CH-21 Expanding Horizons of Cross-Cultural Interaction – Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past : Chapter Notes

This document contains Chapters 21 to 30 Chapter 21 Expanding Horizons of Cross-Cultural Interaction CHAPTER OVERVIEW In the five centuries after the year 1000 C.E., the societies of the eastern hemisphere began to travel, trade, and communicate on a much greater scale than at any previous time in history. The rise to power of nomadic tribes such as the Mongols, after initially interrupting trade, laid the groundwork for more substantial interaction between societies. Merchants, diplomats, and missionaries traveled along the now safer roads. Technological innovations led to similar increases in sea exploration and trade. Religious faiths, technologies, and eventually diseases followed the same routes as trade items. One of these diseases, the bubonic plague, brought such devastation that for a while this growing interaction was threatened. Eventually the Chinese and western Europeans recovered and the pace of global interaction increased even more rapidly. THEMES Eastern hemispheric trade increased significantly during the late postclassical era, buoyed by increased security provided by nomadic empires and improvements in maritime technology. Merchants moved freely across Eurasia both on land, where luxury goods predominated, and by sea, where bulk commodities held sway. As trade volume increased, trade cities like Melaka appeared in strategic locations, providing order and convenience. Political and diplomatic considerations also encouraged long-distance travel during this era, as powerful rulers across Eurasia sought closer ties and mutual recognition. These contacts facilitated the spread of world religions, particularly Islam, which spread across the Indian Ocean basin through the efforts of Sufi mystics and merchants. Increased contact encouraged considerable agricultural and technological diffusion throughout the eastern hemisphere, with compasses, sugarcane, and gunpowder notable examples of this process. Increased contact also led to the wide transmission of disease pathogens; epidemics of bubonic plague, originating in China and transmitted by merchants, ravaged much of Eurasia between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. Population declines, labor shortages, and social unrest followed. By the sixteenth century, most regions began to recover, leading to a strengthening of state systems in China and western Europe. State recovery also led to cultural revival that involved recovery of classical knowledge, both in Ming China and in Italy. Recovery also led to outward expansion, as both China and western Europe engaged in maritime exploration that ushered in a new era in world history. LECTURE STRATEGIES The Renaissance You will probably want to do a lot more with the Renaissance. The Renaissance is one of the most interesting topics to tackle as well as one of the most challenging. It can be difficult not because it is so unfamiliar to current U.S. students, but because it is so familiar. The individualism and secularism of the Renaissance are often accepted as the norm by students who have no sense of how unique these concepts were in the context of the age. Students need to understand that individualism is far more than egotism and that secularism is not a synonym for atheism. A little refresher on the worldview of the middle ages is often necessary to help set up the changing perception of the Renaissance thinkers. At the same time, this discussion also helps to show that for the vast majority of the population the “transition” from medieval to Renaissance had no meaning. The Art of the Renaissance The Renaissance can also be a challenge because the movement is as much about art as it is about intellectual orientation. This age is arguably the greatest artistic flowering in European history; it would be a shame to leave it to the art classes alone. Bring in slides or disks or Internet technology to show some of the art of the Renaissance. Even a single slide of a masterpiece such as Botticelli’s Adoration of the Magi will suffice to provide examples of some of the tenets of the Renaissance. Comparing them to medieval works like icons and altarpieces will show the shift in focus from the representational and spiritual to the human even more clearly. There is also a wonderful collection of literary examples to use: Benvenuto Cellini’s The Autobiography of Benevento Cellini, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola’s On the Dignity of Man, and Machiavelli’s The Prince would all be great sources. Ming Emperors: Hongwu and Yongle The Ming emperors Hongwu and Yongle are great characters around which to build a lecture. Not only did they play major roles in shaping Chinese history, but they are both fascinating on a personal level. Hongwu’s rise from grinding poverty to ultimate power is an amazing story. Even when Hongwu ruled the most powerful and wealthy country in the world, he never really truly left his life on the streets behind him and he remained a dour, troubled man. What did he do to rebuild China after the turbulence of the Mongol years? His work rebuilding the Great Wall speaks volumes about his fear of the outside world. Hongwu’s inward-looking search for stability was very different than Yongle’s desire to explore. Yongle’s decision to send Zheng He on his journeys of exploration had the potential to be a major turning point in Chinese and world history, but in the end his successors did not share the same passion. Why Yongle had this vision is a question worth asking—and answering—as much as why his successors did not. A half-century before the Portuguese sailed around Africa, the Chinese were on the cusp of making themselves the masters of the sea. In the end, the Treatise on the Barbarian Kingdoms on the Western Ocean stands as a monument to a missed opportunity. In what other ways did Yongle influence Chinese history? The Nature and Extent of Long-Distance Trade An examination of the nature and extent of long-distance trade lies at the heart of this chapter. Unfortunately, such discussions are too easily lost on the students. They see it as a listing of commodities passing back and forth in no particular order to locations without any reference points. It’s important and useful to humanize long-distance trade. Referring to Marco Polo’s stories is only one way to begin. You might take one particular item such as porcelain or pepper and show the students where it began and where it might be shipped. Who would handle it along the way? Trace the journey along the map and discuss the dangers inherent in such a trip. You might also take a busy trading port like Melaka and discuss who and what would go through it. This approach will show the international range and multicultural nature of global trading networks. It allows the students to see how the basic human desires for profit and luxury become instruments for interaction and integration. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS The Writings of Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo It would be a shame not to take advantage of the writings of Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo, two of the greatest works of travel literature. What better way to bring this age of increasing global interaction home to the students? Obviously, many more students will be at least somewhat familiar with Marco Polo. Using his work is an obvious choice; however, Ibn Battuta’s work might be an even better choice precisely because it will be less familiar. When students think of trade and travel, they automatically think of the Europeans exploring and eventually imposing their will on the rest of the world. Using Ibn Battuta’s observations is a good way to show that the Europeans were not the only travelers and, for that matter, got into the game relatively late. One approach is to take samples from both sources. Ask the students to consider why these men were traveling and where they went. What was their perception of the world? Was their view different? These stories will remind the students of how human the entire exploration process was. These adventures spanned decades and risked lives. It’s also a good way to discuss the precarious nature of historical evidence, since it’s amazing that these accounts were written down in the first place and then preserved. The concepts of bias and perspective come into play as well, and you can hold a lively discussion on the use and interpretation of such sources. The Impact of Gunpowder on World History Divide the class into small groups. Ask each group to consider the impact of gunpowder on world history. They should briefly review the technology and tactics of warfare at the time of the crusades. How did warfare change after the fifteenth century with the introduction of gunpowder arms? Who will be advantaged by this change? Who will be disadvantaged? The groups should then develop lists of pros and cons that address these questions. Tracing the Spread of the Bubonic Plague Tracing the spread of the bubonic plague is one means of tracing the influence of the burgeoning long-distance trading network. Students tend to know something about the plague, and are often fascinated by it, making this a useful way to display in vivid fashion the good and bad side of international trade. This topic will also help to set up the later influence of diseases in the Americas and Oceania or the influenza epidemic at the end of World War I. What role does disease play in today’s world? Once the students understand where the plague came from and how it reached Europe, you can then ask the class to consider what effect the Black Death would have on European society—or any society. Who would suffer the most? What would the disease do to trade? How would it influence society? What would it do to the religious views of the people? Chapter 22 Transoceanic Encounters and Global Connections CHAPTER OVERVIEW While interactions between different societies have always been a part of the human experience, the nature and scale of these relationships increased dramatically after 1500 C.E. Western European nations, armed with advanced technologies and powerful weapons, began the slow process of imposing their will on the rest of the world. European expansion resulted not only in increasing political hegemony but also in the creation of transportation, communication, and trading networks. Plants, animals, technologies, and diseases followed the same routes. By the nineteenth century the result would be a profound shift in the global balance of power, with western Europeans ruling most of the world. THEMES After 1500, global cross-cultural interaction took place on a larger scale, and encounters generated more disruption than in previous eras. Both European mariners by sea and Russian adventurers by land expanded across Eurasia and the world’s oceans, establishing imperial outposts and trading centers that led to permanent links among the world’s various regions. For the first time in world history, Europeans succeeded in establishing a global trade network that connected the eastern hemisphere, the western hemisphere, and Oceania. This network vastly enriched European kingdoms and societies, and led directly to the emergence of a global system of communication, transportation, and exchange. Several motivations drove Europeans in these expansions: the lure of profit, the search for new resources, and the desire to spread Christianity, combined with a spirit of adventure and discovery. Intense competition among European states led to regional conflicts and wars for control of the global trade system. Exchanges of biological species, disease pathogens, and commercial goods characterized the operation of the new global trade system. Although in some formerly isolated regions, such as the Americas and the Pacific islands, increased interaction with outsiders initially led to massive mortality and population declines, over the longer term these exchanges, particularly the Columbian exchange, fueled a surge in global population between 1500 and 1900. Global interdependence and integration resulted, as Europeans encouraged successive waves of migration, both voluntary and involuntary, from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas, Oceania, and southern Africa. LECTURE STRATEGIES Why the Europeans? This section helps to establish the growing European dominance over the globe. It is important for students to understand that the western Europeans didn’t always play such a pivotal role in political affairs and, for that matter, that Europeans were rather late in their appearance on the world stage. As late as 1300 the Europeans were not only one of the weakest areas of the world but also one of the most culturally limited. Why the sudden rise of the Europeans? What role did factors such as the Renaissance or the rise of nation-states play in this movement? How did the arrival of non-European inventions such as gunpowder or the magnetic compass help this movement along? Maybe the most important issue for consideration is the most obvious one: Why was it the Europeans who explored and then eventually imposed their will on the world? They were hardly the first people to sail. The Chinese of the early fifteenth century, bolstered by the support of Yongle and the voyages of Zheng He, would seem to be a likelier candidate in regard to national wealth and power. Was European exploration nothing more than a lucky combination of factors or was there more to it? What was it about the Europeans themselves that pushed them out into the world? What Led to the Increase in Global Exploration and Interaction? This chapter can serve as either a logical conclusion to the first half of the world civilization sequence (by showing how the isolation that marked thousands of years of history was coming to an end) or as an important introduction to the second half (by laying the foundation for greater interaction). Either way, it is essential for you to help the students understand the complexities and implications of this age. Although there had always been contact between most world societies, mainly from merchants, this period saw the rise of rapidly increasing global interaction and interdependence. Make sure the students understand the developments and discoveries that allowed for this period of exploration. This discussion is another great opportunity to spend some time at the map. Students can be geographically illiterate, and it’s always a mistake to assume that the students understand where these places are located and the distances between them. Use the map to show the students the routes of the different explorers. This presentation will help them understand later colonial developments and movements for national independence. You might even have them construct their own maps—to scale, of course—to reinforce the point. Let the students get a feel for how big and small the world is—and also how dangerous these journeys were. The exercise also lets the students see how “iffy” the entire business of history really is. How was the world changed by Columbus’s miscalculation of the earth’s size? Plus, students find it interesting that many initially viewed the Americas as much more of an obstacle than a valued prize. Varied Approaches to Exploration and Colonization The topic of European expansion can, in turn, lead to several others. Make clear to the students that not every European nation took the same approach to exploration and colonization (e.g., the difference between the Spanish, who imposed Catholicism on the Philippines, and the Dutch or the Russians, who were content with simply controlling trade in the areas they occupied). An examination of Portugal is a good opportunity to show how some of the most important changes in history are brought about by smaller nations. Students easily become used to history being dominated by countries such as America or China. What is it about Portugal that would have allowed it to play this pivotal role? Why didn’t the Portuguese continue to dominate? And how did England and the Netherlands—also relatively small countries—ascend in their place? Why didn’t Russia and France, as the largest European nations, dominate world trade? TEACHING SUGGESTIONS The Perils of Exploration It is essential for students to understand the complex political and socioeconomic reasons for and implications of exploration. At the same time, it would be a shame to ignore the sheer human adventure of these journeys. Ask the students to consider just how dangerous these trips were. It would be useful to incorporate excerpts from the logs of Columbus, Magellan, or Cook so that the students can get a sense of the magnitude and perilous nature of these journeys. There are numerous books and films on the various disasters in exploring the Arctic and Antarctica that can also introduce the idea that these undertakings were quite risky. You could also trace the journeys on a map and explain to the students what happened along the way. It’s easy to skim over these journeys of exploration as just another unavoidable chapter in the European conquest of the globe without any sense of the dangers inherent in these undertakings. Once students get a sense of the nature of these explorations it might be instructive to then ask them to think back on the Austronesians settling the Pacific islands centuries earlier. If crossing oceans was a perilous adventure for the Europeans, what was it like for the first sailors who made the trip centuries earlier without the benefit of larger ships, magnetic compasses, or astrolabes? “Christians and Spices” Exploration was a much more complicated affair than most students ever realize. A good starting point might be to ask the students what percentage of exploration has been carried out for discovery’s sake alone. Ask the students to discuss the developments and discoveries of this period that allowed for or even demanded exploration. Another good way to broach the subject would be to center in on Vasco da Gama’s response in Calicut in 1498 to the question of what he wanted: “Christians and spices.” Ask students to consider with which of the two, Christians or spices, the Europeans were more concerned. This discussion should help students understand the complexity of factors behind exploration as well as the difficulty in separating them. It also shows how political leaders often misused the sincere faith of missionaries as a convenient excuse for conquest. Finally, what came out of these journeys of exploration? Unfortunately and surprisingly, students still tend to oversimplify the results of the European exploration. That is, they center on either the benefits brought by the Europeans or the view that the Europeans brought nothing but hardship to contented, peaceful societies. The authors of the text do a good job examining the balance between the ravages of disease and the benefits of the Columbian exchange. Build on this base to clarify this point for students. The Implications of the Seven Years’ War The Seven Years’ War provides a good opportunity to explore a topic that has been discussed before. There have been several instances from earlier history when the world (or at least a large area) was almost literally up for grabs. The Persian and Punic wars served that purpose in the Mediterranean world, while the Chinese struggle with the Xiongnu or Mongols played a similar role in east Asia. The Seven Years’ War took this process a step further, and the global scale of the conflict tells a great deal about the growing importance of the Europeans. The war profoundly influenced European, south Asian, and American history, and set the stage for almost two centuries of European dominance. Ask students to consider the implications of this struggle. What might have happened if France had won, for instance, or if the Europeans had carried the war over into their own territories? What did the British victories in North America and India mean for Africa and South America? Why, in the end, did the British triumph? What precedents did this set for exploration and colonization by Europeans in the future? You can profitably explore the terms and implications of the Treaty of Paris of 1763. Chapter 23 The Transformation of Europe CHAPTER OVERVIEW Profound changes began to overtake Europe beginning in the sixteenth century. Christianity, which had served as the main unifying element in Europe after the collapse of the Roman empire, was permanently fragmented by the Protestant Reformation. The age also witnessed the rise of strong centralized states. The advent of capitalism ensured that the competition between these new states would be fought on the economic as well as the political and religious fronts. The scientific revolution signaled a startling intellectual transformation. The three centuries following 1500 were highly disruptive, but they worked to strengthen Europe as well. THEMES Several powerful movements transformed European society after 1500 C.E. Although disruptive, these changes ultimately strengthened and enriched European society and propelled it into a prominent position in world affairs. Criticisms of Catholic doctrine and actions by Martin Luther led to the Reformation, or the fracturing of western Christian unity that saw the establishment of independent Christian churches known as protesting, or Protestant, denominations. In response, Catholicism undertook a massive reform effort that blocked further defections throughout central and western Europe. New Catholic orders such as the Jesuits revitalized Roman Catholicism, and their missionary and educational efforts restored Catholicism’s sense of mission and purpose. Religious divisions fueled political and social conflict, leading to witch hunts and religious warfare that culminated in the Thirty Years’ War, the most destructive European conflict until the twentieth century. Political reforms emerged out of religious upheaval, with two separate systems of monarchical rule predominant. Centralized power structures, or absolute monarchy, concentrated political and administrative power in the hands of the sovereign and limited power structures in which constitutional and legal boundaries limited monarchical authority and initiative. Both of these new types of states accepted the creation of an interstate diplomatic system that sought to regulate international law and diplomacy. Population growth and increased urbanization stimulated increases in trade volumes that encouraged capitalist development. Capitalist activity, particularly among merchants, encouraged rapid adoption of new communications and transportation technologies that encouraged the emergence of market economies alongside traditional local forms of commercial and economic exchange, all on a scale and intensity not previously seen in modern world history. Both private and public interests worked to support these developments, particularly in England and the Netherlands. Capitalism (and the “putting-out” system that encouraged proto-industrialization) unsettled traditional rural lifestyle and family patterns. Increased wealth led to financial independence and encouraged the emergence of nuclear family arrangements as the principal social unit throughout western Europe. New modes of intellectual thinking also emerged, challenging or rejecting ancient knowledge. Especially, application of analytical methodology—accurate observation and mathematical reasoning—transformed many subjects of knowledge and reoriented Europe’s intellectual outlook through the scientific revolution. LECTURE STRATEGIES Constitutionalism in England You will probably want to concentrate on the rise of constitutionalism in England. While it’s possible (although sometimes difficult) to breeze through the interesting characters who dominate the age of the English civil war, Puritan Republic, and Glorious Revolution, it is important for the class to come to grips with the profound constitutional issues being raised. American students either don’t understand the constitutional link to England or get caught up in the rhetoric of the American revolution and miss out on the political legacy. One of the reasons that the British could not understand American complaints is that they had already gone through their own revolution a century earlier and thought the problem had been solved. Passages from the Petition of Right or the Bill of Rights are useful. A discussion of Louis XIV’s absolutism works well as a counterpoint to the political system arising in England. What Led to the Religious Reforms of this Era? For students to gain a better understanding of the Reformation, it would probably help to spend some time discussing some of the problems of the Catholic church, such as papal wealth, pluralism and absenteeism, clerical ignorance and immorality, and so on. It would also be useful to retrace the events of the last few centuries leading up to the sixteenth. The implications of the Babylonian Captivity, the Great Schism, the loss of dedicated clergy during the bubonic plague, the growing secularism of Renaissance thought, and the actions of “Renaissance popes” would help students understand the long historical progression of events that led to Luther. At the same time, these pieces of the puzzle add up to the less easily quantifiable sense of religious dissatisfaction that plagued so many people in the sixteenth century. The students have to understand that there were reforms and reformers before the time of Luther (notably John Wyclif and Jan Hus), but that they came before all the pieces fell into place. The complexity of the movement can also be seen in the question of Henry VIII’s English Reformation. His reformation was much more political than Luther’s, which helps to explain how the Anglican church could be so different from the Lutheran. Henry VIII also makes a good lecture topic because his goals are too often oversimplified and consequently misunderstood and overlooked. Henry’s concerns with national security and national sovereignty transcend simple categorization. John Calvin also deserves more attention than simply as a continuation of Luther. An Overabundance of Topics The themes of this chapter involve so many characters and events that are a lecturer’s dream: Luther’s debate with Eck; Luther’s meeting with Charles V at the Diet of Worms; Henry VIII’s personal, political, and dynastic problems (not to mention his marital adventures); the often-misunderstood Philip II and his somber devotion to duty, empire, and Catholicism; Elizabeth I’s brilliance and temper and her long-standing struggle with her troublesome cousin Mary Stewart; the defeat of the Spanish Armada (an event seemingly ready-made for historians); the trial of Charles I; the witch hunts; the machinations of Richelieu; the opulence of Versailles and the ego, desire, and cunning of Louis XIV; the westernizing efforts and towering personality of Peter the Great; Catherine the Great’s struggle to pursue reforms in the face of the harsh realities of Russia; the trial of Galileo; Newton as mad scientist and genius; the high drama of the English civil war and the constitutional ramifications of the Petition of Right and the Bill of Rights; and the horrors of the Thirty Years’ War. In short, this section is full of those moments that make teaching so rewarding and so much fun, and you should make use of as many as you can. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS An In-Depth Study of the Protestant Reformation Ask the students to consider the profound political, social, intellectual, and of course religious implications of the Protestant Reformation. Hint at the role that the Catholic church had played as the one great unifying force in Europe after the fall of Rome. Students should then be able to understand how the Protestant Reformation led to a further fragmentation of Europe (which they can still see on the map today in the fundamental north/south religious split). This split was far more than a simple two-way split. Ask the students to consider that Luther was only one of several Protestant thinkers. Who were the others? In what ways was Luther a conservative thinker compared to others such as Calvin or the Anabaptists? The concept of religion as a unifying factor may or may not be strange to the students, but it is essential that they understand that when Luther broke with the Catholic church there was no other option awaiting him. In the same vein, you could also ask the students to consider whether reform and reevaluation are a normal part of the evolution of religion. Relate Luther’s experience as a Catholic to that of Jesus as a Jew or Siddhartha Gautama as a Hindu. Are there other examples? Finally, ask the class to consider the number of factors that had to come together to make Luther’s success possible. If events had not happened in a certain way, then Luther might have truly been nothing more than an obscure, frustrated monk. Why did the Protestant Reformation occur when it did and not a century earlier? Could it have happened a century earlier? Were there already people who believed as Luther believed? What role did the printing press play? Wittenberg, 1517 Divide the class into groups. Ask the students to imagine that they are residents of Wittenberg in 1517. Allocate the following roles among them: monk, merchant, prince, artisan, and peasant. Then ask them to consider what it meant to have this place in German society, and how each character would respond to the Ninety-Five Theses argued by Martin Luther. What was the most attractive feature of this challenge to the Catholic church? What might have been most disturbing? Keep them on track by asking them to refer specifically to Luther’s text in their answers. The Ever-Popular (Though Admittedly Grisly) Witch Hunts The students always find the witch hunts a fascinating topic. Bring in passages from the Malleus Maleficarum or the corresponding papal bull. Confessions from accused witches and descriptions of the punishment used to acquire the confessions are a grisly but strangely entertaining means of sparking discussions. Ask the students to think of factors that might explain the witch craze. You can also tie in the European witch hunts with their later American counterpart in Salem. Use this opportunity to discuss the changing face of historical interpretation. Certainly the view of what caused the witch hunts is different now than it was for contemporary witnesses or later Enlightenment writers. Ask the students to consider economic, social, or gender explanations. How does the world of the historian influence his or her interpretation of the past? A Virtual Tour and Architectural Examination of Versailles Use the Internet to take a virtual tour of Louis XIV’s magnificent Versailles palace at http://www.chateauversailles.fr/en/. Ask students to consider how architecture can be used for political and authoritative purposes. See if they can point out architectural features that worked in favor of absolutism. The Scientific Revolution Examples drawn from the thinkers and discoveries of the scientific revolution are a natural starting point for a discussion. Students tend to miss the true implications of the scientific revolution. They see the discoveries on their most surface level and fail to understand that with every advancement these thinkers were in a very real sense destroying an old world and helping to create a new one. The trial of Galileo is a good place to begin. Chapter 24 New Worlds: The Americas and Oceania CHAPTER OVERVIEW Before the end of the fifteenth century, the western and eastern hemispheres existed in almost complete isolation from one another. This situation began to change after the voyage of Christopher Columbus in1492. From this point on, the contact between the two would increase dramatically, often with disastrous consequences. The Europeans, with military and technological advantages, imposed their will on the Americas. Ironically, much of the European success was based on a weapon they didn’t know they possessed: smallpox. The massive migration of Europeans into the western hemisphere brought an astonishing transformation of American society. Australia and the Pacific islands would undergo a similar experience two hundred years later. THEMES After 1492 C.E., European mariners established permanent contacts between the eastern and western hemispheres and Oceania. The resulting encounters profoundly and violently changed American and Pacific cultures and communities, particularly as a result of the transmission of diseases and superior European technology. Desire for resources led Spanish adventurers from the Caribbean onto the American mainland. After quickly conquering the Aztec and Inca empires, the Spanish created a vast colonial structure stretching from western North America to Patagonia. In eastern South America, the Portuguese steadily developed colonial structures in Brazil, which soon became a vital part of the Portuguese colonial system, particularly as a producer of sugar. Imperial consolidation led to the emergence of settler colonies throughout the Americas. Their presence encouraged the growth and development of a new multicultural civilization, the product of cultural fusion among Europeans, Africans, and American peoples. American resources soon became vital parts of the growing global economy. Silver mining and plantation agriculture in Spanish regions joined sugar from Brazil and the Caribbean and timber and furs from North America as profitable commodities, which stimulated global trade as they moved from the Americas to Europe and Asia. LECTURE STRATEGIES The Role of Disease in History The role of epidemics is a valuable topic for a lecture, especially if this section falls at the beginning of the second half of a world civilization course. Bring in examples such as the devastation caused by the bubonic plague in Asia and Europe, or the role that disease played in Athens during the Peloponnesian War. The stage will also be set for discussions about later outbreaks of disease. The influenza epidemic of 1917 is too often ignored, for example, and a discussion of the role played by disease in the Americas will set up a theme for later use. It also calls into question the dark view of the Spanish. For all of the destructive weapons and seemingly heartless policies of the Spanish, one key to their victory—and the cause of untold suffering and death—was something they didn’t even know they carried. The devastation caused by the outbreak of smallpox also reinforces the tremendous prior isolation of these societies and the changing world of this period. Clashes between Europeans and American Cultures From a purely practical point of view, it might be a good time for a refresher course on the European motives for and advantages in exploration, as well as on the size and sophistication of the Aztec and Inca societies. Most world civilization courses break right around 1500, so it’s quite possible that this section will be one of the first discussed in the second half of the class. If the discussion begins with the Europeans just showing up in the Americas, students will have no sense of how they arrived there and of the tremendous advances that the Europeans had made in a short amount of time. Plus, if the students don’t understand the grandeur of the Aztec and Inca states, then the whole process appears too Eurocentric (i.e., the Europeans show up and take over another primitive, passive, and defenseless state). A full background presentation sets up the improbable nature of the conquistadores’ feats. It also helps to show the tragedy of the destruction of these societies. The result of these conquests was not simply a section of land taken over by superior technology and dumb luck; the result was the destruction of whole societies. This rule of annihilation was not limited to the Maya, Aztec, and Inca, but also applied to lesser-known societies such as the Taíno in the Caribbean. Humans have a laudable capacity for getting depressed over the extinction of an animal species, but they often fail to realize that the same thing can happen—and has happened—to human societies. Forming Multicultural Societies in the Americas It would probably be wise to spend some time going over the complex economic, political, and social world of the developing societies of Central and South America. The authors of the text do a good job, but this subject is complicated and the students probably will need help understanding how and why these different societies mixed. What was the resulting society like? How much of it was still European? How much was still native? Be sure to make the connection between the resulting social structures and the political structures of the colonies. This will set up later discussions on the independence movements, and prepare the ground for all future discussions on Latin American society and politics. At the same time, you will probably want to compare and contrast the situation in South and Central America to the exploration and colonization of North America. Were there really profound differences in the approach and techniques used by the Spanish and Portuguese compared to the English, French, and Dutch? Why was the resulting situation so different? Again, drawing out the implications to the answers to these questions will set the stage for future discussions, along with clarifying the development of Latin American society. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS Civilizations Collide: The Role of Language and Cultural Barriers The life and times of Doña Marina are a good vehicle for facilitating discussion. Flesh out the story; center on the birth of her children as representative of the soon-to-be-burgeoning mestizo population. Her story would also be a useful mechanism to get the students thinking about the complexity of language and cultural barriers. How much of Cortés’s initial success was dependent on Doña Marina’s ability to speak the appropriate languages? There are obvious parallels to the legend of Pocahontas, with which the students may be more familiar. Both stories might make for a good introduction to the questions of conquest, liberation, colonization, and the collision between civilizations. For that matter, they hearken back to the notion of the unpredictability of history, which could lead to a reprisal of the Quetzalcóatl story. You could also ask the students to think back to some of the shortcomings of the Aztec empire. The Aztec reliance on terror would leave a Maya chieftain willing to ally himself with Cortés. Why were Doña Marina and Pocahontas willing to ally with these new invaders, to the point of betraying their own people in some instances? The Encomienda System Ask students to consider the social and economic structure of the encomiendas and the rights and responsibilities of the encomenderos. This discussion is a good opportunity for the students to come to grips with the social disruption caused by the Spanish presence. It would also display the complexity (some might say the hypocrisy) of the Spanish mission. The encomenderos, for example, were supposed to look after the health and welfare of the native population, but they were also concerned with forcing the peoples’ conversion to Christianity. Mostly, of course, they were concerned with making the natives work for the profit of the Europeans. How was it possible to reconcile all of these concerns? Was this any different from outright slavery, and if so, how? It is important to introduce the topic of the European interrelationship with the native population. The topic arises again with the English, French, Dutch, and Portuguese. Ask students why the Spaniards have the worst reputation of the European colonizers. Do they really deserve that label? Were the others any better? Were there social or economic factors that might explain the nature of the relationship? The English and French, for instance, explored an area with a smaller population and no massive supply of gold or silver on hand. They were forced to trade. On the other hand, they also sought to colonize the areas to a much greater extent than the Spanish or the Portuguese. Finally, English colonists (and to a lesser degree the French) made strenuous efforts to remain separate, whereas the Spanish engendered an increasingly mixed society. What effects did these factors have? Making Connections Divide the class into small groups. Have each group explain, in fifty words or less, the relationship in each of the following pairs. They should focus on how one leads to or fosters the other, and they should be specific in their responses. Colombian exchange and tobacco plantations Encomienda system and African slave trade Smallpox and indentured servants Joint-stock companies and colonial legislatures Chapter 25 Africa and the Atlantic World CHAPTER OVERVIEW Sub-Saharan Africa was influenced, like most of the rest of the world, by the establishment of global trading networks during the early modern age. European merchants, lured by the possibility of trading opportunities and profits, increasingly visited the west African coasts. The rise of wealthy port cities and powerful coastal kingdoms reduced, but did not eliminate, the traditional trans-Saharan trade routes. Slavery, both African and Islamic, had been a part of African life for centuries. The burgeoning Atlantic slave trade dwarfed its predecessors, however, and constituted the largest migration in history before the nineteenth century. Not only were millions of Africans captured and sold into slavery, but their home societies were often left in chaos. The integration of African and American society would lay the foundations for the complex African diaspora of the western hemisphere. THEMES Global trade came to sub-Saharan Africa during the early modern period. Maritime commerce led to urbanization and the establishment of powerful coastal kingdoms that traded through the ocean rather than the desert. The primary commodity was human beings, which built on established African and Islamic trade networks; but these were soon dwarfed both in size and intensity as the Atlantic slave trade transported millions of Africans to Atlantic plantations, a process that severely disrupted sub-Saharan African communities and economies. African state development changed as a result of the influence of the Atlantic slave trade. In west Africa, regional kingdoms constructed around serving Atlantic and trans-Saharan commercial requirements replaced imperial states. In east Africa, Swahili city-states lost their independence and fell under the control of Portuguese merchant-mariners active in the Indian Ocean basin. Regional kingdoms also emerged in central and south Africa, such as the kingdom of Kongo. As long-distance trade expanded, Christianity and Islam spread along the trade routes across sub-Saharan Africa. Both religions blended with indigenous beliefs and traditions to form syncretic faiths that fused Eurasian and African belief systems. Like other regions of the world during this era, introduction of new commercial goods and American foodstuffs, particularly manioc, generated significant population growth, a remarkable occurrence given the forced migrations of the Atlantic slave trade. Those forced into the trade found themselves transported across the Atlantic basin to serve as manual laborers, primarily in plantation agriculture. Although deprived of their freedom, African slaves resisted their bondage in a number of innovative and often successful ways, and they developed hybrid cultural traditions that combined African, European, and American elements. Although the Atlantic slave trade came to an end in the nineteenth century, the African diaspora left a permanent mark throughout the western hemisphere. LECTURE STRATEGIES Political Diversity in Africa and the Roots of African-American Cultural Identity You will want to do something with the political diversity of Africa. This theme has certainly been touched on before but it’s especially pertinent after the fall of the Mali and Songhay empires. Fragmentation certainly left Africa in a more difficult situation when trying to fight off the Europeans. It also played into the economic demands of a slave market. The Europeans certainly took full advantage of both situations and even exacerbated them. Use the role of the Portuguese in Kongo and Ndongo as illustrations of this dynamic. Once you have established this connection, then you can tie these themes together and discuss the spread and complexity of the African diaspora. Integration is a large part of this section, and the African diaspora is a classic example. The students are witnessing the creation of an African-American cultural identity that has gained increasing significance in society, and it is important to show the depths of its roots. Powerful Women: Queen Nzinga and Dona Beatriz There are some fascinating female leaders in this section: Queen Nzinga and Dona Beatriz. These are two influential women in an age when students automatically consider women to be politically weak. It would be a shame not to take advantage of the topic and expand on their careers in greater detail. A discussion of Queen Nzinga could lead to the issues of slavery and European influence. This subject, in turn, serves as a natural segue into the topic of how and why Angola became the first European colony in sub-Saharan Africa, long before the rest of Europe was really interested in colonizing the continent. An examination of the career of Dona Beatriz can lead into a discussion of syncretic religions. The Antonian movement is a great example of how attempts to convert populations might not always have the desired results. Dona Beatriz’s role as a focus for opposition to the Portuguese, despite her Christian faith, is notable. The complex interactions among faith, politics, and economics certainly deserve some attention as well. Students are often confused as to why the Portuguese appear to play no role in the controversy, and the king of Kongo ended up executing Dona Beatriz, though both opposed the Portuguese. The Development of Hybrid Cultures The development of hybrid cultures is a topic that is sure to interest students, particularly those who are artistically-minded. Develop a lecture that traces the development of Latino and African-American culture from the early modern to the modern period, and draw examples from literature, music, architecture, and art to support your case. Examples such as Vera Cruz in Mexico, once one of the most important slave markets in Central America, will help students understand how these cultures develop and evolve. Suriname is another obvious choice, as are popular Brazilian cultural developments such as samba music. Ask students whether they see any parallels in the development of these earlier hybrid cultures and their contemporary cultural interests, for example in music. Relating the present to the past is a great way to engage students in material they would otherwise regard as obscure or esoteric. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS The Effects of the Triangular Trade on Africa A second, related topic for discussion is the effects of the triangular trade on Africa. It’s easy to focus on the life of the slaves in the new world without considering the profound influences on the African societies left behind, and it happens all too often. The effects of European influence on the new African states and the influx of new weapons are avenues worth exploring. The creation of a disproportionately female society also holds tremendous implications. How did African societies change as a result of this demographic shift? It would also be interesting to ask the students to consider how slavery would influence the preservation of historical knowledge, and thus political and cultural traditions, in Africa. What happens to historical tradition when millions of people are drawn out of these societies? The Slave Trade The slave trade, the middle passage, and the slave community in the Americas are obvious topics for discussion, but ones that students still find interesting, if occasionally uncomfortable. Slavery is one of the most important events not only in world history but obviously in U.S. history as well. The number of slaves who made the unwilling journey across the Atlantic is so huge that students might lose sight of the human tragedy involved. Consequently, it might be better to start the discussion with specific examples. Make use of Olaudah Equiano’s account of the middle passage as a starting point and then bring in more specific examples. Johnson’s Middle Passage is an interesting short supplement that always inspires discussion. As the discussion progresses, take the opportunity to bring up related topics. Relate the slave trade across the Atlantic to the earlier African and trans-Saharan slave trade, for example, and ask the comparative and difficult questions. What really drove the slave trade? Were the Europeans the cause, or were there African tribes that benefited from the slave trade as well? How did the nature of slavery change with European involvement? Did they really make slavery that much worse, and if so, how? Take the opportunity to link the discussion of slavery back to the varying European practices of colonization. Why Were There So Few Slave Rebellions? Divide the class into small groups. Ask each group to make a detailed list of the conditions necessary for a successful slave rebellion. (You might start them off with leadership and weapons.) The next step is to put an asterisk beside each item that slaves might be able to secure and explain how they might acquire it. Then, for every item on the list, consider what slave owners could do to prevent their slaves achieving this item. Now consider the question again: why were there so few slave rebellions? An American Dilemma: Slaves in the Land of Equality Ask the students to consider how phrases and concepts such as “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness “and “all men are created equal” relate to slavery. How did these concepts coexist, particularly in the United States? While it is worth pointing out that many states in South America and Europe embraced similar ideals during this time, it is the United States that is indelibly linked to the institution of slavery for most students. What can the dichotomy between ideals and actions tell us about America’s complex and often contradictory history of race relations? Is America guilty of a crime greater than that of other nations? If America is supposed to stand for certain ideals, then did this country fail in its most essential mission, or is it just guilty by comparison because of a heightened sense of mission? Thomas Jefferson—although he probably doesn’t deserve a lot of the remarkably self-righteous criticism on this issue—serves as a classic example of this dichotomy. How could a man who wrote so eloquently about the equality of all men continue to own slaves? This discussion is also a lesson to the students about the dangers of present-mindedness. Exploring the Maintenance of Culture Divide the class into small groups. Provide the groups with the following working definition of culture: the ideas, beliefs, and practices that a people hold in common, including language, religion, social structures, and artistic traditions. Then ask them to list the aspects of African culture that were likely to survive the pressures of enslavement. What would remain of their identity as Africans, members of their family and tribe, after several years in slavery? Chapter 26 Tradition and Change in East Asia CHAPTER OVERVIEW While areas such as sub-Saharan Africa and parts of the Americas may have suffered because of increased contact with the Europeans, east Asian states generally benefited from long-distance trade. It would be centuries before China or Japan fell under European domination. As had been the case for centuries on end, China remained the dominant power in east Asia. The chaos of Mongol control gave way to a restoration of Chinese traditions and a return to glory under the Ming and Qing dynasties. Japan was unified under the Tokugawa and began its evolution into a powerful state. THEMES Long-distance global trade, in contrast with experiences elsewhere, primarily brought prosperity to east Asia during the early modern era. Influxes of American silver and plant crops improved living standards and stimulated economic activity across the region. Alongside improved economic circumstances, the early modern period was also one of political consolidation throughout much of east Asia. In China and Japan, powerful new conservative centralized states emerged that borrowed heavily from earlier examples, such as the Chinese civil examination system, but also developed their own innovative approaches to contemporary challenges. These autocratic structures would rule China for the next five hundred years, and Japan for two hundred and fifty years, a longevity that testifies to their effectiveness and durability. Ironically, although both Ming China and Tokugawa Japan sought to resist change through conservative political and social policies and maintenance of traditional patriarchal order, foreign influences encouraged population growth and commercial success, and partly undermined the stability sought by China and Japan’s ruling elites. This instability would intensify by the late nineteenth century, releasing forces that neither system could withstand. Global trade greatly expanded Chinese economic power; as Chinese merchants ventured into southeast Asia, they permanently linked China to the expanding global maritime network. In contrast with the contemporaneous European experience, this expansion occurred in the absence of significant technological innovation and despite, rather than because of, government policy which, in the Chinese case, sought close regulation of commercial and trade activity. A trade-off developed throughout the Chinese economy in which maintenance of nearly full employment took precedence over technological change, a circumstance that over the longer term proved critical in modern Chinese and world history. Cross-cultural contact, primarily between elites and merchants, characterized the east Asian experience during the early modern era. Although the Ming and Qing emperors looked to Chinese traditions such as Confucianism for guidance, the presence of European missionaries meant that European religious and scientific knowledge became known throughout east Asia. This process of cultural transmission worked both ways; European missionaries also transmitted knowledge from and about east Asia back to Europe, rekindling interest in east Asian societies for the first time since the voyages of Marco Polo. In Japan, the Tokugawa shoguns ended centuries of civil war and established a long period of political stability. This stability in turn led to economic and population growth that ushered in prolonged urbanization and social change. As in China, merchant families, traditionally disparaged in Confucian traditions, became socially prominent and controlled far more wealth than traditional ruling elites by 1800. Although contact with Europeans was limited after the shoguns took power, contact remained through the port trading center of Nagasaki, where contacts with Dutch merchants encouraged an intellectual school known as “Dutch learning,” which allowed European art and science to play increasingly important roles in Japanese intellectual life by the middle of the eighteenth century. LECTURE STRATEGIES Chinese and Japanese Cultural Development This period, both in China and Japan, is such a rich cultural period that it would be a shame not to take advantage of it. Granted, it’s not really feasible to assign such massive novels as The Romance of the Three Kingdoms or especially The Dream of the Red Chamber (The Story of the Stone), but it would still be possible to talk a little bit about the works and the significance of a growing literary population. On the Japanese side, Basho’s The Narrow Road to the Deep North is both short and accessible to the students. It is a natural starting point for a discussion of the long Japanese literary tradition (you can take this discussion all the way back to The Tale of Genji or The Pillow Book) as well as discussions of Basho’s position in the floating world, Zen Buddhism, and the Japanese sense of beauty. The floating world is a great topic because it brings in not only the cultural achievements of Japan, but also the changing social world of Japan as it passes from the more traditional rural base to an urban-centered structure. The students should be able to see that a similar phenomenon was taking place in China. Depending on how the class is broken up, you can ask the students to consider how this period was similar to the Italian Renaissance. Beyond the obvious similarities in artistic achievement, for instance, both witnessed the growing prominence of an urban merchant class at the expense of the rural aristocratic class. Notable Rulers in China and Japan Certainly there are enough powerful and interesting rulers to center on in this chapter. No historian wants to fall into the trap of simply recounting the reigns of kings and emperors, but the rulers during this section have the advantage of not only being powerful but also being in many ways classic examples of their age. Wanli’s refusal to see advisors for years on end is representative of the increasingly ceremonial nature of the Ming emperors, and it reveals the problems of this system neatly. The dual nature of Kangxi as conqueror and scholar expresses both the power and brilliance of Qing China. Hongwu’s construction of the Great Wall to control foreign contact serves as an interesting counterpoint to Yongle’s support for Zheng He’s journeys of exploration. Qianlong’s compilation of The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries speaks volumes about the depth and breadth of Chinese culture, as well as the reverence for the past. It’s also interesting that it was carried out by a Manchu emperor, and that the Manchus often showed more respect for Chinese culture than for the Chinese themselves. The efforts of Tokugawa Ieyasu to stabilize Japan had repercussions that lasted for centuries. The Unification of Japan The unification of Japan is also a topic worthy of further exploration. Ieyasu’s deliberate policies of centralization and relative isolation had a distinct purpose. In time, they would prove more successful than the Qing and Ming policies when it came to dealing with the Europeans, and laying out the groundwork here will set up the comparison later. Though the parallels are not exact, the “feudal” nature of Japanese society also makes this topic a bit easier for students to understand, as does the smaller scale. Attempting to comprehend the government of China can be overwhelming, but Japan’s unification provides a more manageable—and not dissimilar—case study. Two useful threads that run through this discussion and are of great interest to students are the relations between the Japanese and the Jesuits, and the fate of the samurai. The story of the forty-seven ronin makes a good entry to the topic, as do tales of Jesuit martyrdom. It is then easy to trace the process of disarming the samurai and centralizing the state. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS A Case Study: The Great Wall Several subjects in this chapter have tremendous symbolic as well as historical value. The Great Wall of China is a classic example. Students find the Great Wall fascinating, and often it’s the only thing they know about China. Use the Great Wall for its symbolic value. Ask students how the Great Wall might represent the strengths and weaknesses of China. It’s certainly one of the world’s great building projects and representative of a brilliant civilization in many ways. The wall is also symbolic of China’s fear and isolation, though. In the end the Great Wall, just as China in general, was unable to keep out invaders. The fact that the wall was built on the ruins of the old Qin walls is also representative of China building on old traditions. The queue as a symbol of submission can be used to express the Manchu view of the Chinese people. This topic can lead to a discussion of how it was possible for the Manchus to gain and, more importantly, maintain control. A Case Study on the Role of Women in Society: Foot Binding The topic of foot binding is a good subject to use to spark a discussion. The most natural conversation would center on the changing role of women in Qing China. Foot binding is one of those topics that students find fascinating without truly understanding the deeper implications of the practice. American students will comment on the social constraints on women in China without considering that they themselves live in a society that has made breast augmentation, among other procedures, into a thriving industry. Ask students to think of other examples where women were placed in somewhat similar situations. Then ask them if any similar artificial social expectations are placed on American women in regard to their bodies. It shows the students that perhaps other parts of the world are not as different as they may have originally thought. Jonathan Spence’s The Death of Woman Wang can serve as a short and insightful supplement for this section. It deals with many Chinese societal and gender issues from this period. From this simple introduction, the discussion can also lead to the growing urbanization of Qing China. Cultural Development within Ukiyo Divide students into groups. Ask each group to study one aspect of cultural development within ukiyo (floating worlds), and in a subsequent class detail their findings in a short summary presentation. Ask students why they think that most popular artistic production focused on satirical portrayals of secular rather than religious or political themes. How do these developments compare with those in other regions during the same period? What do they suggest about the flexibility within an apparently rigid and conservative social order? Comparative Case Study: Japanese and Western Economic and Social Development Many aspects of Tokugawa Japan’s remarkable economic and social development provide opportunities to raise viable comparisons with early modern Europe, which students have recently studied. Ask students to identify what sorts of commonalities existed within both regions between 1500 and 1800, and then ask them to consider why it is that western Europe used these changes as a springboard into industrial development, while the Japanese did not, at least initially. Were any of these circumstances also present in China under the Ming and Qing emperors? What connections exist between pre-industrial and modern Japan, and how important are these connections today? Asking students to consider these questions helps remind them that east Asian development trajectories are not nearly as different from European or “western” ones as they might assume. Population Growth and Restriction Population growth and its related social, political, and economic problems would make for a very good discussion topic. First, ask the students to discuss why the population of China exploded during these years. What factors, many of them coming about because of this age of greater global interaction, explain this phenomenon? Then ask them to consider what problems growth of this magnitude could bring. Would any of these problems still haunt China today? How do you govern a country that large? What level of standard of living can be expected? It can also serve as a later inroad to a discussion of the rise of communism in China. Now bring in Japan and the subject of “thinning out the rice shoots.” Why did the Japanese make the decision to practice population control so early? Why do some nations still find it impossible today? You can then switch back to China and discuss efforts at population control today. Chapter 27 The Islamic Empires CHAPTER OVERVIEW Three powerful Islamic empires emerged in India and southwest Asia after the fifteenth century. Beginning with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Turkish warriors and charismatic leaders established first the Ottoman empire, then the Safavid dynasty in Persia (1502), and finally the Mughal dynasty in India (1526). Despite their intellectual and social roots among the people of the steppes, three distinct empires emerged with different cultures and traditions. Though all three empires enjoyed strong domestic economies and participation in global trade networks in the sixteenth century, cultural insularity and economic difficulties took their toll. By the late eighteenth century, the Safavid empire had collapsed and the Ottoman and Mughal empires were severely weakened. THEMES Autocratic rule. All three empires began as military states in which all power and prestige centered on the person of the ruler. All three were plagued by problems of succession from one ruler to the next. Islamic faith. All three empires embraced Islam. Sizeable Christian minorities in the Ottoman empire and a large Hindu majority in India forced those rulers to craft policies of religious toleration. The Safavid dynasty followed the Shiite sect of Islam, which brought them into conflict with their Sunni Ottoman neighbors. Agricultural economies. Agriculture was the basis of the Islamic empires, and the majority of the population was engaged in raising and processing food. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Ottoman and Safavid populations grew slowly; the population in India grew more dramatically. By the eighteenth century, the domestic economies of all three empires were declining as expansion slowed. It became difficult to meet the expenses of such large militaries and administrations. Ambivalence toward foreign trade. All three empires were situated along important historic trade routes and derived benefit from their locations. The Ottomans and Safavids pursued foreign trade more vigorously than the Mughal. By the eighteenth century, however, foreign trade had declined greatly or had fallen under the control of European powers. Cultural conservatism. The Islamic empires did not seek out new ideas or technologies and proved hostile to innovation by the eighteenth century. Like leaders in the Ming, Qing, and Tokugawa dynasties, Islamic conservatives feared that new ideas would lead to political instability. LECTURE STRATEGIES Religious Toleration in the Islamic Empires It is important to provide a sense of balance in the examination of the Islamic empires, especially for American students, who tend to get a jaundiced view of the Islamic world from news reports of the threats of fundamentalist Islam. Obviously, you should not act as an apologist for these Islamic empires. Rather, you should provide a seasoned and educated balance to complicated topics. While the jizya may have been imposed on non-Muslims in Islamic countries, for example, it was still more tolerant than the treatment usually handed out to non-Christians in Europe. (Akbar even rescinded the jizya in India.) At the same time, while the devshirme played a role in the creation of the powerful Janissaries, it also forced thousands of residents of the Balkans into slavery. Plus, the tolerant treatment of conquered peoples often varied during the course of the dynasties. Aurangzeb displayed little of the tolerance of his predecessor Akbar. Later Ottoman rulers were less liberal in their treatment of dhimmi. The link between tolerance and success makes a good theme for this lecture. (It would also be worthwhile to review the basic terms students will need to know in order to engage in an intelligent discussion of the Islamic world. You may even consider putting together some type of glossary handout.) The Capture of Constantinople How many bigger moments are there in all of history than the capture of Constantinople by Mehmed II? Excerpts from Steven Runciman’s study of the siege (The Fall of Constantinople 1453) are perfect for use in class. What would Istanbul mean to the Islamic world? Did it have the same weight in the Islamic world that Constantinople had in the Mediterranean world? Certainly the Ottoman Turks had a sense of the dramatic nature of that moment in time. When they began to use the term sultan-i-Rum (“sultan of Rome”) it showed that they understood the implications of their role as the heirs of Roman glory. They were truly the rulers of the “two lands” and the “two seas.” This topic is then a natural introduction to a discussion of the power, size, wealth, and influence of the Ottoman empire. It is also interesting how close the Ottomans were to even greater power. The untimely death of Mehmed II after the capture of Otranto, the defeat at the hands of the Spanish navy at Lepanto, and the unexpected arrival of a Polish army under Jan Sobieski to lift the siege of Vienna all show how close the Ottomans were to controlling all of Europe. The stories of the siege of Vienna, moreover, can be used to reinforce this point from a European view. The life story of Miguel Cervantes, who not only authored Don Quixote but also fought at Lepanto and spent several years as a slave in Algiers, can also make the point nicely. Twelver Shiism in the Safavid Dynasty If there is a dynasty that the students will struggle with in this chapter, it’s probably the Safavids. Few students will understand the complexities of Twelver Shiism unaided. Fortunately, this topic also provides an opportunity to examine a few fascinating subjects. Shah Ismail is one of those extraordinary characters that remind instructors and students of the difficulties (and in some cases impossibility) of fathoming the human mind. Was he truly devoted to Shiism, or was he merely using the religion as a vehicle for uniting his people and providing them with a sense of mission? What was it about Twelver Shiism that he found so appealing, from either perspective? What role did religion play in the rise and fall of the Safavid empire? From here you can go into a discussion of the historical and theological differences between Shiite and Sunni, and their relationship in the world today. Use the battle of Chaldiran to show that religious and political differences are as prevalent and disruptive in the Islamic world as they are in the Christian world. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS Süleyman the Lawgiver Ask the students if they can think of any reasons why there might be a statue of the Ottoman leader Süleyman the Magnificent in the U.S. House of Representatives. Why did the Ottomans call him Süleyman Kanuni, or “the Lawgiver”? What is the significance of this name? While it is certainly enlightening that the Europeans referred to Süleyman as “the Magnificent,” why would it be more significant to the Ottomans that Süleyman was a lawgiver than a conqueror? Take the opportunity to discuss the complexity and innovations of his law code. How influential was this code? From this topic you can move forward and ask the students to consider the long-term implications and influences of these Islamic states. How was India shaped by the centuries of Islamic Mughal rule? How were Persia and the Islamic world changed by the Twelver Shiism of Shah Ismail? Akbar’s Rule The reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar makes a great discussion topic. In an age of magnificent rulers, Akbar may be the most different and special. Ask the students to compare his reign to that of the other Mughals. Passages from the Babur-nama express the often-troubled relationship between the Islamic Mughals and Hindu Indians. What were the guiding reasons for Akbar’s tolerance? Was he a politician who, like England’s Elizabeth I or France’s Henri IV, attempted to place religion in the background during a turbulent religious age, or was there a more spiritually transcendent reason behind his respect for other religions? Certainly some of his words hint that he viewed all religions as attempts to arrive at one great divine truth. Can the students think of any other leaders of that age, or any other age for that matter, who took a similar approach? Did he go too far and too fast to be successful? The Ottomans and Jihad Ask the students to consider what the Ottoman poet Ahmadi meant when he wrote, “the Ghazi is the sword of God, he is the protector and the refuge of the believers.” What was the jihad? Did the jihad have a meaning different from the popular perception of its meaning today? (This is a difficult question even for Islamic scholars to answer, so you will want to do some research.) Did the Ottomans gain some sense of mission from this belief? Ask the students to consider other times, both good and bad, in which societies were driven by some greater goals. The European actions in the crusades should leap to mind. The Roman belief in destiny and their role in imposing order on chaos is another good example. Ask the students if societies need a driving force. What happens when societies lose this direction and start merely defending the status quo? Making Connections Have each group explain, in fifty words or less, the relationship in each of the following pairs. They should focus on how one leads to or fosters the other, and they should be specific in their responses. Janissaries and Topkapi palace Trading concessions and European weapons Muslim clerics and English muskets Treaty of Tordesillas and Mehmed the Conqueror Chapter 28 Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World CHAPTER OVERVIEW Revolutions shook the Atlantic world in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, bringing unprecedented political and social changes. The American revolution brought independence from Great Britain and the creation of a new republic. Shortly thereafter a revolution broke out that radically transformed French society and shook Europe to its core. Central and South America, including the Caribbean, would undergo similar transformations. These revolutions spread Enlightenment ideals and promoted the consolidation of national states. THEMES The Enlightenment movement, which employed rational analysis to examine and reform human behavior and institutions, was the culmination of the intellectual transformation seen in the scientific revolution. One crucial result was the growing popularity of the theory of progress, a notion that continues to influence European and American societies. Enlightenment ideals such as freedom and equality helped generate a series of violent revolutions throughout the Atlantic Ocean basin between the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. By the1830s, many new political structures incorporating these ideas existed throughout western Europe and the Americas. Two significant results came out of these revolutions: the global transmission of Enlightenment ideas, and the consolidation of nation-states as the principal form of political organization. New political ideologies emerged out of the Atlantic world revolutions, in particular conservatism and liberalism, which have exerted considerable significance over the last two hundred years of world history. Revolutionary ideologies also helped promote calls for minority rights and freedoms, particularly for slaves and women, throughout the Atlantic world. Another revolutionary ideology of enormous significance is nationalism, which encouraged national unification movements, promoted distrust and suspicion of minority groups, and helped generate several similar ideological movements such as Zionism, anti-Semitism, and racism, all of which continue to influence world history. LECTURE STRATEGIES Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte is a character who is simply far larger than life. There are so many anecdotes and images from his career (e.g., fighting in the shadow of the pyramids, crossing the Alps, stumbling through the snow on the way out of Russia, standing up to the army that Louis XVIII sent to capture him, etc.) that it is almost difficult to give a bad lecture on Napoleon. Napoleon can also be used to facilitate a discussion on the nature of revolution. Ask the students to decide whether Napoleon was a child of the French revolution or the antithesis of it. Was he merely a conqueror, or was there some element of the reformer in his nature? Did his conquests help spread the ideals of the Enlightenment and French revolution, or was his rise to power proof that the revolution had failed? You might also ask the students to compare Napoleon to Washington. Why is it so common for powerful generals to rule after periods of revolutionary upheaval? Also consider examining the global impact of Napoleon’s career and actions. From the Louisiana Purchase, through the consolidation of Europe and invasion of Spain and Portugal that encouraged Latin American independence, to the continental system that forced increased efficiency from British manufacturing and spurred industrialization, Napoleon’s life is clear and explicit proof that individuals matter enormously in world history. There are several assets below which would be useful for this lecture strategy. Philosophical Changes: Conservatism, Liberalism and the Relations of the People to the State In this particular chapter the authors are forced to take on a mountain of material. Thematically the chapter holds together well, but you will probably still want to examine certain subjects in greater detail. It would be helpful to spend a little more time discussing the relationship between the evolving philosophies of conservatism and liberalism, and their relationship to the French revolution. Moreover, you could give a sense of what direction these philosophies would take throughout the rest of the nineteenth century and into the twentieth. Similarly, it would be useful to devote more time to Metternich and the Congress of Vienna. Would it really be possible to rebuild the ancien régime? It never hurts to reexamine concepts such as popular sovereignty and the social contract. Does living in a popularly elected republic mean that the citizen can do whatever he or she pleases? What does the individual owe the state? The area in this chapter, however, where the student will probably need the most guidance is the Latin American revolutions. Most students will have some understanding of the American and French revolutions as well as of Napoleon. All too often, though, the revolutionary leaders and movements in Latin America have been ignored. It is essential to make these events accessible to students. Case Studies: Major Leaders of the Era You can focus on several major leaders from this chapter. Certainly you will want to incorporate more details, but more importantly, the students need to understand the weight or significance of what these leaders represent. Washington is the classic example. He was simply not one of the leading intellectual lights of the revolution. Why then was he the only real choice for president? What does he mean to America? Quite simply, Washington has always been the model for what an American citizen should be. This image may be true partly because of his actions and partly through the careful scripting of later generations, but it is still true. In a way Washington is to the Americans what Cincinnatus was to the Romans and Liu Bei was to the Chinese. For all his accomplishments, he probably means more as a model. Ask similar questions about Jefferson, Napoleon, Simón Bolívar, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Bismarck, and so on. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS Topics in an Eighteenth-Century French Salon Divide students into smaller groups. Ask them to imagine they are members of a French salon in the eighteenth century. Note that as privileged and well-educated members of society, they consider themselves enlightened, although many of them also may be troubled by the aggressive attacks by Monsieur Voltaire on the Catholic church and His Majesty’s government. Each group should prepare and present to the class a debate on one of the issues of the day: Rightful authority: reason or divine? Absolute versus constitutional government Traditional Christianity (in France, the Catholic church) versus deism The best test of truth: science and reason or the revealed truths of religion? The nature and fundamental rights of humanity Comparing the Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen An examination and comparison of the Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen is an obvious but necessary exercise. How were these documents influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment? Who were the leaders behind their creation? How do they relate to each other? Was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen more than simply a reworking of the Declaration of Independence? What was Jefferson’s role in both documents? Could he indirectly say more in the French document than in his own Declaration of Independence? What were the limitations to the two documents? What did they not say? Why would Olympe de Gouges feel the need to write the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen? How would the existence of slavery relate to the American ideals? Were both documents later repudiated by their own revolutions? The Meaning of Revolution Obviously, revolutionary change of one form or another stands at the heart of this chapter. It would be good to get students thinking about what revolutions mean and whether they achieve their goals. Start off with Simón Bolívar’s lament that “those who have served the revolution have plowed the sea.” Ask students what Bolívar might have meant by this statement. Do revolutions turn out differently than they were intended? Was Jefferson as happy with the political realities of the Constitution, for example, as he was with the ideals of the Declaration of Independence? To put it in perspective, you might ask the students why the Haitian revolution was probably truer to itself than its French or American counterparts. You might also ask the students to consider the old saying that “revolutions devour their young.” Why would this happen? One can understand why conservative creoles would execute Hidalgo or Iturbide, but why would de Gouges or Robespierre be swallowed up by the very revolution they helped create? Finally, if you feel the students are ready, you can bring in Crane Brinton’s The Anatomy of Revolution. “Blood and Iron” Ask the students to consider Otto von Bismarck’s admonition that the “great questions of the day will not be settled by speeches or majority votes ... but by blood and iron.” What did he mean by this seemingly chilling remark? It’s certainly a remark that has shaded the popular perception of Bismarck—and of German nationalism, for that matter. Was Bismarck saying that force and violence is the way the world should be or was he just realistic about how the world works? Was Bismarck a prophet of a new brand of amoral politics, or was he an observant commentator? The same question could certainly be asked of Machiavelli’s philosophy as expressed in The Prince. Ask students to compare Bismarck’s view to the revolutions and political transformations discussed in the chapter. In the end, would Jefferson’s beautiful words have had the same historical significance if not for Washington’s ability to drag the undermanned Americans to an improbable victory? This question can also lead to an interesting discussion of how the victors often decide who the heroes and villains were. Debating Revolutionary Ideologies Divide students into groups. Assign each group a revolutionary ideology, and then ask each group to debate a series of issues from that particular ideological standpoint. Issues might include slavery, women’s rights, the virtue of representative government, and so on. Also encourage students to consider just how dramatically different these ideas are from older, traditional notions, as today many students regard these ideas as permanent and fixed. This is also a great way to explore the relationship between ideas and actions in human societies. Chapter 29 The Making of Industrial Society CHAPTER OVERVIEW Beginning in Britain in the eighteenth century, and then moving to western Europe, North America, Russia, and Japan, the industrial revolution transformed life in an almost unprecedented manner. Machines driven by new inanimate sources of power replaced traditional animal or human power. The developing machine-age devices increased worker productivity, economic specialization, and large-scale enterprise. While industrialization raised the material standards for much of the world in the long run, it also led to immense social and economic dislocation as well as tremendous short-term suffering. Socialists such as the utopians, and the more influential Karl Marx, dreamed of transforming or destroying the new industrial world. THEMES Industrialization included features of technological and organizational change that allowed machine manufacture powered by fossil fuel technology to transform rates of productivity to unprecedented levels. Factories emerged as the principal form of industrial organization, while corporations and cartels emerged in response to the high price of factory equipment and need for structured and complex management hierarchies. Although by the end of the eighteenth century several areas of the world possessed complex and dynamic economies that confronted numerous ecological constraints, only Britain transcended fuel shortages by substituting coal for wood in iron production, cooking, and heating. This shift took advantage of Britain's significant coal reserves, which unlike China and Japan were numerous and located close to population centers. Steel production accelerated and high quantities become available cheaply for the first time. Factory systems, steam transportation facilities, and communications technologies dramatically lowered transport costs and times throughout a complex network that expanded across the globe by the end of the nineteenth century. Significant material benefits flowed to industrial societies, including inexpensive products, rising living standards, and reduced physical labor responsibilities. Human mortality rates dropped across the board due to improved sanitation and disease control. Consumer activity expanded in response to these conditions, and populations already enlarged by agricultural improvements grew even more rapidly. Industrialization encouraged a restructuring of social classes and the creation of new social classes and family structures. Entrepreneurs gained enormous wealth, and a new middle class enjoyed the benefits of industrial society. An industrial labor force, known as the working classes, appeared. Gender relations also underwent change, as male status and responsibility increased at the expense of women, who were increasingly confined to the home. Industrialization’s other effects included the emergence of a new ideology, socialism, as the solution to the social and economic inequality generated by industrial capitalism. Most prominent among the socialist critics were Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who advocated overthrow of the industrial system and its replacement by a socialist utopia. Marxism, an ideology emanating from Marx and Engels’s ideas, would inspire many revolutionary movements throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century. As industrialization expanded globally, it generated deep changes in the social and economic makeup of the global economy. An international division of labor occurred, shifting work and occupational patterns across many world regions. In some areas, primarily European settler colonies, economic growth led to the formation of high-wage economies. In other areas such as Asia, Africa, and Latin America, economic dependence on primary production with low-wage economies led to little or no industrialization. This pattern of global economic development remains relevant today. LECTURE STRATEGIES The Human Side of the Industrial Revolution There is a real danger in this chapter that you must be careful to understand and plan around. While all these inventions are of profound significance, students nonetheless tend to find this material dry. Consequently, try to show the human side of the industrial revolution. How did every one of these inventions actually influence how people led their lives? For all of the long-term advantages of the industrial revolution (and it did essentially create the world the students live in today), it is important to show the short-term suffering it caused. Without this knowledge it is impossible for the class to understand the actions of the Luddites or the philosophy of the socialists. Second, the students must comprehend that these discoveries were both destroying an old world and creating a new one. The same point can certainly be made about the discoveries of the scientific revolution, except that these changes had a much deeper, comprehensive effect on the everyday life of common people. Explain to the students how these inventions not only altered the way in which products were manufactured but also transformed the fabric of society and the structure of family life. Examine issues such as declining fertility and the massive employment of women and children. Consider the new urban industrial centers. How was life in these cities different from that in the countryside? Finally, you might consider discussing Eli Whitney’s invention of interchangeable parts. Why were they so important? In a way, the industrial revolution turned human beings into interchangeable parts. Artisanship was replaced by the speed of the assembly line. Any worker could replace the contributions of any other worker. Come back to this notion of interchangeable parts when you get to the discussion of World War I. Making Connections: Industrialization and Socialism It is both simple and useful to use this opportunity to draw the connection between industrialization and socialism. To many students, the ideas of Fourier, Marx, and the utopian socialists are just abstractions. Start by outlining the living and working conditions of the proletariat; Edwin Chadwick’s reports from the mid-nineteenth century are an excellent source, as is Engels’s text on the working class. You can then tie these ideas together with the Chartist movement to show how the idea that government needed to protect people’s rights somehow evolved. Link the discussion all the way back to Locke, if possible. The rise of socialism, seen through the eyes of Robert Owen and Friedrich Engels, then makes a bit more sense. The result can be shocking and unwelcome for some students, but if done well, it can also make sense of socialism and communism, and explain the popularity of these movements in Europe during the industrial age. You can also use this thread to set up later discussions on Bismarck, the Russian revolution, and the Great Depression. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS The Human Side of the New Industrial Class With this chapter, obviously, it is essential to put a human face on the conditions of the new industrial class. Personal accounts drawn from the lives of the burgeoning urban proletariat would work great. One of the things that makes the opening discussion of the life of Betty Harris so effective is that it is the story of an ordinary human being placed in extraordinary circumstances and not just a recounting of inventions. Any connection to an older, more traditional world is broken forever. Examples drawn from Dickens’s Hard Times or Sinclair’s The Jungle work well here also. Anything that you can use to ground subjects like the industrial revolution or urbanization in flesh and blood will pay off handsomely because the students will be able to “feel” the profound changes that were tearing society apart. How Lives Changed in the Era of Industrialization Another approach to the challenge of making students understand industrialization would be to ask them to consider how their lives might have been changed if they had been alive during that transitional stage. Start by asking the students to remember what the lives of the common folks had been like for centuries. This discussion will give you an opportunity to go back and reaffirm points made earlier in the class. For all the profound intellectual and artistic advances of the Renaissance or the scientific revolution, had the lives of the average rural worker actually changed that much? For that matter, how deeply did the French revolution resonate? What sets the era of industrialization apart is that it would touch almost every individual in the developing western European states. What would their lives have been like before? What factors would cause the change? What changes would be the most unsettling? How would industrialization influence social and gender issues? In what ways would a person’s life be better or worse? Could these changes be avoided? This issue would be a good time to bring in a discussion of the Luddites. Were they merely living in the past, or were they in some ways prophets of an eventual industrial backlash? Finally, ask the students to be prophets themselves by asking them to predict what might happen as the world enters the postindustrial era. Marx’s Manifesto of the Communist Party Use Karl Marx’s Manifesto of the Communist Party. The work is short enough and interesting enough to be used as a supplemental book for the class. Students tend to shy away from discussions of socialism, partly for political reasons but also because they believe the subject is too complicated. At its core, however, Marx’s ideas were simple. Have the students consider Marx’s proposal that the “history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle.” What classes were struggling? What were they struggling over? Had it always been the same two classes struggling? Who would eventually win? Why would they win? Was this victory inevitable? How can this struggle be a force of history? Ask the students to examine Marx’s ringing revolutionary call that the workers had nothing to lose but their chains. This approach allows the students to take these ideas right back to the horrible conditions of the new urban working class. Without a sense of the real human suffering during the early stages of industrialization, the students will never understand the basic appeal of socialism. Some of the other socialist writers can be interesting and at times accessible. Excerpts from Fourier’s The Social Destiny of Man or something from Emma Goldman or one of the other anarchists (Bakunin, Kropotkin, et. al.) are good choices. Chapter 30 The Americas in the Age of Independence CHAPTER OVERVIEW By the early nineteenth century most of the countries of the Americas had achieved independence from European control. As is so often the case, the most difficult part of the process still lay ahead. It was now left for these new nations to create vibrant but stable states. The United States suffered through a bloody civil war but eventually built a powerful state and by the end of the century was well on its way to world-power status. Canada, despite tensions between British Canadians and French Canadians, constructed a stable federal system. The Latin American countries struggled but moved slowly toward political stability. Like their European counterparts in this revolutionary age, all the nations of the western hemisphere found it difficult to balance the ideals of the Enlightenment and the realities of self-government. THEMES After independence, American states faced numerous challenges in their attempts to create stable governmental structures. Diverse terrain, peoples, and interpretations of Enlightenment ideals meant that the United States, Canada, and Latin America each took separate yet related paths throughout the nineteenth century. Issues that connected them included the coercive and unequal nature of American labor systems, the difficulty of extending effective authority over vast distances, and the debate over the limits on federal authority. In the United States, westward expansion and explosive population and economic growth created friction that led to civil war. The defeat of the secessionists led to the abolition of slavery and the strengthening of the federal state. In Canada, partly as a result of the American revolution, independence came peacefully and civil war was avoided despite considerable regional diversity. This diversity was reflected in the federalist system of Canada, which placed most power in the hands of regional provinces. In Latin America, tremendous fragmentation and social division precluded the creation of a confederation, and the region remained unstable politically for most of the century. One feature of North American states was the adoption of transcontinental railroad networks to facilitate political, economic, and cultural unity. Both Canada and the United States created huge internal markets through these systems, which were joined also by telegraph and road networks. In contrast, transportation infrastructure did not reach similar levels in Latin America until the following century. Two features, mass migration and British investment, characterized American economic development throughout the nineteenth century. The United States assumed the role of Britain as principal foreign investor in the western hemisphere after World War I. American states reacted in different ways to these developments. The United States and Canada established economic independence through successful assimilation policies and exploitation of British capital. Latin American nations’ dependence on single export crops precluded rapid industrialization, and encouraged a cycle of economic dependence on cheap European manufactured goods. All American societies faced challenges to unity stemming from ethnic, sectarian, gender, and social diversity. Coercive and unequal labor practices highlighted the contradictions between Enlightenment ideals and American realities. Groups such as recent migrants, women, native Americans, and African-Americans used Enlightenment language to press for equality or improved circumstances. In response, as part of efforts to maintain their positions and preserve social order, dominant American elites often repressed these movements. Patriarchal structures, particularly in Latin America, were maintained. LECTURE STRATEGIES Making Connections: The U.S., Canada, and Latin America in the Age of Independence It is important to take these three areas—the United States, Canada, and Latin America—and tie them together. Obviously they were all struggling with the process of building states in the aftermath of cutting colonial bonds with Europe. What did they have in common? How difficult is it to build a state? What really sets these areas apart from some (although certainly not all) of their European predecessors is the diversity and complexity of the population. It could be argued that Canada, even considering the indigenous peoples and the troubling split between British Canadians and French Canadians, had the least complicated makeup. Is it just a coincidence that the Canadian experience was less bloody than its southern counterparts? Even here you have Louis Riel, the métis, and the Northwest Rebellion. Though the political history of the United States is not nearly as complex or troubling as that of Latin America, it was still necessary to fight a devastating civil war to dampen sectional difficulties and preserve the Union. Another factor to consider is the level of self-government allowed by the Europeans before independence. The Latin American countries received little latitude in self-rule, which made the process that much more challenging after independence. The American Civil War: Parallels with Canada and Latin America Starting with the American Civil War is a good way to examine issues that confronted all three societies. Students are usually familiar with this topic, but you might want to refresh their memories since the conflict was more complex than many of them may remember. In looking at the various issues—slavery, industrialization, expansion, democratic reforms, and sectionalism—from the American perspective, you can point out the parallels in Canada and Latin America. What is interesting is that most American students tend to see the Civil War as inevitable. Point out that the United States tried several compromises similar to those the Canadians and Latin Americans employed. (Think, for example, of the Missouri Compromise.) The question then becomes: why didn’t these work for the United States? This is an interesting twist for students who tend to see America as the most successful state during this period, and is likely to spark a good deal of discussion. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS The American Concept of Manifest Destiny The American concept of manifest destiny is an interesting topic for discussion. Students have already read about the rise of nationalism in Europe. Now they can take what they have learned and ask the same questions about the American experience. Were the Americans every bit as nationalistic as the Europeans? Why did they feel a sense of ownership of the continent? What was their view of the indigenous people who stood in the way of American expansion? How was the Monroe Doctrine an expression of this growing American sense of nationalism? Students will see the creation of a true American empire in the coming years and chapters. It is important for them to get a sense of the roots of this nationalistic and expansionistic fervor. How would this desire for conquest and greatness push the United States onto the world stage? When the United States pushed all the way westward and California became a state, then the Americans suddenly had a second coast and a new outlook on the world. What were the results of this movement? Case Study: “I Fear Peace more than War” Simón Bolívar said, “I fear peace more than war.” Ask students what he might have meant by that statement. How much more complex is it to build a state than to fight for independence? Political fissures are often covered up by an immediate military threat. What challenges did the new American states face as they set about creating a stable state? It might be useful to start specifically with the United States so that students are in familiar territory, but then you can branch out to examine Canada and Latin America. Ask the students to think of other areas that may have faced similar problems. Are there some problems that are unique to particular countries? This topic will also set up forthcoming chapters on decolonization in Asia and Africa. For that matter, the students don’t really have to go any further than the situation in the former Yugoslavia, central Asia, or the middle east to see the dangers of state building in the modern world. The Fate of Indigenous Peoples in the Americas Simón Bolívar also pointed out in a speech that the “greater portion of the native Indians has been annihilated.” The fate of the indigenous population in the United States, Canada, and Latin America plays a very important role in this chapter. It is one of the downsides to territorial expansion and nation building in the Americas. To their credit, American students usually show a great deal of interest in the nature and eventual fate of the indigenous population. Consequently, this is a natural topic for discussion. Ask the students if they have seen other, similar examples of aboriginal peoples being pushed aside by expanding states. Is this treatment a natural part of the political process? Is it unavoidable? Were there other ways around this situation? It is an uncomfortable topic for students because the subject comes a bit too close to ethnic cleansing. It is the uncomfortable nature of the discussion, however, that proves its value. Comparing Migrant Settlers and Indigenous Peoples Divide the class into three groups. Assign each group one region of the Americas during the nineteenth century, and then ask them to analyze and consider the relationship between migrant settlers and indigenous peoples during this period. In a group discussion, identify both comparisons and contrasts in these relationships, and then move to a discussion of how these pasts interact with and influence contemporary relationships today. Go to the Internet and access the website of the National Museum of the American Indian at http://www.nmai.si.edu. Then compare it with similar efforts elsewhere, such as the Canadian Museum of History’s “First Peoples” virtual exhibits, at http://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/aborig/fp/fpint01e.shtml, and a discussion of the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City, at http://www.inside-mexico.com/cultura1.htm. Ask students to consider how these public historical displays interact with historical experience, and what this suggests about the relationship between academic and public history in general. Instructor Manual for Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past Jerry Bentley, Herbert Ziegler, Heather Streets Salter 9780073407029, 9780076700691