholder prioritization model has shown that employees are the more important stakeholders for the business. Students could then as a consequence propose three new lines of action focusing on creating value for the employee stakeholder. D.12. Approach a real business’s responsibility department (most corporate social responsibility reports have a contact e-mail) and propose a concrete idea for the creation of additional stakeholder value. Be clear and concise, and follow up on the topic until you receive feedback from the business. Document the exchange. To optimize the amount of initial analysis necessary for creating a viable and interesting idea, it would be recommendable to focus this exercise on the company with which students are already familiar through exercises B6, B7, C9 or D11. TEST QUESTIONS 1. The creator of the stakeholder concept is a. Edward Freeman. b. Milton Friedman. c. Archie B. Carroll. d. Howard Bowen. Answer: a 2. Who coined the phrase “the only responsibility of business is profit?” a. Edward Freeman. b. Milton Friedman. c. Archie B. Carroll. d. Howard Bowen. Answer: b 3. The X-Inc. organizes an annual charity event, where employees can donate money for a good cause, such as cancer care, or disaster relief. Which of the following statements about the activity is correct? a. This is an example for the old style of business responsibility, as it approaches a major social problem in an entrepreneurial way. b. This is an example for the new style of business responsibility, as it is highly integrated into the core business processes. c. This is an example for the old style of business responsibility, unrelated to the core business, and with little scale. d. This is an example for the new style of business responsibility. Answer: c 4. Which of the following abbreviations describes an international network of companies committed to business responsibility? a. GC. b. ISO 26000. c. CSP. d. WTO. Answer: a 5. You listen to a discussion about business responsibility on the TV. Person A talks a lot about altruism, person B about taking a role in the community and Person C business ventures to solve social problems. Which of the following statements best describes the positions of the discussion participants? a. A: business ethics B: corporate responsibility, C: business sustainability. b. A: corporate social responsibility, B: corporate responsibility, C: corporate citizenship. c. All three refer to corporate philanthropy. d. A: corporate philanthropy, B: corporate citizenship, C. social entrepreneurship. Answer: d 6. In the news you hear the statement: “Businesses have a responsibility to contribute to society, but they may not use business responsibility only for their own benefit.” Which of the following statements is true? a. The statement promotes a political understanding of business responsibility and refutes an instrumental understanding. b. The statement promotes a political understanding of business responsibility and refutes an integrative understanding. c. The statement promotes an instrumental understanding of business responsibility. d. The statement promotes an integrative understanding of business responsibility and refutes an ethical understanding. Answer: a 7. You discuss with a friend, an environmentalist, about business responsibilities. He says that what he does not like about the topic is that companies “always think that humans go first- I think the bigger responsibility is the one we have for the environment!” Which of the following sentences describes this statement best? a. Your friend says, companies should focus on implicit business responsibility. b. Your friend proposes a soft approach to business responsibility. c. The statement is a call for accountability. d. Your friend stresses the importance of non-social stakeholders. Answer: d 8. Which of the following statements is the most complete to define business responsibility? Business a. Activities focusing on businesses´ role in and contribution to community. b. Activities to voluntarily assume accountability for issues related to its stakeholders and aiming to maximize stakeholder value. c. Business activities conducted with an altruistic mind-set. d. Activities with an entrepreneurial venture approach to addressing social and environmental issues. Answer: b 9. A retail business works with suppliers and customers to jointly reach a zero-carbon goal. The company before had achieved an integration of carbon into managerial practices and an excellent alignment with its strategy. Among the company´s stakeholders, the issue of carbon is one that is well-known, but has not yet been formalized in legislation. Based on this information, which of the following statements is true about the company´s corporate social performance with regard to the carbon issue? a. The company´s stakeholder responsiveness is reactive. b. The company´s issue maturity is on the “consolidated” level. c. The company´s organizational implementation is on the civic level. d. The responsibility category of the company is discretionary. Answer: c 10. Carroll´s responsibility pyramid a. includes economic responsibilities as the highest level. b. includes discretionary responsibilities as the lowest level.. c. describes responsibility categories in the sequence of economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary (also called philanthropic) responsibilities. d. describes responsibility categories in the sequence of legal, economic, philanthropic, and ethical responsibilities. Answer: d 11. The company Good Corp has just begun to provide employees with free gym membership which they can use during work hours. The employees are stunned. They had not even thought that such a thing was possible. Which of the following statements can we make about the company´s corporate social performance? a. The company is proactive in stakeholder responsiveness. b. The company has achieved the highest level of organizational implementation. c. The company assumes responsibilities in the legal responsibility category. d. The company scores low in the performance dimension of issues maturity. Answer: a 12. Which of the following texts is the most complete and concise definition of stakeholders? a. Stakeholders are all suppliers, employees, customers, and owners of a company. b. Stakeholders are any “groups and individuals that can affect or are affected” by business activity. c. A stakeholder is anyone who owns shares of a company. d. Stakeholders are all groups and individuals that have an interest into a company. Answer: b 13. Which of the following statements related to stakeholder management is true? a. The focal entity is a term describing the most important stakeholder of an activity. b. The distinction into core, strategic, and environmental stakeholders is one of the schemes to prioritize stakeholders. c. Stakeholder engagement is a synonym for stakeholder communication. d. The term “materiality” describes the degree of importance a stakeholder has for the company. Answer: b 14. Which of the following statements about “materiality” is true? a. Climate change is always more material than poverty. b. Materiality is the compensation a stakeholder claims from a company after she has been harmed c. Materiality assesses the importance of an issue based its importance to stakeholders and the company. d. The materiality is static, so companies have to assess it only once when the company starts its responsibility management. Answer: c 15. Which of the following abbreviations described is only indirectly related to business responsibility? a. CSR b. CR c. CC d. CFP Answer: d 16. Which of the following statements related to stakeholder assessment is wrong? a. Employees are internal and primary stakeholders at the same time. b. External stakeholders are also always secondary stakeholders. c. An environmental stakeholder is one that is neither important for the survival, nor for the success of a company. d. A non-stakeholder is one that has no relationship with the focal entity. Answer: b 17. A mining company is in the process of stakeholder assessment and aims to define the strategic priority of their local community which had almost succeeded in closing the mine through a petition. The issue was that dust from the mining operations had damaged the property of dwellers and caused pulmonary diseases. The court had decided the mine to remain open if they are able to satisfy the needs of the local community. Which of the following is the correct classification for the local community stakeholder? a. Definitive stakeholder. b. Non-stakeholder. c. Marginal stakeholder. d. Environmental stakeholder. Answer: a 18. Bird’s eye view: Which of the following conceptual statements about the chapter topic is wrong? a. One of the goals of business responsibility is sustainability. b. Responsible management and responsibility management are synonyms. c. The stakeholder relationship is at the heart of business responsibility. d. Shareholders, managers, employees, local communities are all examples of stakeholders. Answer: b 19. Bird´s eye view: Which of the following conceptual statements about the chapter topic is wrong? a. Shared value describes the situation when a company creates value for both itself and stakeholders. b. Stakeholder management can be divided into the two processes of stakeholder assessment and stakeholder engagement c. Freeman was the most influential critic of business responsibility. d. Not only social, but also environmental topics are part of business responsibility. Answer: c 20. In practice: Which of the following short case descriptions is summarized correctly? a. The newspaper “Bild Zeitung” was awarded a prize for their efforts to educate the German public. b. Lego has succeeded in assessing their primary stakeholders, but failed to assess the materiality of issues. c. The Intercontinental Hotel Group Academy trains hotel staff to become what they call “Green Champions”. d. Unilever has achieved considerable scale through the ”Shakti Ammas” small-scale distribution program. Answer: d Solution Manual for Principles of Responsible Management: Global Sustainability, Responsibility, and Ethics Roger N. Conaway, Oliver Laasch 9781285080260, 9789387994904
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