CH-21 Social Theory – The Sociology Project : Introducing the Sociological Imagination : Exam Guide

Chapter 21 Social Theory True or False 1. Social theories are not used to explain universal features of all studies, but rather they apply only to a single topic, such as race or gender. Answer: False 2. Middle-range theories, as opposed to grand social theories, apply to specific problems and have clearer and more limited goals. Answer: True 3. The foundations of modern sociology began to emerge in the middle of the twentieth century. Answer: False 4. The ownership of capital is the critical dividing line between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, according to Marx. Answer: True 5. One of the critical questions that Marx examined throughout his career concerned the problem of social solidarity. Answer: False 6. Modern societies are characterized by organic solidarity. Answer: True 7. According to Weber, traditional motives are guided by a belief in an ultimate value, regardless of any reward that an action might bestow. Answer: False 8. Weber theorized that power is essentially the same thing as authority. Answer: False 9. The idea of charisma rarely applies to religious figures. Answer: False 10. Rising rates of intermarriage across ethnic lines is an indication that social distance between ethnicities is eroding. Answer: True 11. Simmel noted an important distinction in how all groups function based solely on their size. Answer: True 12. Statistical data about the social conditions of life in black communities was unavailable to Du Bois in the 1890s, when he was studying the black community in Philadelphia. Answer: False 13. Some social scientists argue that inequality is a natural condition of human societies. Answer: True 14. Talcott Parsons worked to develop a symbolic interactionist theory of society. Answer: False 15. Conflict theory is supportive of all the basic tenets of structural functionalism. Answer: False 16. Conflict theory rejects the idea that society is influenced by a power elite. Answer: False 17. Symbolic interactionism focuses on individuals and individual action as heavily shaped by society and its constituent parts. Answer: False 18. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life was written by Erving Goffman. Answer: True 19. According to the neo-Marxists, the benefits of social insurance programs, such as pensions for the elderly, persuade the working class that socialism is not needed. Answer: True 20. According to the neo-Marxists, Marx’s two-class model of a dominant and a subordinate class fits modern capitalist societies very well. Answer: False 21. Gender is biologically, not socially, constructed. Answer: False 22. Feminist theorists have paid special attention to the ways in which gender can be experienced differently by different women. Answer: True 23. According to Foucault, the primary characteristic of power is that it operates exclusively in the open. Answer: False 24. According to Foucault, individuals are incapable of policing themselves. Answer: False 25. Beliefs and preferences are important mechanisms of social life, according to analytical sociologists. Answer: True Multiple Choice 1. Social theories are __________ . A. systematic ideas about societal problems with specific solutions B. systematic ideas about the relationship between individuals and societies C. systematic judgments about the value of individuals and societies D. systematic rules of individual and societal behavior Answer: B 2. According to Marx, when does societal change occur? A. only when the belief system of that society is radically altered B. only when the economic system of that society is radically altered C. only when the kinship system of that society is radically altered D. only when the reward system of that society is radically altered Answer: B 3. __________ are social theories very specific to a particular time and place. A. Design-focus theories B. Middle-range theories C. Minimum-theme theories D. Single-topic theories Answer: B 4. What three common themes do major sociological theories seek to address? A. basis for social order, basis for social change, and basis for social chaos B. circumstances under which societies change, individual psychology, and social transitions C. nature of the individual, basis for social order, and circumstances under which societies change D. nature of the individual, power, and social transitions Answer: C 5. When did the discipline of modern sociology emerge? A. in the second half of the eighteenth century B. in the first half of the nineteenth century C. in the second half of the nineteenth century D. in the middle of the twentieth century Answer: C 6. The period during which modern sociology emerged was characterized by __________. A. the transition from Marxism to communitarianism B. the transition from an agricultural economy to an industrial economy C. the transition from sovereign nation-states to democratic nation-states D. the transition from nonreligious ideas to religiously motivated ideas Answer: B 7. On what did Marx base his analysis of society? A. its economic system B. its legal system C. its social system D. its welfare system Answer: A 8. With whom did Karl Marx write The Communist Manifesto? A. W. E. B. Du Bois B. Emile Durkheim C. Friedrich Engels D. Michel Foucault Answer: C 9. In Marx’s analysis of capitalism, which group owns resources? A. the bourgeoisie B. the Marxists C. the proletariat D. the serfs Answer: A 10. According to Marx, what caused a new mode of production to arise? A. intimidation B. intergenerational mobilization C. revolution D. socialization Answer: C 11. What effect of rapid industrialization did Durkheim seek to understand? A. capitalism B. globalization C. social disorder D. social networking Answer: C 12. The Sociology Project focuses attention on three of Durkheim’s contributions to sociology. What are they? A. economic productivity, globalization, and social facts B. religion as a force in modern life, social facts, and economic productivity C. social solidarity, globalization, and social facts D. social facts, social solidarity, and religion as a force in modern life Answer: D 13. Durkheim would be likely to agree that social facts are analogous to which of the following concepts? A. codes of ethics B. laws of motion C. personal preferences D. religious beliefs Answer: B 14. What term do later sociologists (those coming after Durkheim) use interchangeably with Durkheim’s term social facts? A. social effects B. social forces C. social norms D. social parameters Answer: B 15. What is most likely to happen when we violate norms? A. We are ignored. B. We are pitied. C. We are rewarded. D. We are sanctioned. Answer: D 16. According to Durkheim, social forces __________ individual behavior. A. influence B. do not influence C. determine D. do not determine Answer: A 17. In his influential study of suicide, what did Durkheim find? A. that more suicides occur among Catholics than among Protestants B. that more suicides occur among the wealthy than among the poor C. that more suicides occur among the less educated than among the more educated D. that more suicides occur among men than among women Answer: D 18. Durkheim made a distinction between two types of social solidarity. What are they? A. intrinsic and extrinsic solidarity B. mechanical and organic solidarity C. mechanical and molecular solidarity D. organic and transitional solidarity Answer: B 19. What type of social solidarity is dominant in “primitive” societies, according to Durkheim? A. intrinsic solidarity B. mechanical solidarity C. organic solidarity D. transitional solidarity Answer: B 20. Who coined the term collective consciousness? A. W. E. B. Du Bois B. Emile Durkheim C. Michel Foucault D. Karl Marx Answer: B 21. Where is a very extensive division of labor and mutual dependence among people likely to be found? A. in modern societies characterized by mechanical solidarity B. in modern societies characterized by organic solidarity C. in tribal societies characterized by extrinsic solidarity D. in tribal societies characterized by transitional solidarity Answer: B 22. Durkheim’s definition of religion centres on a contrast between __________. A. behaviors and beliefs B. a place and an object C. the sacred and the profane D. supernatural deities and the divine Answer: C 23. Weber is credited with introducing which new dimension to the work of sociologists? A. the biological basis of thought B. the material condition of existence C. the morality of agents and actors D. the motive behind individual action Answer: D 24. Which classical social theorist is closely associated with interpretive sociology? A. Emile Durkheim B. Karl Marx C. Georg Simmel D. Max Weber Answer: D 25. Weber theorized that social action is guided by four types of motivations, or rationales. What are they? A. absolute rationality, affirmative rationality, agency motives, and agenda setting B. affectual motives, instrumental rationality, traditional motives, and value rationality C. instructive rationality, interdisciplinary motives, operational rationality, and proportional motives D. socialization motives, tribal rationality, value motives, and welfare rationality Answer: B 26. With which religious faith did Weber associate the early adoption of capitalism? A. Catholicism B. Jainism C. Judaism D. Protestantism Answer: D 27. According to Weber, members of status groups share a common identity that arises __________ A. from the economic system B. from many different sources C. from race and ethnicity D. from religion Answer: B 28. __________ is an example of social closure formalized into law. A. Apartheid in South Africa B. The Equal Rights Amendment C. The First Amendment D. The glass ceiling Answer: A 29. With which of the following statements about Facebook would Simmel have likely agreed? A. Facebook has limited the possible number of social interactions that a person can have in real life. B. Facebook has expanded the possible number of social interactions that a person can have in real life. C. Facebook has limited the possible social circles to which a person can claim membership. D. Facebook has expanded the possible social circles to which a person can claim membership. Answer: D 30. Which type of analysis would be more helpful than the others in understanding how a video goes viral on the Internet? A. meta-analysis B. network analysis C. theoretical analysis D. value analysis Answer: B 31. __________ in American society was Du Bois’s overriding concern. A. Gender inequality B. Racial inequality C. Poverty D. Ethnic differences Answer: B 32. In what year did W. E. B. Du Bois publish The Souls of Black Folks? A. 1903 B. 1913 C. 1923 D. 1933 Answer: A 33. Who viewed inequality as a natural outcome of the rise of modern society? A. W. E. B. Du Bois B. Emile Durkheim C. Michel Foucault D. Karl Marx Answer: B 34. What phrase did Du Bois use to describe the impact of racism and social structure on individual African Americans? A. double blindness B. double consciousness C. triple construct D. triple parity Answer: B 35. Who was the first social theorist to attempt to develop a functionalist theory of society? A. Ralf Dahrendorf B. Emile Durkheim C. Wright Mills D. Talcott Parsons Answer: D 36. The Sociology Project discusses three new directions in sociological thought that developed in the mid twentieth century, in the period from 1937 to 1965. What were they? A. structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interaction B. conflict theory, social distance theory, and symbolic interaction C. constructivism, pluralism, and social theory D. pluralism, social theory, and symbolic interaction Answer: A 37. According to structural functionalism, why do a society’s norms, values, and institutions arise and persist? A. because they prove to be good ways of assigning individuals to appropriate social roles B. because they prove to be good ways of explaining why inequalities exist C. because they prove to be good ways of keeping evolutionary change at bay D. because they prove to be good ways of maintaining social order Answer: D 38. What metaphor did Parsons use to explain how societies change over time? A. big bang theory B. theory of evolution C. network theory D. theory of revolution Answer: B 39. Who, among the following, would be more likely to place social and economic inequalities under the microscope and note that inequalities of wealth and power are not natural outcomes but rather persist because privileged individuals and groups go to great lengths to protect them? A. a conflict theorist B. a network analyst C. a structural functionalist D. a symbolic interactionist Answer: A 40. Which two scholars are responsible for developing the theory of symbolic interactionism? A. Herbert Blumer and C. Wright Mills B. George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer C. C. Wright Mills and Talcott Parsons D. Talcott Parsons and Anita Stimson Answer: B 41. Which of the following social theories places more emphasis than the others on everyday human behavior? A. conflict theory B. neo-Marxism C. structural functionalism D. symbolic interactionism Answer: D 42. How does Mead divide identities into two parts? A. into the actor and the audience B. into the I and the Me C. into the subject and the object D. into the symbolic and the representational Answer: B 43. Who, according to Mead, provides us with our sense of self? A. the generalized other and symbolic others B. the internal other and external others C. significant others and the generalized other D. symbolic others and the significant other Answer: C 44. Who famously compared social life to theatre? A. Erving Goffman B. George Herbert Mead C. C. Wright Mills D. Talcott Parsons Answer: A 45. What term did Goffman use to describe how we organize our behavior to communicate certain ideas about who we are? A. dramaturgical management B. impression management C. nonverbal management D. symbolic management Answer: B 46. Why did a new generation of social theories emerge in the 1960s and early 1970s? A. in response to new data collection methods developed at the time B. in response to a resurgence of Marxist scholarship at the time C. in response to the social movements of the time D. in response to the threat of communist infiltration at the time Answer: C 47. Which mid-century theoretical tradition (or traditions) came under attack in the 1960s? A. feminist theory B. conflict theory and structural functionalism C. structural functionalism and symbolic interactionism D. symbolic interactionism Answer: B 48. What criticism helped to dislodge structural functionalism from its dominant position as a social theory in the 1960s? A. It was criticized as a theory that demanded, but never achieved, social change. B. It was criticized as a theory that justified the inequalities of the existing social order. C. It was criticized as a theory that incorporated older, but not newer, theoretical traditions. D. It was criticized as a theory that too directly shaped people’s expectations about their sense of self. Answer: B 49. Which social theorist is credited with introducing the term capitalist state to refer to the governing institutions of a capitalist society? A. Simone de Beauvoir B. Karl Marx C. Immanuel Wallerstein D. Erik Olin Wright Answer: B 50. According to the neo-Marxists, which of the following actions, if undertaken by the U.S. government, would be more likely than the others to convince members of the working class that socialism is not needed? A. new legislation to authorize prayer in the public schools B. new legislation to extend unemployment compensation C. new legislation to impose stricter immigration controls D. new legislation to strengthen voting rights Answer: B 51. According to the neo-Marxists, concessions by capitalist states to improve the lives of ordinary people could ultimately open the door to a new kind of socialist revolution if what happens? A. if the costs of such concessions become too great B. if pensions for the elderly are privatized C. if the poverty rate decreases D. if trends toward globalization are reversed Answer: A 52. What did Marx and Engels fail to anticipate about social classes, which neo-Marxists have since attempted to address? A. They failed to anticipate the declining ownership of assets among the proletariat in in the twentieth century. B. They failed to anticipate the growing size of a middle class in the twentieth century. C. They failed to anticipate the shrinking size of the bourgeoisie in the twentieth century. D. They failed to anticipate the shrinking disparity in wealth between the bourgeoisie and the middle class in the twentieth century. Answer: B 53. Name a contribution of neo-Marxists to classical Marxist theory. A. that banking crises, such as the banking crisis in America in the 1930s, would open the door to socialist revolution B. that business assets, such as inventories, can be used to generate greater economic rewards C. that credentials, such as medical licenses, can be used to generate greater economic rewards D. that the two-class model of capitalist society would open the door to socialist revolution Answer: C 54. With which of the following statements about globalization would a neo-Marxist agree? A. Capitalism is an economic system that exists only within countries. B. In the capitalist world system, rich countries are able to exploit poor countries. C. Globalization helps save capitalism from its own worst tendencies. D. Marxist models of globalization do not fit modern capitalism very well. Answer: B 55. The focus of neo-Marxism on class relations and class power tends to __________ other types of inequalities in a society. A. downplay B. enable C. exaggerate D. justify Answer: A 56. Who wrote The Second Sex? A. Simone de Beauvoir B. Shulamith Firestone C. Germaine Greer D. Dorothy Smith Answer: A 57. In feminist social theory, what is the central idea of patriarchy? A. the idea that male-centered biases underscore elemental truths B. the idea that men are the cause of gender inequality C. the idea that sex is a biological characteristic D. the idea that societies are set up to ensure that women are systematically controlled Answer: D 58. What was the principal concern of French social theorist Michel Foucault? A. class B. economics C. gender D. power Answer: D 59. According to Foucault, power is __________. A. neither overt nor subtle B. overt, never subtle C. both overt and subtle D. subtle, never overt Answer: C 60. According to Foucault, what is the relationship between discipline and training and creativity? A. Discipline and training paradoxically free one’s thoughts to generate new ideas. B. Discipline and training are inconsequential to the truly creative. C. Discipline and training can sometimes trap us into existing ways of understanding. D. A creative “expert” is a rare phenomenon. Answer: C 61. Which social theorist would be most likely to make this statement: The discourse surrounding a topic essentially defines the parameters for how we understand it. A. Simone de Beauvoir B. James Coleman C. Michel Foucault D. Robert Merton Answer: C 62. Who is credited with inventing the concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy? A. Simone de Beauvoir B. James Coleman C. Michel Foucault D. Robert Merton Answer: D 63. Which of the following theories would social theorists classify as a middle-range theory? A. a theory of self-fulfilling prophecy B. a theory of history based on class struggle C. a theory of society D. a theory of societal change Answer: A 64. Analytical sociologists are known for absorbing the ideas of _________ in order to understand how individuals think and act in social situations. A. history B. philosophy C. psychology D. religion Answer: C 65. When analytical sociologists refer to the micro side of social life, to what are they referring? A. the arguments that explain why an idea is logical B. the factors that motivate individual beliefs and action C. the hallmarks that identify the patterns in a dynamic relationship D. the signals that convey information about societal norms Answer: B Scenario Multiple Choice 1. Nathan is writing a research paper on the production of athletic shoes at an American-owned manufacturing plant in Bangladesh. He has data on corporate earnings, shoe prices, wages paid to factory workers, and similar financial measures. Nathan would like to make a case for unionizing the plant. Of the classical social theorists discussed in The Sociology Project, whose work would most likely help Nathan make his case? A. Emile Durkheim B. W. E. B. Du Bois C. Karl Marx D. Max Weber Answer: C 2. Brooke is reading a new sci-fi novel about a colony of humanoids on Mars, where everyone works in chain gangs to mine a valuable energy source from rocks, lives in similarly styled communal housing, and eats the same meals. No humanoid ever attempts to escape from the unrelenting labor, and all humanoids always avert their eyes when talking with others of their species. Which Durkheimian concept best aligns with the novelist’s depiction of this society? A. institutional solidarity B. mechanical solidarity C. organic solidarity D. social solidarity Answer: B 3. Darius is struggling to understand Durkheim’s unique view of the sacred. He is trying to identify some nonreligious objects as sacred but cannot seem to think of anything as sacred except in relation to one of the world’s faith traditions. He turns to his friend Stephen for help. Stephen knows that Darius is a New York Jets fanatic and has no trouble rattling off a list of objects that Darius might consider sacred. Which would Durkheim scholars also agree meets the criteria for sacredness? A. a three-pack golf ball set with the Jet team logo B. the latest video feed on the official Jet team site C. a seating chart for MetLife Stadium, where the Jets play their home games D. a Super Bowl ring from the Jets’ only championship win, in 1969 Answer: D 4. In the following scenarios, whose actions most clearly exemplify instrumental rationality? A. Aliah, who volunteers several times a week at a community garden in her neighbourhood B. Jason, who is attending medical school, just as his father and grandfather before him C. Marielle, who patterns her actions after those of her age and gender cohort D. Terrance, who is spending his weekend painting his garage before putting his house on the market Answer: D 5. In the following scenarios, whose action is most clearly representative of legal-rational authority? A. Aliah, who threatens to knock over her young brother’s painstakingly built tower of blocks if he does not immediately turn down his blaring radio B. Jason, who consults the official Scrabble playbook before ruling that Joan’s word does not qualify for bonus points C. Marielle, who decides that her bridesmaids should wear green because the colour signifies prosperity in her fiancé’s Asian culture D. Terrance, who generally does whatever he likes in a coolly calculating manner Answer: B 6. Kassandra has been keeping a journal of her daily interactions with her friends and classmates, as part of a semester-long project for her sociology course. She has been observing her friends and classmates in groups to see how many different status groups she can identify among them. Then she takes her analysis one step further, by watching for indications that any identified status group excludes non-members. Which sociological phenomenon is Kassandra tracking? A. social closure B. social intersectionality C. social residential patterning D. social triad distancing Answer: A 7 Consider this scenario: Taylor is at the mall. She’s waiting for her brother to finish his shift at Starbucks so that they can go home. It’s late. She notices a stranger nearby. A long-haired teenager in high boots and tight gray jeans stands in the shadows. He seems to be staring menacingly at nothing. Taking into consideration what you know of symbolic interactionism, who is the subject and who is the object? A. Taylor is the subject; the long-haired stranger is the object. B. The long-haired stranger is the subject; Taylor is the object. C. Taylor and the long-haired stranger are both the object. D. Taylor and the long-haired stranger are both the object and the subject. Answer: D 8. Carl is the father of a sixteen-year-old son named Anthony. Anthony is absorbed in playing America’ Army, a video game, but Carl needs help changing the oil in the family’s automobile now. Carl, after asking Anthony three times to put the game aside, starts yelling. Anthony’s stepmother, Dolores, rolls her eyes and heads out the door with the dog for a walk. When she returns, the house is quiet, the oil has been changed, and Anthony is sweeping out the garage. She sees Carl on the porch drinking coffee with their neighbour Raymond, a returning veteran of the war in Afghanistan whose sense of duty is a source of pride to all who know him. Who represents the generalized other to Anthony in this scenario? A. the video game B. his father, Carl C. his stepmother, Dolores D. the neighbour, Raymond Answer: D 9. Alex Ingram and her cousin, both thirty-three, are the founders of a new food truck business, the Green Dog, which sells vegan/vegetarian lunches on the college campus of a large urban university. She is not the chef. Gail, her cousin, makes all the salads, the lemon hummus, and the guacamole. Alex runs the business operations of the mobile restaurant and makes all of the food purchases. The Green Dog has a mentor, a retired small business owner, who helps the cousins focus on profits and losses, advises them about work flow, and is leading Alex through the process of securing a bank loan for a second truck. Both Alex and Gail staff the truck and serve customers. On a recent day, the university’s chief operating officer stopped by for a sandwich and to collect a check for a lease of campus property. When the workday is over, Alex likes to head to her studio garage and paint. Consider what you know about Goffman’s “dramaturgical” approach to social life. Who is playing the role of the theatre director in this scenario? A. Alex B. Gail C. the mentor D. the university’s chief operating officer Answer: C 10. In a course you are taking about American novels, you have just finished reading Lolita, by Vladimir Nabokov. The instructor opens a discussion about work. She wants to know people’s impression of Humbert, one of the characters in the book. She asks if the class thinks Humbert is evil, if he is ethical, if he is in the midst of a moral crisis, if he has doubts, etc. In asking these questions, what social action is the instructor performing? A. She is defining the character’s organic solidarity. B. She is using network analysis to locate the character’s status groups. C. She is engaging in interpretative sociology. D. She is shaping the discourse for the class. Answer: D Short Answer 1. What three themes are commonly addressed by all of the major sociological theories? Answer: All of the major sociological theories have sought to address, in one way or another, (1) the nature of the individual and the capacities of the individual to act in the context of society, (2) the basis for social order, and (3) the circumstances or conditions under which societies change. 2. What is the significance of an economic surplus to Marx? Answer: Marx believed that the centre of any society is its economic system. He argues that all societies, except the simplest hunting and gathering societies, collectively produce more goods than are required to meet the minimum physical needs of their populations if those goods are shared equally. In other words, all societies produce an economic surplus. Societies, therefore, must determine who takes possession of surpluses and by what means surpluses are distributed. Marx believes that the way in which societies address economic surpluses is fundamental to their economic systems. 3. Why was Marx convinced that the proletariat in capitalist societies would eventually revolt? Answer: Marx thought that the proletariat would be motivated to overthrow capitalism in Favor of socialism because capitalists, in order to maintain or increase profits, would be driven to push down the wages of workers until those workers finally revolted. 4. According to Durkheim, how do norms regulate behavior? Answer: Durkheim realized that human behavior is not natural but learned; in other words, individuals are trained, or socialized, to act the way that they do. The socialization process involves the learning of norms, or rules, of behavior that, if violated, cause an individual to be sanctioned. A negative reaction to a behavior is often sufficient to make an individual change his or her behavior. 5. What is unique about Durkheim’s view of the sacred? Answer: Durkheim understood that, although many sacred objects (such as the Bible or Koran) or sacred practices (such as prayer) make reference to God or to a supernatural deity, many other things are sacred but not religious. For example, for many Americans burning the American flag is a violation of a sacred (but not religious) object. People can believe just as strongly in a set of ideas that are not divinely inspired (freedom, nationalism, democracy) as others might in ideals that claim divine inspiration. 6. What distinction did Simmel observe between dyads (two-person groups) and triads (three-person groups)? Answer: Simmel noted an important distinction in how all groups function based solely on their size. Dyads can exist only as long as both members participate. Because of this, dyadic relationships create mutual dependence (even in situations of great inequality, such as between a parent and a child). By contrast, in a triad, no one individual can eliminate the group simply by leaving. Triads allow individual members the possibility of engaging in strategic action by playing one member off against another. And there can be multiple dyads within a triad. 7. What has been the impact of racism on African Americans, according to Du Bois? Answer: Du Bois dissected the impact of racism on African Americans in his influential work, The Souls of Black Folks. In it, he articulated his view that racist stereotypes about blacks as lazy, unintelligent, or prone to crime were in fact the result of the social structure of American society and the place of African Americans in that structure. Du Bois argued that a lack of economic opportunity made it appear that blacks did not work as hard as whites; that a lack of educational opportunities, not innate intelligence, produced the appearance of lower intelligence among blacks; and that African Americans tended to be concentrated in poor communities where crime always tended to be higher because of poverty and racial segregation. 8. What do structural functionalists mean by “role”? Provide details, in your answer, of the role of “student.” Answer: According to structural functionalism, individuals, groups, and the institutions of any society are guided by an overarching social system. Within the social system, individuals take on certain roles, such as “student” or “teacher,” or “worker” or “boss,” throughout life, and while in those roles they tend to act a certain way (to follow an appropriate script, like an actor). In the student role, an individual would probably tend to behave in these expected ways: to attend class, to raise a hand to ask questions, to take notes, to wear a student’s uniform (whether formal or informal), and to study for exams. 9. How is social life like the theatre, according to Erving Goffman? Answer: In The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Goffman quotes Shakespeare (“all the world is a stage”) to compare social life to theatre, arguing that our behaviors are similar to the performances of actors, who play roles, follow scripts, and have performances evaluated by an audience. In this “dramaturgical” approach to social life, Goffman maintains that we are constantly seeking to influence how people interpret our behaviors by strategically acting in certain ways to achieve a desired interpretation from others. 10. What happened to the mid-century social theories—structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism—in the turbulent 1960s? Did they retain their influence or did new theories take their place? Answer: The dominant position of functionalism was dislodged by the late-1960s, and functionalism came to be widely dismissed as a theory that justified the inequalities of the existing social order. Conflict theory disappeared as well, replaced by other theories of inequality that emerged or reemerged in this period. Symbolic interactionism, in contrast to the other mid-century traditions, did remain vibrant, and some of the key insights of symbolic interactionists were incorporated into contemporary social theories, but even this theoretical tradition never advanced beyond a small corner of sociology. 11. How did neo-Marxists rethink the classical Marxist understanding of social class? Answer: Classical Marxist theory of the nature of social classes envisioned a two-class model of capitalist societies, with a dominant class (bourgeoisie) and a large subordinate class (proletariat). By the middle of the twentieth century, it was obvious that a large middle class made up of professionals (such as doctors, lawyers, engineers, and teachers) and managers were generating surplus incomes. Neo-Marxist theorist Erik Olin Wright developed a new body of class theory about how modern societies are divided. Wright argued that just as the ownership of a business is an “asset” that can be used to generate greater economic rewards, so too are credentials (like a law degree) and supervisorial positions (in an organization). Possession of any of these assets, Wright observed, would generate surplus incomes compared to similar people who did not have those same assets. 12. Explain what Simone de Beauvoir meant when she proclaimed, “One is not born but becomes a woman.” Answer: For de Beauvoir, women are not born to be subordinate but are made to seem different and distinct from, and inferior to, men, an idea that is central to the distinction that later feminists would make between sex (a biological characteristic) and gender (the social meanings ascribed to being a “man” or a “woman”). In her classic book, The Second Sex, she argued that societies are set up to ensure that women are systematically controlled and devalued. She theorized that gender and femininity are social constructions—that is, that societies create gender categories and that these differences typically translated into inequalities. 13. What is the Panopticon and its relevance to Foucault? Answer: The Panopticon is a model of prison architecture designed by social philosopher Jeremy Bentham. Placed at the centre of the prison, the Panopticon is a visual tower that allows for continuous surveillance of all inmates. When Foucault suggested, in his book Discipline and Punish, that we live in a “disciplinary society,” he used Bentham’s imagery of the Panopticon to argue that whole societies are constructed in similar ways. He argued we are all subject to a disciplining power that we can’t see but that is all around us. 14. As an example of an unanticipated consequence of social action, The Sociology Project asks readers to consider the making of new human friends among dog walkers as an unanticipated consequence of getting a dog for companionship. How do sociologists define the unanticipated consequence of social action? Provide an example from your own experience. Answer: The unanticipated consequence of social action is the idea that the outcome of any action we undertake may well be unanticipated. Student responses to the prompt to provide an example of an unanticipated consequence will vary and may be either positive or negative. Sociologists define unanticipated consequences of social action as outcomes that were not intended or foreseen by the actors when they engaged in a particular behavior. These consequences can be either positive or negative. Example from my experience: I joined a gym to improve my physical health, but an unanticipated consequence was forming a close-knit group of friends who support each other both inside and outside the gym, enhancing my social life significantly. 15. Analytical sociologists have shown that social networks are important for many reasons. What are some of those reasons? Answer: A social network consists of the relationship ties between individuals, in which one individual is connected to a number of other people, and these people, in turn, are each connected to other people, some of whom the first person undoubtedly will not know. Analytical sociologists have shown that social networks are important because they help people find opportunities for employment, meet new friend and lovers, and discover new ideas. On the downside, social networks also provide the backbone of not-so-beneficial dynamics, such as the transmission of disease. Essay 1. What are social theories and what purpose do they serve? Answer: Social theories are systematic ideas about the relationship between individuals and societies. They provide a way to understand how societies hold together, and how they organize and impact the lives of the individuals who live within them. Theories guide our thinking, but they also provoke: They may encourage us to pay more attention to something we had ignored, ask new or unusual questions that we don’t normally think about, or make arguments we so strongly disagree with that we are compelled to come up with a better approach. We don’t necessarily need social theories to make observations about the world around us, but they help us know what to look for. Sociology is somewhat unusual among the social sciences in having multiple and often competing social theories and theoretical traditions, but there is a great deal of dialogue among theorists and theoretical traditions. There are also common themes that all of the major sociological theories have sought to address, including the nature of the individual, the capacities of the individual to act in the context of society, the basis for social order, and the circumstances or conditions under which societies change. 2. How did Marx’s analysis of the capitalist system help him to explain why some people starve and live in poverty? Answer: Marx’s analysis of the capitalist mode of production is the starting point for his analysis of modern societies. At the heart of capitalist societies, Marx believed, lies the contrast between members of the bourgeoisie (the capitalists), who possess special resources called capital, and everyone else. The ownership of capital is the critical dividing line between the bourgeoisie and the working class (the proletariat). Despite the unprecedented productive capacity of capitalism, it deprives workers of the benefits of their labor because capitalists have protections that allow them to keep most of the profits (the economic surplus) from the operation of their businesses. Over time, in order to maintain or to increase their profits, capitalists are driven to push down the wages of workers. Marx argued that the exploitation of labourer’s by capitalists results inevitably in a vast number of impoverished individuals. 3. According to Durkheim, how do social facts regulate behavior? Answer: Durkheim argued that social forces exist objectively in the world. These social facts, as Durkheim referred to them, are those regularities and rules of everyday life that every human community develops. These facts are “social,” not physical, in that they arise from human action and exist outside of the control of any one person. Among the most important of all social forces that act upon us, norms are rules of behavior that, if violated, cause an individual to be sanctioned. When people break a social norm, such as refusing to shake hands with their opponents after an athletic competition, there will likely be a negative reaction from all in attendance. This external pressure, or force, exerted on their behavior, directs people to amend their behavior and align it with social norms. 4. How did Weber configure the motives behind an individual’s actions? Answer: According to Weber, motivations are the reasons we behave the way that we do. Weber argued that we need to get inside people’s heads and figure out how they interpret and give meaning to the world around them in order to understand their motivations for behavior. He was concerned with interpreting social action and thereby with causal explanations of behavior and its consequences. Weber developed a typology of different kinds of social action, each differentiated by the motivations, or rationales, that guide them. Instrumental rationality is behavior oriented towards a specific goal that involves some specific benefit for the actor. Value rationality is behavior that is guided by a belief in an ultimate value, regardless of any instrumental reward that the action might generate. An affectual motive involves action that is guided by positive (such as love or joy) or negative (such as hate or anger) emotions. Traditional motives are guided by a belief in the importance of continuing to do things the way they have been done, that is, by the importance of following established traditions. 5. Why was Weber interested in charisma? Answer: As a group, social theorists are interested in the circumstances or conditions under which societies change. Weber was particularly fascinated by the role of charismatic individuals in bringing change to traditional societies structured around extended families and hierarchically arranged status groups. The term charisma is derived from a Greek word meaning “gift of grace.” Belief in a person’s charisma inspires people to leave their families and status groups and instead join new, mixed communities of disciples. In this way a charismatic figure possesses the power, according to Weber, to break through the constraints of traditional authority to create new forms of domination built upon personal charisma. This authority of a charismatic leader is potentially revolutionary because he or she calls into question traditional norms and rules and replaces them with new moral guidelines revealed by a higher, godly power. Individuals who claim special powers or gifts, whether religious figures (e.g., the Hebrew prophets, Jesus, Mohammed, or Buddha) or social and political leaders (e.g., Gandhi or Martin Luther King Jr.), attract their followers by demonstrating their special powers through extraordinary deeds. 6. What did Simmel observe about the difference between the social groups with which we identify and those with which others identify us? Answer: The social theory Simmel pioneered built upon a key insight about the nature of social order: Any individual stands at the intersection point of overlapping social circles. For example, we belong to a family; have groups of friends or colleagues at school or in the workplace; may also belong to a religious community, a neighbourhood association, a sports club, or a political group; and have groups of friends or acquaintances because of shared passions or hobbies. Simmel noted that the way we see ourselves, and which social groups we most value, is not necessarily the same way as how others see us. Although our family members and closest friends may be aware of all of the overlapping social groups to which we belong, and even which of those group memberships are most important to us, outsiders or passing acquaintances will most often focus on one of our multiple identities—our nationality, race, ethnic background, religion, regional origin, or place of residence—and declare it to be primary by drawing conclusions about us based on what they hold to be “average” or “common” traits of persons with those characteristics. 7. How did Du Bois challenge the theories about race that were dominant in his time? Answer: The dominant theories about race in Du Bois’s time claimed that European whites and blacks were unequally endowed in terms of intelligence, capacity for hard work, and ability to be good citizens. These theories stressed deep-seated biological reasons to explain why white Europeans were superior and attributed the poverty and inequality experienced by African Americans in the United States to these innate differences. Du Bois rejected these assertions, arguing across his 60-year career that racial inequality was manufactured in American society. He developed a theory of how racism—the assumption that members of a racial group are inherently inferior to other races—prevented blacks from achieving at the same level as whites. In his first major book, a study of the black community in Philadelphia in the late 1890s titled The Philadelphia Negro, Du Bois carried out a remarkable data-collection effort and showed that every aspect of the lives of African Americans was shaped by the limited opportunities they were afforded. In The Souls of Black Folks, Du Bois presented more fully his view that stereotypes about blacks as lazy, unintelligent, or prone to crime were in fact the result of their place in American society. He argued that a lack of educational opportunities, not innate intelligence, produced the appearance of lower intelligence among blacks. Lack of economic opportunity, by contrast, made it appear that blacks did not work as hard as whites. And he noted that crime always tends to be higher in communities with high poverty rates, and because of poverty and racial segregation, African Americans tended to be concentrated in poor communities. 8. In what ways did Parsons’s understanding of how societies change differ from that of conflict theorists? Answer: In the structural-functionalist view, social change is something that happens gradually, as institutions adapt to meet new challenges. Parsons believed that social change happened much like the theory of evolution in biology, wherein species adapt over time through a process of natural selection, generation by generation. The dysfunctional features of any society, in Parsons’s view, are weeded out in Favor of those features that are helpful. Conflict theorists highlighted the importance of conflict in any society, especially in producing social change. Even conflict, it was noted, could serve a valuable function, helping to force institutional change when no other mechanism could do so. The problem with Parsons’s functionalist approach is that it neglects the importance of conflict and presents us with an image of society cantered too much around apparent consensus. One of the founding figures of conflict theory, the German sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf argued that, although Marx’s view of social change based on revolutionary, not evolutionary, class struggle was outdated, it was nevertheless true that many types of economic conflict still exist in the modern world. Dahrendorf also argued that noneconomic conflict, such as over who has the authority to make decisions within organizations, is an often hidden type of conflict but one with significant social consequences. 9. Where does our self-understanding come from, according to symbolic interactionists? Answer: Symbolic interactionists argue that our sense of self comes directly from the evaluations of others because we interpret how others see us and decide how to act based on how our actions will appear to them. As social beings, we are both subjects who act in the world as well as objects who exist in the world and are interpreted and defined by others. However, some peoples’ evaluations and opinions count more than those of others. Significant others represent ideas and opinions of close friends or family members; generalized others, such as “teachers,” “neighbours,” or “police officers,” represent the ideas and opinions of the larger community to which we belong. In each case, our behavior is shaped by the opinions that others have of us. When we decide how to behave, we consider the values of these others. Like actors, we play roles, follow scripts, and have our performances evaluated by an audience (other people with whom we interact with in our day-today lives). 10. Summarize the contributions of feminist theory to our sociological understanding. Answer: It was not until the 1970s that the rise of a distinctly feminist social theory placed gender and gender inequality at the centre of sociological inquiry, challenging many of the presuppositions of classical social theory for its male-centered biases. An early and influential thinker in the development of feminist social theory Simone de Beauvoir offered an analysis of patriarchy—the idea that societies are set up to ensure that women are systematically controlled (and devalued). For de Beauvoir, women are not born to be subordinate, but they are made to seem inferior to, men. This idea was central to the distinction that later feminists would make between sex (a biological characteristic) and gender (the social meanings ascribed to being a “man” or a “woman”). De Beauvoir, also, was one of the first theorists to insist that gender and femininity are social constructions. Early feminist scholars began to see the social world from the perspective of women, leading them to theorize sex differences, or the different ways the world worked for men and women. Early feminist theorists, also, searched for the cause of gender inequality, but they tended to highlight issues of concern to privileged women (e.g., the social isolation of middle-class housewives or the exclusion of some women from paid labor). Later feminist theorists paid special attention to the ways in which gender is experienced differently by different women. A second feminist approach to theory then emerged, one that shifted from explaining sexual inequality in general to making the very existence of gender something that needed to be examined and challenged. Feminists have explored gender dynamics in different institutions. Others have looked at how gender “gets performed” in social settings. Even more recently, feminist theorists have moved away from looking at gender on its own to considering it alongside other social hierarchies. This theoretical approach highlights the interlocking nature of inequality, or what has come to be known as intersectionality. The key innovation of intersectionality is to look at the way inequalities are experienced together. Test Bank for The Sociology Project : Introducing the Sociological Imagination Jeff Manza, Richard Arum, Lynne Haney 9780205949601, 9780205093823, 9780133792249