This Document Contains Chapters 3 to 4 Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: LO1. Describe the elements of self-concept and explain how each affects an individual’s behaviour and well-being. LO2. Outline the perceptual process and discuss the effects of categorical thinking and mental models in that process. LO3. Discuss how stereotyping, attribution, self- fulfilling prophecy, halo, false-consensus, primacy, and recency influence the perceptual process. LO4. Discuss three ways to improve perceptions, with specific application to organizational situations. LO5. Outline the main features of a global mindset and justify its usefulness to employees and organizations. CHAPTER GLOSSARY attribution process -- the perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behaviour or event is caused largely by internal or external factors categorical thinking -- organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our longterm memory confirmation bias -- The processing of screening out information that is contrary to our values and assumptions, and to more readily accept confirming information. contact hypothesis -- a theory stating that the more we interact with someone, the less prejudiced or perceptually biased we will be against that person empathy -- a person’s understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situation of others. false-consensus effect – a perceptual error in which we overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own. fundamental attribution error -- the tendency to see the person rather than the situation as the main cause of that person’s behaviour global mindset -- An individual’s ability to perceive, appreciate, and empathize with people from other cultures and to process complex cross-cultural information. halo effect -- a perceptual error whereby our general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, colours our perception of other characteristics of that person. Johari Window -- a model of mutual understanding that encourages disclosure and feedback to increase our own open area and reduce the blind, hidden, and unknown areas. locus of control -- A person’s general belief about the amount of control he or she has over personal life events. mental models -- Knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain, and predict the world around us. perception -- the process of receiving information about, and making sense of, the world around us. positive organizational behaviour – a perspective of organizational behaviour that focuses on building positive qualities and traits within individuals or institutions as opposed to focusing on what is wrong with them. primacy effect -- a perceptual error in which we quickly form an opinion of people based on the first information we receive about them. recency effect - a perceptual error in which the most recent information dominates our perception of others. selective attention -- the process of attending to some information received by our senses and ignoring other information. self-concept -- An individual’s self-beliefs and selfevaluations. self-efficacy -- A person’s belief that he or she has the ability, motivation, correct role perceptions, and favourable situation to complete a task successfully. self-enhancement -- A person’s inherent motivation to have a positive self-concept (and to have others perceive him/her favourably), such as being competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, and important. self-fulfilling prophecy -- The perceptual process in which our expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations.. self-serving bias -- the tendency to attribute our favourable outcomes to internal factors and our failures to external factors. self-verification -- A person’s inherent motivation to confirm and maintain his/ her existing self-concept. social identity theory -- A theory stating that people define themselves by the groups to which they belong or have an emotional attachment. stereotyping -- The process of assigning traits to people on the basis of their membership in a social category. CHAPTER SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVE 3-1 Describe the elements of self-concept and explain how each affects an individual’s behaviour and well-being. Self-concept includes an individual’s self-beliefs and self-evaluations. It has three structural characteristics— complexity, consistency, and clarity—all of which influence employee well-being, behaviour, and performance. People are inherently motivated to promote and protect their self-concept (self-enhancement) and to verify and maintain their existing self-concept (self-verification). Self-evaluation consists of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control. Self-concept also consists of both personal identity and social identity. Social identity theory explains how people define themselves in terms of the groups to which they belong or have an emotional attachment. 3-2 Outline the perceptual process and discuss the effects of categorical thinking and mental models in that process. Perception involves selecting, organizing, and interpreting information to make sense of the world around us. Perceptual organization applies categorical thinking—the mostly non- conscious process of organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our long-term memory. Mental models—knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain, and predict the world around us—also help us make sense of incoming stimuli. 3-3 Discuss how stereotyping, attribution, self-fulfilling prophecy, halo, false-consensus, primacy, and recency effects influence the perceptual process. Stereotyping occurs when people assign traits to others based on their membership in a social category. This assignment economizes mental effort, fills in missing information, and enhances our self-concept, but it also lays the foundation for prejudice and systemic discrimination. The attribution process involves deciding whether an observed behaviour or event is caused mainly by the person (internal factors) or the environment (external factors). Attributions are decided by perceptions of the consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus of the behaviour. This process is subject to self-serving bias and fundamental attribution error. A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when our expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations. This effect is stronger when employees first join the work unit, when several people hold these expectations, and when the employee has a history of low achievement. Four other perceptual errors commonly noted in organizations are the halo effect, false consensus effect, primacy effect, and recency effect. 3-4 Discuss three ways to improve perceptions, with specific applications to organizational situations. One way to minimize perceptual biases is to become more aware of their existence. Awareness of these biases makes people more mindful of their thoughts and actions, but this training some- times reinforces rather than reduces reliance on stereotypes and tends to be ineffective for people with deeply held prejudices. A second strategy is to become more aware of biases in our own decisions and behaviour. Self-awareness increases through formal tests such as the implicit association text (IAT) and by applying the Johari Window, which is a process in which others provide feedback to you about your behaviour, and you offer disclosure to them about yourself. The third strategy is meaningful interaction, which applies the contact hypothesis that people who interact will be less prejudiced or perceptually biased toward one another. Meaningful interaction is strongest when people work closely and frequently with relatively equal status on a shared meaningful task that requires cooperation and reliance on one another. Meaningful interaction helps improve empathy, which is a person’s understanding and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of others. 3-5 Outline the main features of a global mindset and justify its usefulness to employees and organizations. A global mindset refers to an individual’s ability to perceive, know about, and process information across cultures. This includes (1) an awareness of, openness to, and respect for other views and practices in the world; (2) the capacity to empathize and act effectively across cultures; (3) an ability to process complex information about novel environments; and (4) the ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural matters with multiple levels of thinking. A global mindset enables people to develop better cross-cultural relationships, to digest huge volumes of cross-cultural information, and to identify and respond more quickly to emerging global opportunities. Employees develop a global mindset through self-awareness, opportunities to compare their own mental models with people from other cultures, formal cross-cultural training, and immersion in other cultures. LECTURE OUTLINE (WITH POWERPOINT® SLIDES) Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations Slide 1 Changing Self and Other Perceptions of Female Firefighters Emily MacDonald (shown) attended Camp FFit in Ottawa, a program that helps teenage girls develop a self-concept as firefighters, develop their self-esteem, and dispel the occupation’s macho stereotype. Changing Self and Other Perceptions of Female Firefighters Slide 2 Self-Concept Defined An individual’s self-beliefs and self-evaluations • It is the “Who am I?” and “How do I feel about myself?” that people ask themselves to guide their decisions and actions Self-Concept Defined Slide 3 We compare our images of a job with our current (perceived self) and desired (ideal self) to determine fit Includes three self-concept characteristics and four “selves” processes Self-Concept Model: Three C’s and Four Selves Three C’s -- characteristics of self-concept Self-Concept Model: Three C’s and Four Selves Slide 4 Four selves -- four self-concept processes • Self-enhancement • Self-verification • Self-evaluation • Social self Self-Concept Characteristics (3 C’s) Complexity • The number of distinct and important roles or identities that people perceive about themselves e.g. student, friend, daughter, etc. Self-Concept Characteristics Slide 5 • Degree of separation of selves – low complexity if important identities are highly interconnected e.g. all work-related Consistency • High – self-perceived roles require similar personality traits, values, and other attributes • Low – self-perceived roles have personal characteristics that conflict with characteristics required for other aspects of self Clarity • Degree to which you have a clear, confidently defined, and stable selfconcept • Increases with age and consistency of one’s multiple selves Psychological well-being is higher when people have: • Multiple selves (complexity) • Well-established selves (clarity) • Selves are similar to each other and compatible with personal traits (consistency) Four “Selves” of Self- Self-verification Concept • Confirming and maintaining our existing self-concept Slide 6 Self-evaluation • Evaluating ourselves through self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control Social self • Defining ourselves in terms of group membership or emotional attachment Self-Concept: Self-Enhancement An innate human drive to promote/protect a positive self-view • Being competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, valued • Most evident in situations that are common and important Self-Concept: Self- Enhancement Slide 7 Self-enhancement outcomes: • Have better personal adjustment and mental/physical health • Higher motivation due to self-efficacy (“can-do” beliefs) • More risk-oriented decisions, inflated estimate of personal causation, slower to recognize mistakes Self-Concept: Self-Verification Motivation to confirm and maintain our existing self-concept Stabilizes our self-concept – anchors our thoughts and actions Self-Concept: Self- Verification Slide 8 People prefer feedback that is consistent with their self-concept Self-verification outcomes: • More likely to remember information consistent with our self-concept • With higher self-concept clarity, we are less likely to accept feedback that contradicts that self-concept • Motivated to interact with others who affirm individual’s self-concept – affects how well employees get along with team members and bosses Self-Concept: Self- Evaluation Slide 9 Self-Concept: Self-Evaluation (3 Concepts) Self-esteem • Extent to which people like, respect, and are satisfied with themselves – global self-evaluation • High self-esteem – less influenced by others, more persistent, think more logically Self-efficacy • Belief that we can successfully perform a task • MARS self-perception -- i.e. believe you have the ability, motivation, role clarity, and favourable situation to complete a task successfully • General self-efficacy -- a self-belief of favourable MARS in general (not specific task) Locus of control • General belief about the amount of control he or she has over personal life events • External locus of control – believe events in their life are due mainly to fate, luck, or external environment conditions • Internal locus of control – more positive self-evaluation with an internal locus of control; more satisfied with their jobs; cope better in stressful situations, more motivated by performance-based reward systems Self-Concept: Social Self Slide 10 Self Concept: Social Self Personal identity (internal self-concept) • Attributes that highlight a person’s uniqueness Social identity (external self-concept) • People define themselves by the groups to which they belong or have an emotional attachment • Several factors influence social identity importance: • how easily others identify you with a social group (gender, race, etc) • your minority status in a social setting (e.g. gender where most people are the opposite gender) • social groups status -- we identify with groups that make us feel better about ourselves – self-enhancement (e.g. high status groups) Perception Defined The process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us • Determining which information gets noticed Perception Defined Slide 11 • Determining how to categorize this information • Determining how to interpret information within the framework of our existing knowledge Selective Attention ignoring other information Selective Attention Influences on selective attention: Slide 12 • Characteristics of the person or object being perceived -- size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty, context • Characteristics of the perceiver • assumptions, expectations, needs, etc • our brain quickly and nonconsciously assesses incoming stimuli and attaches emotional markers (worry, happiness, etc) Confirmation bias • Nonconscious tendency to screen out information contrary to our decisions, beliefs, values, and assumptions and to more readily accept confirming information Perceptual Organization/Interpretation Categorical thinking • Mostly unconscious process of organizing people/things (i.e., perceptual grouping) Perceptual Organization Interpretation Perceptual grouping principles Slide 13 • Similarity or proximity to others • Cognitive closure – filling in missing information • See trends in otherwise ambiguous information Interpreting incoming information • Emotional markers are tagged to incoming stimuli which result in quick judgments about whether incoming information is good or bad Mental Models in Perceptions Slide 14 world i.e. “road maps” • Help us make sense of situations by filling in missing information, predicting events Problem: May causes us to screen out or misinterpret information • block recognition of new opportunities, • need to constantly question our mental models Mental Models in Perceptions Knowledge structures we create to describe, explain, predict the external world • Visual or relational images in our mind that represent the external Stereotyping The perceptual process of assigning traits to identifiable groups, then automatically transfer those features to people we believe belong to that group Stereotyping Slide 15 Why people stereotype: • Categorical thinking – energy-saving process, simplifies perceptions • Fulfills drive to comprehend and predict others – stereotypes quickly fill in missing information • Supports self-enhancement and social identity – categorization, homogenization, differentiation Categorization, Homogenization, Differentiation Stereotyping applies three activities derived from social identity and selfenhancement: 1. Categorization – natural tendency to group people into categories Categorization, Homogenization, 2. Homogenization – tendency to view everyone in a perceived group as Differentiation similar to each other Slide 16 3. Differentiation – tendency to assign more favourable characteristics to people in our groups than to people in other groups ➡ fulfills inherent need to have a distinct and positive self-concept ➡ generates negative stereotypes of people outside our social identity groups Problems with Stereotyping Slide 17 • Foundation for discriminatory attitudes and behaviour • Unintentional (systemic) discrimination – person who doesn’t fit the “ideal” person in a specific role receives a less favourable evaluation • Intentional (prejudice) discrimination – unfounded negative attitudes toward people belonging to a particular stereotyped group Overcoming stereotype biases • Difficult to prevent stereotype activation – hardwired in our brain cells • Possible to minimize stereotype application Problems with Stereotyping Problems • Overgeneralizes – stereotypes do not accurately describe everyone in a social category Attribution Theory Forming beliefs about the causes of behaviour or events • Internal Attribution -- perceiving that behaviour/event is caused mainly by the person (ability or motivation) Attribution Process • External Attribution -- perceiving that behaviour/event is caused Slide 18 mainly by factors beyond the person’s control (resources, coworkers, luck) Attribution Rules Consensus -- Do other people act this way in this situation? Slide 19 Internal attribution when: • High consistency – person has had same behaviour/outcomes in this situation in the past (e.g. employee produces poor quality on this machine) • Low distinctiveness – person has same behaviour/outcomes in other situations (e.g. employee produces poor quality on other machines) • Low consensus – other people have different behaviour/outcomes in this situation (e.g. others produce good quality on this machine) External attribution when: • High consistency – person has had same behaviour/outcome in this situation in the past (e.g. employee produces poor quality on this machine) • High distinctiveness – person has different behaviour/outcomes in other situations (e.g. employee produces good quality on other machines) • High consensus – other people also behave this way in similar situations (e.g. others produce poor quality on this machine) NOTE: Both attributions have high consistency because consistency increases causality of any sort, whereas low consistency indicates more random (noncausal) events Attribution Rules Consistency -- Did this person act this way in the past? Distinctiveness -- Does this person act this way in other settings? Attribution Errors Self-Serving Bias • Tendency to attribute our successes to internal causes (e.g. personal qualities) and our failures to external causes (e.g. bad luck) Attribution Errors Slide 20 Fundamental attribution error (correspondence bias) • Tendency to overemphasize internal causes of another person’s actions (i.e. their motivation, ability) whereas we recognize both internal and external causes of our own actions • Research suggests this error is not as common as once thought Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle Expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations 1. Supervisor forms expectations about the employee Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle • e.g. Supervisor develops expectations about employee's future behaviour Slide 21 and performance 2. Supervisor’s expectations affect behaviour toward employee High expectancy employees receive: • More emotional support through nonverbal cues (e.g. more smiling and eye contact) • More frequent/valuable feedback/reinforcement • More challenging goals and better training • More opportunities to demonstrate their performance 3. Effects of supervisor’s behaviour on employee • Better training/more practice – results in more skills and knowledge • Employee becomes more self-confident 4. Employee’s behaviour/performance matches expectations • High-expectancy employees have higher motivation and better skills – resulting in higher performance • Opposite is true of low-expectancy employees Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect is Strongest... Self-fulfilling prophecy effect is stronger: • At the beginning of the relationship e.g. when employee is first hired • When several people hold same expectations of the person Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect is Strongest… • When the employee has a history of low achievement Slide 22 Leaders should strive to develop and maintain positive, yet realistic expectations toward all employees • Positive organizational behaviour – focuses on building positive qualities and traits within individuals or institutions as opposed to focusing on what is wrong with them Other Perceptual Effects Halo effect • Tendency to form a general impression of someone based on one trait/behaviour (halo) Other Perceptual Errors Slide 23 • Distorts our perception of person’s other traits/behaviours • Halo more common when concrete information is missing or perceiver lacks motivation to search for it False-consensus effect (similar-to me effect) • Overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own • Occurs because: 1. comforted by belief that others engage in similarly unfavourable behaviour 2. we interact more with people who engage in the behaviour, not representative of population 3. confirmation bias -- we remember events consistent with our own views 4. social identity homogenization process -- we believe everyone in the group has similar behaviour Primacy effect (first impressions are lasting impressions) • Tendency to quickly form an opinion of people based on the first information we receive about them • Negative first impressions are difficult to change Recency effect • Most recent information dominates our perceptions • Most common when people make a complex evaluation Improving Perceptions • Problem: limited effect on reducing perceptual biases and prejudices Slide 24 2. Improving self-awareness • Become more aware of our beliefs, values, and attitudes • Better understand biases in our own decisions and behaviour • Implicit association test -- indicate implicit biases toward others • Johari Window -- self awareness and mutual understanding (next slide) 3. Meaningful interaction • Contact hypothesis – the more we interact with someone, the less prejudiced or perceptually biased we will be • Strongest with: ➡ close, frequent interaction ➡ shared goal and meaningful task ➡ task requires mutual cooperation and reliance ➡ equal status • Improves empathy – understanding and being sensitive to the feelings, thoughts and situations of others i.e. cognitive and emotional aspects Improving Perceptions 1. Awareness of perceptual biases • Knowing perceptual biases exist – e.g. diversity awareness training • Become more mindful of our thoughts and actions Know Yourself (Johari Window) Model of self-awareness and mutual understanding – developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingram (hence "Johari") Know Yourself (Johari Four “windows” Window) 1. Open area -- information about you known to you and others Slide 25 2. Blind area -- information known to others but not to yourself 3. Hidden area -- information known to you, unknown to others 4. Unknown area – values, beliefs, and experiences not known to you or others Objective is to increase size of open area so that both you and colleagues are aware of your perceptual limitations: • Disclosure – tell others about yourself (reduces hidden area) • Feedback – receive feedback about your behaviour (reduces blind area) Global Mindset at Keppel O&M Global mindset is one of the core values at Keppel Offshore & Marine. The Singapore- based offshore rig designer and builder encourages staff to visit the company’s operations in other countries, attend debriefing Global Mindset at sessions from those visits, and accept longer-term overseas Keppel O&M Slide 26 assignments. Global Mindset An individual’s ability to perceive, know about, and process information across cultures 1. Awareness of, openness to, and respect for other views and practices Global Mindset Slide 27 in the world ➡ a global frame of reference about business and its environment ➡ knowledge and appreciation of other cultures ➡ avoid judging others by their national/ethnic origins 2. Ability to empathize and act effectively across cultures ➡ Understand mental models used by people from other cultures ➡ understand emotional experiences felt by others in a given situation ➡ result in words and behaviours that are more compatible with other cultures 3. Ability to process complex information about novel environments 4. Ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural matters with multiple levels of thinking ➡ Capacity to quickly develop useful mental models of situations, at both local and global levels of analysis Developing a Global Mindset Use same strategies for improving perceptions – awareness, selfawareness, and meaningful interaction • Developing global mindset begins with self-awareness—understanding Developing a Global Mindset Slide 28 one’s own beliefs, values, and attitudes • Opportunities to compare own mental models with those of people from other regions of the world • Develop better knowledge of people and cultures, preferably through immersion -- embed in the other culture, follow local practices, use local language Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations Slide 29 Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: LO1. Explain how emotions and cognition (conscious reasoning) influence attitudes and behaviour. LO2. Discuss the dynamics of emotional labour and the role of emotional intelligence in the workplace. LO3. Summarize the consequences of job dissatisfaction as well as strategies to increase organizational (affective) commitment. LO4. Describe the stress experience and review three major stressors. LO5. Identify five ways to manage workplace stress. CHAPTER GLOSSARY affective organizational commitment -- An individual’s emotional attachment to, involvement in, and identification with an organization. attitudes -- the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioural intentions toward a person, object, or event (called an attitude object). cognitive dissonance -- An emotional experience caused by a perception that our beliefs, feelings, and behaviour are incongruent with each other. continuance commitment -- an individual’s calculative attachment to the organization. emotional dissonance -- The psychological tension experienced when the emotions people are required to display are quite different from the emotions they actually experience at that moment. emotional intelligence (EI) -- a set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others emotional labour -- the effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. emotions -- physiological, behavioural, and psychological episodes experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a state of readiness. exit-voice-loyalty-neglect (EVLN) model -- The four ways, as indicated in the name, that employees respond to job dissatisfaction. general adaptation syndrome -- A model of the stress experience, consisting of three stages: alarm reaction, resistance and exhaustion. job satisfaction -- a person’s evaluation of his or her job and work context psychological harassment -- repeated and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal comments, actions or gestures that affect an employee’s dignity or psychological or physical integrity and that result in a harmful work environment for the employee service profit chain model -- A theory explaining how employees’ job satisfaction influences company profitability indirectly through service quality, customer loyalty, and related factors. stress -- an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being. stressors -- environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on the person. trust -- positive expectations one person has toward another person in situations involving risk. workaholic -- A person who is highly involved in work, feels compelled to work, and has a low enjoyment of work. CHAPTER SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVE 4-1 Explain how emotions and cognition (logical thinking) influence attitudes and behaviour. Emotions are physiological, behavioural, and psychological episodes experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a state of readiness. Emotions differ from attitudes, which represent a cluster of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural intentions toward a person, object, or event. Beliefs are a person’s established perceptions about the attitude object. Feelings are positive or negative evaluations of the attitude object. Behavioural intentions represent a motivation to engage in a particular behaviour toward the target. Attitudes have traditionally been described as a purely rational process in which beliefs predict feelings, which predict behavioural intentions, which predict behaviour. We now know that emotions have an influence on behaviour that is equal to or greater than that of cognition. This dual process is apparent when we internally experience a conflict between what logically seems good or bad and what we emotionally feel is good or bad in a situation. Emotions also affect behaviour directly. Behaviour sometimes influences our subsequent attitudes through cognitive dissonance. 4-2 Discuss the dynamics of emotional labour and the role of emotional intelligence in the workplace. Emotional labour consists of the effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. It is more common in jobs requiring a variety of emotions and more intense emotions, as well as in jobs in which interactions with clients are frequent and long in duration. Cultures also differ on the norms of displaying or concealing a person’s true emotions. Emotional dissonance is the psychological tension experienced when the emotions people are required to display are quite different from the emotions they actually experience at that moment. Deep acting can minimize this dissonance, as can the practice of hiring people with a natural tendency to display desired emotions. Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others. This concept includes four components arranged in a hierarchy: self-awareness, self-management, awareness of others’ emotions, and management of others’ emotions. Emotional intelligence can be learned to some extent, particularly through personal coaching. 4-3 Summarize the consequences of job dissatisfaction, as well as strategies to increase organizational (affective) commitment. Job satisfaction represents a person’s evaluation of his or her job and work context. Four types of job dissatisfaction consequences are quitting or otherwise getting away from the dissatisfying situation (exit), attempting to change the dissatisfying situation (voice), patiently waiting for the problem to sort itself out (loyalty), and reducing work effort and performance (neglect). Job satisfaction has a moderate relationship with job performance and with customer satisfaction. Affective organizational commitment (loyalty) is the employee’s emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in a particular organization. This form contrasts with continuance commitment, which is a calculative bond with the organization. Companies build loyalty through justice and support, shared values, trust, organizational comprehension, and employee involvement. 4-4 Describe the stress experience and review three major stressors. Stress is an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to a person’s well-being. The stress experience, called the general adaptation syndrome, involves moving through three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Stressors are the causes of stress and include any environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on a person. Three stressors that have received considerable attention are harassment and incivility, work overload, and low task control. 4-5 Identify five ways to manage workplace stress. Many interventions are available to manage work-related stress, including removing the stressor, withdrawing from the stressor, changing stress perceptions, controlling stress consequences, and receiving social support. LECTURE OUTLINE (WITH POWERPOINT® SLIDES) Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress Slide 1 Opening Vignette – WestJet Generates Positive Emotions WestJet Airlines generates plenty of positive emotions among employees and guests (such as its Christmas Miracle Event), which translates into happy guests and better financial success than most other airlines. WestJet Generates Positive Emotions • WestJet passengers were surprised and delighted when their pre-flight Slide 2 chat with Santa resulted in receiving the gifts they had wished for • The WestJet Miracle Christmas event symbolizes the airline’s focus on positive emotions and attitudes • WestJet has grown around the belief that happy employees provide better customer service, which results in a more successful airline Emotions Defined Psychological, behavioural, and physiological episodes experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a state of readiness • Brief events or episodes directed toward someone or something e.g. Emotions DefinedSlide 3 joy or anger toward tasks, customers, etc. • Most emotional reactions are subtle and occur without our awareness • Experiences – represent changes in our physiological state (e.g. heart rate), psychological state (e.g. thought processes), and behaviour (e.g. facial expression) Moods • Not directed toward anything in particular and tend to be longer-term emotional states Types of Emotions Two dimensions of emotions depicted in the circumplex model 1. Evaluation • positive or negative valence -- core affect Types of Emotions Slide 4 • e.g. fearful is a negative emotion 2. Activation • emotions put us in a state of readiness -- primary source of motivation • e.g. relaxed has fairly low activation; astonished is high activation Attitudes versus Emotions Attitudes • Cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioural intentions toward an attitude object i.e. person, object or event Attitudes versus Emotions Slide 5 • Judgments – involve conscious logical reasoning • More stable over time Emotions • Experiences related to an attitude object • Operate as events, usually without our awareness • Experience most emotions briefly Traditional Model: How Attitudes Influence Behaviour Beliefs • Perceived facts acquired from experience and other learning Traditional Model: How Feelings Attitudes Influence • Positive or negative evaluations of the attitude object Behaviour Slide 6 • Composite valences of our multiple beliefs about the attitude object • You have feelings (pos/neg evaluations) of each belief about the attitude object ➡ e.g., if your job (attitude object) has negative features such as long hours and difficult work, then you form a negative feeling about your job • People with same beliefs might form different feelings because they have different valences for each belief ➡ e.g., some like challenging work (positive); others dislike challenging work (negative), which results in different feelings about the job Traditional Model: How Attitudes Influence Behaviour (cont’d) Behavioural intentions • The motivation to act on the attitude object • Feelings motivate behavioural intentions • People with same feelings might form different behavioural intentions due to different past experience, personality, social norms ➡ e.g., when employees dislike their boss, some intend to complain to management whereas others intend to look for another job (relates to EVLN model later in chapter) From behavioural intentions to behaviour • Behavioural intentions (motivation to act) is the best predictor of behaviour. • But the intentions-behaviour effect depends on the situation and possibly other MARS elements ➡ e.g., employee wants to quit (intention) but can’t find a suitable job elsewhere (behaviour) Problem with traditional attitude model – ignores important and parallel emotional process that shapes attitudes Emotions Influence Attitudes 1. Emotional markers are automatically (nonconsciously) attached to incoming sensory information (see Chapter 3) 2. Thinking about attitude object activates attached emotions Emotions Influence 3. Feelings influenced by experienced emotions (fuzzy dots in model), Attitudes Slide 7 not just by cognitive evaluation described earlier 4. Emotions influence (potentially distort/bias) our cognitive thinking (beliefs, feelings, intentions) about the attitude object 5. We also “listen in” on our emotions when judging whether we like or dislike something or someone Potential conflict – when cognitions and emotions disagree • i.e. sensing that something isn’t right even though they can’t think of any logical reason to be concerned Emotions also directly affect behaviour • e.g. facial expression, jumping when frightened Generating Positive Emotions at Corus Entertainment Corus Entertainment employees enjoy interesting work creating television and radio programs, but the company’s recently-built Toronto headquarters has measurably increased morale by putting more fun into Generating Positive the workplace. Emotions at Corus Entertainment • lakeside sandy beach with cottage-like Muskoka chairs. Slide 8 • a slide that transports people down three storeys (shown here). Cognitive Dissonance Emotional experience caused by a perception that our beliefs, feelings, and behaviour are incongruent with each other • Inconsistency generates emotions (e.g. feeling hypocritical) that Cognitive Dissonance Slide 9 motivate more consistency by changing one or more elements • Usually difficult to undo or change behaviour (e.g. reverse purchase decision) • Instead, we reduce cognitive dissonance by changing our beliefs and feelings about the attitude object ➡ develop more positive attitudes toward features of the decision ➡ look for positive features of the decision that weren’t considered before ➡ offset the dissonant decision by recognizing previous consonant decisions Emotional Labour Effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions Emotional Labour Emotional labour is higher in jobs requiring: Slide 10 • Frequent and longer interactions with clients • Variety of emotions e.g. anger as well as joy • More intense emotions (e.g. showing delight) Norms for displaying or hiding emotions (emotion display norms) vary across cultures • Minimal emotional expression and monotonic voice in Ethiopia, Japan, Austria • Encourage open display of one’s true emotions in Kuwait, Egypt, Spain, Russia—people expected to be dramatic and animated Emotional Labour Emotional dissonance -- conflict between true and required emotions Challenges Slide 11 Employees often use surface acting (pretending) • Stressful -- requires effort and attention • Faulty -- difficult to replicate true emotional expressions Solutions to emotional labour 1. Perceiving the emotional labour as part of professional skill (e.g. being polite to rude passengers) 2. Deep acting -- reframing reality, which produces required emotions Emotional Labour Challenges Difficult to display expected emotions accurately, and to hide true emotions Emotional Intelligence Model Definition: A set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others Emotional Intelligence Model Slide 12 Four quadrant model is becoming best representation of emotional intelligence elements (recent research) • Recognition of emotions in ourselves and in others • Regulation of emotions in ourselves and in others Emotional Intelligence Hierarchy Four dimensions of emotional intelligence (from lowest to highest level of ability): Emotional Intelligence Awareness of own emotions Hierarch • Ability to perceive and understand the meaning of your own emotions Slide 13 • Able to eavesdrop in on your emotional responses to specific situations and to use this awareness as conscious information Management of own emotions • Ability to manage your own emotions • Displaying desired emotions – requires deep acting to generate or suppress emotions Awareness of others’ emotions • Ability to perceive and understand emotions of others • Empathy – understanding and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situation of others • Being organizationally aware e.g. sensing office politics and understanding social networks Management of others’ emotions • Managing other people’s emotions e.g. consoling people who feel sad, inspiring team members Emotional Intelligence Outcomes and Development Most jobs involve social interaction -- and EI is useful in social duties People with high EI are: Emotional Intelligence ➡ better at interpersonal relations Outcomes and ➡ perform better in jobs requiring emotional labour Development ➡ superior leaders Slide 14 ➡ make better decisions involving social exchanges ➡ more successful in many aspects of job interviews ➡ better at knowledge sharing. But EI does not improve some forms of performance, such as tasks that require minimal social interaction EI can be learned --training, personal coaching, practice, feedback EI increases with age – maturity Job Satisfaction A person's evaluation of his or her job and work context An appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work environment and Job Satisfaction emotional experiences at work Slide 15 Problems with general job satisfaction surveys • Direct question threatens self-esteem, so people subdue their answer • Evidence: Overall job satisfaction scores usually higher than for specific job aspects (work, pay, supervisor) • Different responses to scales across cultures -- some avoid extreme scores EVLN: Responses to Dissatisfaction Exit-voice-loyalty-neglect (EVLN) model identifies 4 ways employees respond to dissatisfaction: 1. Exit -- Leaving the situation EVLN: Responses to Dissatisfaction Slide 16 ➡ e.g. quitting, transferring, absenteeism 2. Voice -- Attempt to change the dissatisfying situation ➡ constructive ideas, formal grievance, subtle resistance, etc. 3. Loyalty -- Patiently wait for the situation to improve 4. Neglect -- Passive activities with negative consequences for the organization ➡ e.g. reducing work effort/attention to quality, increasing absenteeism Preferred EVLN action depends on situation, personality, past experience Job Satisfaction and Performance Happy workers are somewhat more productive workers – there is a moderately positive correlation between job satisfaction and performance…but: Job Satisfaction and Performance Slide 17 1. General attitude (e.g. job satisfaction) is a poor predictor of specific behaviours – dissatisfaction might lead to turnover, complaining, or patiently waiting rather than reduced performance 2. Dissatisfaction might affect performance only when employees have control 3. Reverse explanation – job performance might cause job satisfaction i.e. higher performers receive more rewards so are more satisfied than low-performing employees who receive less rewards Service Profit Chain Model Employees’ job satisfaction influences customer satisfaction and company profitability: 1. Organizational practices affect employee satisfaction (and Service Profit Chain Model Slide 18 commitment) 2. Satisfaction (a) reduces turnover, (b) improves motivation/behaviour 3. Low turnover and higher motivation improve service quality 4. Better service quality improves customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, and company profitability Organizational Commitment Affective organizational commitment • Emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in a particular organization Organizational Commitment • Results in lower turnover, higher work motivation and org citizenship Slide 19 Continuance commitment • Calculative attachment to the organization • Two versions 1. employee has no alternative employment (e.g. high unemployment) 2. other employment possible but quitting result in a financial sacrifice (e.g. forfeits large deferred bonus) • Results in lower turnover, but also lower performance, less org citizenship, and less cooperative (e.g. more formal grievances) Building Affective Commitment Slide 20 Shared values • Employees believe their values are congruent with the organization’s dominant values Trust • Positive expectations one person has toward another person in situations involving risk • Reciprocal activity -- employees trust mgt when they show trust in employees • Job security supports trust Organizational comprehension • How well employees understand the organization -- strategic direction, social dynamics, and physical layout • Employees need a clear mental model of the organization – announcements, co-worker meetings, learn about history and plans Employee involvement • Psychological ownership and social identity -- feel part of company • Involvement demonstrates trust – builds loyalty Building Affective Commitment Justice and support • Apply humanitarian values e.g. fairness, courtesy, integrity • Support employee well-being What is Stress? Adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being What is Stress? Prepares us to adapt to hostile or noxious environmental conditions e.g. Slide 21 heart rate increases, muscles tighten, breathing speeds up, body releases adrenaline Eustress • Some level of stress that is a necessary part of life -- motivates people to achieve goals, change their environments, succeed in challenges Distress • The degree of physiological, psychological, and behavioural deviation from healthy functioning General Adaptation Syndrome Model of the stress experience consisting of 3 stages: 1. Alarm reaction General Adaptation • Threat or challenge activates the physiological stress responses Syndrome • Individual’s energy and coping effectiveness decrease Slide 22 2. Resistance • Activates biochemical, psychological, and behavioural mechanisms giving the individual more energy and coping mechanisms to overcome or remove the source of stress • Body reduces resources to the immune system 3. Exhaustion • Usually able to remove the stressor or remove ourselves before becoming too exhausted • Frequent exhaustion -- increased risk of long-term physiological and psychological damage Consequences of Distress 1. Physiological • Tension headaches, muscle pain • Cardiovascular disease – heart attacks, strokes • Some forms of cancer 2. Psychological • Job dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression and lower organizational commitment 3. Behavioural • Lower job performance, poor decision making, increased workplace accidents, aggressive behaviour Job Burnout The process of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment resulting from prolonged exposure to stress • Stage 1: Emotional exhaustion – lack of energy • Stage 2: Cynicism (depersonalization) – indifferent attitude toward work, emotional detachment, strictly follow rules • Stage 3: Reduced personal accomplishment – diminished confidence Workplace Stressors Stressors are causes of stress – any environmental condition that places a physical or emotional demand on the person 1. Harassment and incivility Workplace Stressors Slide 23 • Repeated and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal comments, actions or gestures that affect an employee's dignity or psychological or physical integrity and that result in a harmful work environment for the employee • Sexual harassment -- Unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature that detrimentally affects the work environment or leads to adverse jobrelated consequences for its victims 2. Work overload • Working more hours, more intensely than one can cope • Affected by globalization, consumerism, ideal worker norm 3. Low task control • Lack of control over how and when tasks are performed • Task control as a stressor increases with level of responsibility ➡ e.g. assembly-line workers have low task control but lower stress because of low responsibility; sports coaches lack task control but high responsibility Individual Differences in Stress People experience less stress and/or negative stress consequences when they have: 1. Better physical health Individual Differences in Stress • regular exercise, healthy lifestyle Slide 24 2. Better coping strategies • seeking support from others, reframing the stressor in a more positive light 3. Personality – possibly the most important reason • low neuroticism (high emotional stability); extroversion (interact with others, degree of positive thinking); 4. Positive self-concept (high self-esteem, self-efficacy, and internal locus of control) 5. Low workaholism • Workaholic – a person who is highly involved in work, feels compelled to work, and has a low enjoyment of work Managing Work-Related • Stress Slide 25 • Having a complaint system and taking corrective action Giving employees more control over the work process • Work-life balance initiatives e.g. flexible and limited work time, job sharing, teleworking, personal leave, child care support Managing Work-Related Stress 1. Remove the stressor • Assigning employees to jobs that match their skills/preferences • Reducing workplace noise 2. Withdraw from the stressor • Permanently – transferred to jobs with better fit • Temporarily – vacations, holidays, sabbaticals, games rooms 3. Change stress perceptions • Improved self-concept, personal goal setting, humour 4. Control stress consequences • Physical exercise, meditation, wellness programs, employee assistance programs 5. Receive social support • Others provide emotional and/or informational support Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress Slide 26 Instructor Manual for Organisational Behaviour: Emerging Knowledge, Global Insights Steven McShane, Mara Olekalns, Alex Newman, Angela Martin 9781760421649, 9780071016261
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