Chapter 2: Social Status: Sex, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Class Part I: Multiple Choice Questions: Learning Objective 2.1: Why are gender, race, ethnicity, and social class important? 1. The story of Becca and her daughter reveals: A. climbing out of poverty is a difficult challenge. B. discrimination against Blacks has declined. C. prejudice against Hispanic groups has increased. D. the benefits of being bilingual. E. the benefits of being listed in the Social Register. Answer: A Rationale: The opening vignette portrays a woman trying to climb out of poverty. 2. The hierarchical ranking of categories of people within society is called: A. gender. B. prejudice. C. patriarchy. D. social stratification. E. social mobility. Answer: D Rationale: Social stratification describes the hierarchical ranking of categories of people. 3. The median wage needed to pay for a two-bedroom rental unit was about ______________ per hour in 2009. A. $10 B. $12 C. $17 D. $23 E. $28 Answer: C Rationale: The median wage needed that was reported in the book is $17.84. 4. The number of charges of sex, race, and ethnic discrimination to the U.S. Equal Opportunity Commission (EEOC): A. declined slightly since 2005. B. declined by nearly 50 percent since 2005. C. has remained stable over the past 20 years. D. increased during the 1970s, but has since stabilized. E. increased since 2005. Answer: E Rationale: The number of charges has increased. 5. Which of the following is FALSE? A. Girls and boys are treated differently by their parents, and parents hold different expectations for them. B. Males begin sexual relationships earlier than do females, and have a greater number of sexual partners. C. Men are more likely to graduate from college than are women, and they are less likely to have careers, although they earn more money. D. Wives are more likely than their husbands to do most of the housework and child care. E. If a couple divorces, the man is more likely to remarry. Answer: C Rationale: All statements are true except C. Women are more likely to graduate from college, and women are less likely to have careers. Learning Objective 2.2: What is the difference between “sex” and “gender”? 6. Stella’s parents stated that her curfew was midnight, whereas her twin brother, Shane was allowed to stay out until 1:00. Her parents said that Stella’s earlier curfew was because “girls who stay out late get bad reputations – good girls shouldn’t be out late.” What concept is in play? A. hidden curriculum B. gender C. social capital D. SES E. sex Answer: B Rationale: This example focuses on gender, which is the culturally and socially constructed differences between males and females found in the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with “femininity” and “masculinity.” 7. Biological differences between men and women and their role in reproduction refers to: A. sex. B. agents of socialization. C. SES. D. gender. E. sociological imagination. Answer: A Rationale: This is the definition provided in the text. The other answer categories have different meanings. 8. Joshua is a student at a nearby university. He is a male, which refers to his: A. SES. B. sexual script. C. sex. D. social mobility. E. gender. Answer: C Rationale: Sex is a biological category: e.g., male, female, man, woman. Learning Objective 2.3: How do we learn our gendered expectations? 9. ______________ refers to how we are taught the norms associated with being male or female in a particular culture. A. Gender training B. Infibulations C. Hidden curriculum D. Gender profiling E. Gender socialization Answer: E Rationale: This is the definition provided in the text. The other answer categories have different meanings. 10. Ying Liu’s mom and dad take their role as parents seriously. They want their daughter to conform to traditional expectations, so they make sure that she is dressed in pretty clothes, that she doesn’t get too dirty, that she plays with dolls, and that she doesn’t behave in ways that they consider too active or aggressive. This teaching process is called: A. gender formation. B. gender socialization. C. gender profiling. D. gender discrimination. E. genderizing. Answer: B Rationale: Gender socialization teaches us the meanings associated with being male or female in a particular culture. 11. Katie is learning how to read and her father noticed that many of the classic books show girls standing on the sidelines and boys as the main characters. This is an example of: A. institutional discrimination. B. SES. C. infibulation. D. a hidden curriculum. E. a sexual script. Answer: D Rationale: The hidden curriculum informally teaches girls to value compliance and stay on the sidelines. Learning Objective 2.4: What is patriarchy, and why is it important to the study of gender? 12. With respect to the division of household labor: A. on average, males and females share household labor equally. B. an increasing number of males and females believe household labor should be shared equally, but women still do 2 to 3 times the amount of labor. C. both males and females believe that household labor is women’s work. D. males and females share household tasks equally, but women do a disproportionate share of child care. E. males and females share child care equally, but women do a disproportionate share of household tasks. Answer: B Rationale: Only B is true; the other answer categories are false. 13. Female genital cutting/mutilation: A. has occurred among nearly 20 million women and girls around the world. B. is the equivalent to male circumcision. C. eliminates a woman’s ability to have an orgasm. D. is a safe procedure if done in a hospital. E. continues because it is deeply rooted in religious customs. Answer: C Rationale: Only C is true; the other answer categories are false. 14. What was the most frequent cosmetic surgical procedure in 2008, according to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons? A. liposuction B. tummy tuck C. nose reshaping D. eyelid surgery E. breast augmentation Answer: E Rationale: Breast augmentation is the most frequent cosmetic surgical procedure. Learning Objective 2.5: What is the difference between race and ethnicity, and which term is generally more useful? 15. Which of the following minority groups is the largest in the United States? A. Hispanics B. Blacks C. Asian Americans D. Native Americans E. Alaska Natives Answer: A Rationale: Hispanics comprise the largest minority group in the U.S. 16. People who share specific cultural features are referred to as a/an: A. ethnic group. B. race. C. extended group. D. institutional group. E. minority group. Answer: A Rationale: This is the definition provided in the text. The other answer categories have different meanings. 17. Latoya is a Black woman. Her parents were born in Jamaica and Latoya was born in the United States. She: A. is African American. B. is not a minority. C. considers her race to be Black. D. considers her ethnicity to be Black. E. is Caucasian. Answer: C Rationale: Her race is Black. She is a minority, and is not African American because she is Jamaican. 18. Ernesto is a Cuban American living near Miami in South Florida. Which of the following statements about Ernesto is correct? A. His race is Hispanic. B. His ethnicity is Cuban. C. His ethnicity is Caucasian. D. He is not a minority because of the large numbers of Cuban Americans living in South Florida. E. He doesn’t have an ethnicity. Answer: B Rationale: Ethnicity is shared cultural characteristics, such as language, place of origin, dress, food, religion, and other values. Learning Objective 2.6: What is the difference between individual and institutional discrimination? 19. When government, religious groups, or schools create policies and practices that are systematically disadvantageous to certain groups, this is called: A. prejudice. B. individual discrimination. C. race. D. social capital. E. institutional discrimination. Answer: E Rationale: The question represents the definition of institutional discrimination. Learning Objective 2.7: Is the United States becoming more diverse? 20. Today the rapid growth in the Hispanic population is primarily due to: A. immigration. B. naturalization. C. a high birth rate. D. emigration. E. institutional discrimination. Answer: C Rationale: C is correct; the other answers are wrong. 21. How many Black children live in the U.S. with single mothers? A. 8 percent B. 19 percent C. one-third D. almost half E. more than two-thirds Answer: D Rationale: Almost half of Black children live with a single mother. 22. Dwayne was interviewing people about racial stereotypes, and the term “model minority” popped up a few times. Which group was most likely being referenced? A. Asian Americans B. Blacks C. Native Americans/Alaska Natives D. Hispanics E. Whites Answer: A Rationale: Asian Americans are sometimes nicknamed the “model minority.” 23. About what percentage of Native Americans identify with a specific tribe? A. one-quarter B. one-third C. one-half D. two-thirds E. three-quarters Answer: E Rationale: About three-quarters of Native Americans identify with a specific tribe. 24. Social class is usually based on: A. income, sex, age, and occupational conditions. B. income, education, and occupational prestige. C. sex and income. D. income. E. income and education. Answer: B Rationale: Social class is usually defined as income, education level, and occupational prestige. Learning Objective 2.8: How many social classes are there? 25. Latonya’s family is listed in the Social Register. Which social class are they probably in? A. the upper class B. the upper middle class C. the middle class D. the working class E. the underclass Answer: A Rationale: Members of the upper class may be listed in the Social Register. Learning Objective 2.9: How does social class affect our lives? 26. Which is TRUE regarding the middle class? A. They tend to be highly educated professionals, including physicians, dentists, lawyers, college professors, and business executives. B. They are the group most likely to be listed in the Social Register. C. They comprise the majority of Americans. D. Their incomes are around $40,000-$100,000 a year. E. They have been nicknamed “bluebloods.” Answer: D Rationale: The middle-class generally has incomes around $40,000-$100,000 a year. 27. Michael was born into poverty, but through some luck and hard work landed a recording contact with a top music company. He has since become a famous musician and has amassed considerable wealth. This is an example of: A. social capital. B. a hidden curriculum. C. social mobility. D. the underclass. E. the social register. Answer: C Rationale: Social mobility refers to the movement from one social class to another. 28. Social mobility refers to: A. social networking connections which can be a valuable source, including a resource for job leads. B. the hierarchical ranking of categories of people within society. C. movement from one social class to another. D. oversimplified sets of beliefs about a group of people. E. the process of interaction whereby individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, norms, and values of their society. Answer: C Rationale: Social mobility refers to the movement from one social class to another. Learning Objective 2.10: How is poverty calculated? 29. The poverty threshold is based on: A. a thrifty food budget, and multiplied by three. B. half the median income. C. a third of the median income. D. national housing costs. E. the average cost of food, shelter, and clothing in a community. Answer: A Rationale: The poverty threshold is based on a thrifty food budget multiplied by three. Learning Objective 2.11: Who is most likely to be poor? 30. Which group is most likely to live in poverty? A. teenagers B. children under 18 C. the elderly age 65 and over D. people who are age 85 and over E. parents Answer: B Rationale: Children are the age group most likely to be in poverty. 31. Approximately how many people live in poverty in the United States? A. 8 million B. 20 million C. 30 million D. 40 million E. 65 million Answer: D Rationale: About 40 million people are impoverished Learning Objective 2.12: What are the consequences of poverty? 32. Which is NOT one of the pathways from poverty to adverse child outcomes described in your text? A. inadequate health and nutrition B. lower-quality home environment C. fewer resources for learning D. poor-quality neighbourhoods E. difficult social capital Answer: E Rationale: Only E is not one of the pathways from poverty to adverse child outcomes 33. Food insecurity: A. is defined as not having enough nourishing food available on a regular basis. B. affects almost 5 percent of household with children. C. is measured as the poverty threshold multiplied by three. D. has been nearly eliminated in the past few decades because of the food stamp program. E. is a particular problem among the elderly. Answer: A Rationale: The USDA describes food insecurity as not having enough nourishing food available on a regular basis. 34. Which of the following statements is FALSE? A. One study of the linguistic capabilities of young children found that poor children on welfare between the ages of 13 and 36 months hear only half as many words per hour as the average working-class child, and less than one- third the average of a typical child in a professional family. B. Parents who are living in poor conditions have a high level of stress, depression, and mental health problems related to their situation. C. Our multiple statuses are unique and rarely intersect with one another. D. On average, poor children have fewer resources for learning in the home, including books and educational toys. E. Guns kill over 3,000 children and teens each year, and is the second leading cause among teens ages 15 to 19. Answer: C Rationale: Only C is false; our multiple statuses do intersect with one another. Learning Objective 2.13: Why are the intersections of sex, gender, race, ethnicity, and class important? 35. Which of the following is TRUE? A. We have multiple statuses, and they interact to shape our lives. B. We have multiple statuses, but they remain separate and distinct. C. Females have multiple statuses, but males have only one. D. Blacks and Whites have multiple statuses, but other groups have only one. E. Racial groups have multiple statues, which interact, but Whites have only one. Answer: A Rationale: Only A is true; our multiple statuses do intersect with one another. Part II: True – False Questions: 1. Social stratification refers to the hierarchical ranking of categories of people within society. Answer: True 2. In 2009, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) received almost 4,000 sex discrimination charges. Answer: False 3. Masculinity is an example of “gender.” Answer: True 4. A person who exhibits both male and female traits in near equal proportions would be called androgynous. Answer: True 5. Gender socialization occurs both at the micro- and macro-level. Answer: True 6. A young child’s toys and books are examples of agents of socialization. Answer: True 7. Education’s hidden curriculum shows signs of change in recent years; more young women than young men apply to, attend, and graduate from college. Answer: True 8. There are only minimal class, racial, and ethnic variations in the gender socialization process. Answer: False 9. Research shows that housework is now divided nearly equally between men and women Answer: False 10. Female genital cutting/mutilation persists in part because of the pervasiveness of matriarchy across societies. Answer: False 11. Patriarchy has been largely eliminated in developed nations like the United States. Answer: False 12. By 2050, the largest population increase across minority groups in the U.S. will be among Asian Americans. Answer: False 13. Ethnicity is considered a much more useful concept than race because it focuses on cultural, rather than biological, characteristics. Answer: True 14. Your best friend is Cuban-American. I am referring to his race. Answer: False 15. Irish Americans are an example of a “minority group” in the U.S. Answer: False 16. Your Uncle Sam doesn’t like to serve certain racial or ethnic groups in his restaurant because he thinks they will discourage other customers from coming in for a meal. This is an example of institutional discrimination. Answer: False 17. In the past, growth in the U.S. Hispanic population was because of a high birth rate, but today’s growth is because of immigration. Answer: False 18. Blacks comprise the largest minority group in the United States. Answer: False 19. Asian households are more likely than those of any other ethnic group to be headed by single mothers. Answer: False 20. The elderly of Native American and Alaska Native groups have traditionally held high status in their families and communities, reinforcing their cultural identity. Answer: True 21. Social classes are based most obviously on income and wealth, but also on other resources, such as educational level and your occupational prestige. Answer: True 22. Approximately 15 to 20 percent of the U.S. population is categorized as “upper middle class,” a group that contains highly educated and well-paid professionals, such as physicians, business executives, and lawyers. Answer: True 23. Most Americans are in the middle class. Answer: False 24. Our social class does not affect the coping mechanisms we develop to deal with stress. Answer: False 25. There is little social mobility in the United States. Answer: True 26. Poverty is calculated on the basis of annual costs of a minimal food budget designed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), which we then multiply by three. Answer: True 27. Almost one child in ten lives below the poverty threshold, according to the table in the text. Answer: False 28. About 15 percent of households experienced food insecurity at some point during 2008 as defined by the USDA as not having enough nourishing food available on a regular basis. Answer: True 29. This chapter shows that it is not difficult to live at the poverty line with careful planning. Answer: False 30. Our statuses intersect with one another. Answer: True Part III: Short Answer/Fill in the Blank Questions 1. The hierarchical ranking of categories of people within society is called ______________ . Answer: social stratification 2. According to Mills, the ______________ explains how our private lives and family relationships are affected by what is happening in society; certain categories of people are more likely to experience certain events than are others. Answer: sociological imagination 3. Sex refers to ______________ , whereas gender refers to ______________ . Answer: (a) biological differences between men and women and their role in reproduction; (b) the culturally and socially constructed differences between males and females that we find in the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with “femininity” and “masculinity.” 4. ______________ refers to having both masculine and feminine traits in near equal proportion. Answer: Androgyny 5. Agents of socialization are ______________ . Answer: the primary groups responsible for gender socialization 6. Toys, books, the mass media, schools, and even parents are examples of ______________ Answer: agents of socialization 7. Describe the two types of female genital cutting/mutilation that are widely practiced in over two dozen countries. Answer: (1) Clitoridectomy, in which the clitoris is literally cut out of the body. (2) In the more extreme form, infibulation, a girl’s entire external genital area is removed, including the vaginal lips, and the outer portion of the vagina is stitched together, leaving only a miniscule opening for menstrual blood and urine to escape. 8. List the three macro-level factors that explain why most women change their name when they marry. Answer: (1) It is a carryover from patriarchal and patrilineal customs in which, upon marriage, the wife became the legal property of her husband. (2) Last names clarify paternity. (3) It demonstrates that women have found a husband to avoid the stigma associated with being unmarried. 9. What is the difference between race and ethnicity? Answer: Race is a category describing people who share real or perceived physical traits that society deems socially significant, such as skin colour, whereas ethnicity refers to shared cultural characteristics such as language, place of origin, dress, food, religion, and other values. 10. ______________ represents culture, whereas ______________ attempts to represent biological heritage. Answer: (1) Ethnicity; (2) race 11. Define the two common types of discrimination. Answer: (1) Individual discrimination occurs when one person discriminates against another person. (2) Institutional discrimination occurs when social institutions, such as the government, religious groups, and schools create policies and practices that are systematically disadvantageous to certain groups. 12. List at least characteristics of second (or subsequent) generation Hispanics, compared to first generation. Answer: (1) They are twice as likely to be joining the ranks of the middle class; (2) they are better educated; (3) more likely to speak English; (4) more likely to hold mainstream U.S. values than the more conservative and traditional values of their parents. 13. List at least three reasons why Asian Americans are sometimes nicknamed a “model minority?” Answer: (1) Parents are highly educated and work in professional jobs; (2) they have the highest family incomes of any group; (3) are most likely to go to college and graduate, and go on to graduate or professional school; (4) Asian American families also have the lowest rate of divorce, (5) their children are more likely to reside in married-couple households than are any other race or ethnic group. 14. What famous political person is multi-racial? Answer: Barack Obama 15. Social classes are generally based on: Answer: income/wealth, education, occupational prestige 16. List the six social classes discussed in your text. Answer: (1) the upper class; (2) the upper middle class; (3) the middle class; (4) the working class; (5) the working poor; and (6) the underclass 17. Tommy Johnson, as shown in the Diversity in Families box, lived his life in the same social class in which he was born. This box revealed that there is very little ______________ in the United States. Answer: social mobility 18. The poverty line/threshold is based on what formula? Answer: food costs, multiplied by three 19. Which age group is most likely to be poor? Answer: children 20. List the six pathways by which poverty hurts children. Answer: (1) inadequate health and nutrition; (2) lower-quality home environment; (3) parental stress and mental health problems; (4) fewer resources for learning; (5) housing problems; (6) poor-quality neighbourhoods Part IV: Essay Questions: 1. Why Are Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class Important? Provide Several Examples. Answer: Importance of Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class: Social Identity and Roles: • Gender: Gender shapes personal identity, influences roles and expectations, and affects interactions. For instance, traditional gender roles may assign caregiving responsibilities predominantly to women and breadwinning roles to men, influencing career choices and household dynamics. • Race and Ethnicity: These factors contribute to cultural identity, community belonging, and individual experiences. For example, African Americans and Hispanic Americans often have rich cultural heritages that include specific traditions, languages, and social practices. • Social Class: Social class affects access to resources, opportunities, and social mobility. For instance, individuals from higher social classes typically have greater access to quality education, healthcare, and networks that can enhance career prospects. Inequality and Discrimination: • Gender: Gender disparities exist in various spheres such as the wage gap, with women often earning less than men for similar work. Gender discrimination can also manifest in underrepresentation in leadership positions. • Race and Ethnicity: Racial and ethnic minorities often face systemic discrimination, resulting in disparities in education, employment, housing, and criminal justice. For example, African Americans are disproportionately affected by higher incarceration rates and police violence. • Social Class: Economic inequality leads to differing life outcomes, with lower social classes experiencing higher rates of poverty, limited access to healthcare, and lower educational attainment. For example, children from low-income families may attend underfunded schools, impacting their future opportunities. Cultural Diversity and Enrichment: • Gender: Diverse gender perspectives enrich societal understanding and promote inclusive policies. Gender diversity in the workplace can lead to more innovative and comprehensive solutions to problems. • Race and Ethnicity: Multicultural societies benefit from a variety of cultural expressions, cuisines, languages, and traditions. Celebrations like Chinese New Year, Diwali, and Cinco de Mayo enhance cultural awareness and appreciation. • Social Class: Understanding social class dynamics can foster empathy and social cohesion. Policies aimed at reducing economic inequality can lead to more stable and prosperous societies. 2. What Sex Differences Exist, and What Accounts for These Differences? Answer: Biological Differences: • Physical Attributes: Men and women typically differ in physical characteristics such as size, muscle mass, and body fat distribution. Men generally have greater muscle mass and physical strength, while women often have a higher percentage of body fat. • Reproductive Systems: There are fundamental differences in male and female reproductive organs and functions, with women experiencing menstruation, pregnancy, and childbirth, and men producing sperm. Cognitive and Psychological Differences: • Cognitive Abilities: Research shows minimal average differences in cognitive abilities between sexes, with some studies suggesting women excel in verbal abilities and men in spatial tasks. However, these differences are small and often influenced by socialization and educational experiences. • Psychological Traits: Studies suggest men may exhibit higher levels of aggression and risk-taking behaviours, while women often score higher on measures of empathy and nurturing. These differences can be attributed to both biological factors (such as hormone levels) and socialization processes. Social and Cultural Differences: • Gender Roles: Societal norms and cultural expectations play a significant role in shaping behaviours and opportunities. Traditional gender roles often dictate that men pursue careers and women focus on family care, though these roles are increasingly being challenged and redefined. • Occupational Segregation: There are significant differences in the types of jobs men and women hold, with women being overrepresented in caregiving and service professions and men in technical and manual labor jobs. This segregation is influenced by both personal choices and societal expectations. 3. Describe the Agents of Socialization and How They Teach Us Gendered Expectations. Answer: Family: • Role Modelling: Parents and family members serve as primary role models, demonstrating gender roles and behaviours. For example, children may observe their mothers cooking and cleaning, while fathers handle yard work and car repairs. • Direct Instruction: Families often explicitly teach gender expectations through language and reinforcement. Boys may be encouraged to play with trucks and sports equipment, while girls receive dolls and dress-up clothes. Education: • Curriculum and Textbooks: School materials often reflect and reinforce gender stereotypes. History books might emphasize male leaders and inventors, while women’s contributions are underrepresented. • Teacher Interactions: Teachers may unconsciously reinforce gender norms by encouraging boys to be assertive and girls to be cooperative. Boys may receive more attention in subjects like math and science, while girls are praised for neatness and compliance. Peer Groups: • Social Reinforcement: Peer groups strongly influence gender behaviours, often rewarding conformity to gender norms and punishing deviations. Boys may tease peers who show interest in traditionally feminine activities, and girls may ostracize those who do not adhere to feminine standards of appearance and behavior. • Play and Activities: Peer interactions during play and extracurricular activities reinforce gender expectations. Boys might engage in competitive sports, while girls participate in cooperative games or activities like dance and cheerleading. Media: • Representation: Television shows, movies, advertisements, and social media often portray stereotypical gender roles. Men are frequently depicted as strong, assertive heroes, while women are shown as nurturing, supportive characters. • Influence on Self-Image: Media shapes perceptions of ideal body types and beauty standards, impacting self-esteem and body image, especially among young people. For example, women are often pressured to conform to slim, attractive ideals, while men are encouraged to be muscular and dominant. Religion: • Doctrines and Teachings: Religious institutions and doctrines often prescribe specific gender roles and behaviours, reinforcing traditional views of masculinity and femininity. For instance, some religions emphasize male leadership and female submission within the family and community. • Rituals and Practices: Religious practices and rituals often segregate activities by gender, such as separate prayer spaces or distinct roles in ceremonies, which perpetuate gender distinctions. Workplace: • Occupational Roles: The division of labor in workplaces often reflects and reinforces gender norms. Women may be concentrated in administrative and caregiving roles, while men dominate leadership and technical positions. • Work-Life Balance: Workplace policies and culture influence gender expectations regarding work-life balance. Women may face greater pressure to balance professional responsibilities with family care, reinforcing traditional caregiving roles. 4. Write an essay about female genital cutting. How is this an example of patriarchy? Answer: Female genital cutting (FGC), also known as female genital mutilation (FGM), refers to procedures that intentionally alter or cause injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. This practice is recognized internationally as a violation of human rights, reflecting deep-rooted inequality between the sexes, and constituting an extreme form of discrimination against women and girls. FGC is predominantly practiced in various parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, with varying prevalence and types of procedures. FGC is an example of patriarchy because it is deeply embedded in patriarchal structures and beliefs that perpetuate male dominance and female subjugation. Several factors illustrate how FGC upholds and reinforces patriarchal norms: 1. Control Over Women's Bodies: FGC is a mechanism through which patriarchal societies exert control over women's sexuality and bodies. The practice is often justified by the belief that it reduces a woman's sexual desire, thereby ensuring chastity and fidelity. By controlling female sexuality, patriarchal societies enforce norms that prioritize male authority and sexual control. 2. Cultural Norms and Gender Roles: In many communities where FGC is practiced, it is a rite of passage that signifies a girl’s transition into womanhood and her readiness for marriage. This rite often reinforces traditional gender roles, where women are expected to be passive, obedient, and primarily focused on childbearing and homemaking. FGC becomes a tool for socializing girls into these roles, perpetuating the idea that their value lies in their conformity to patriarchal expectations. 3. Power Dynamics: The decision to perform FGC is typically made by older community members, including both men and women, who have internalized patriarchal values. Women who have undergone the procedure themselves often perpetuate the practice, believing it is necessary for social acceptance and marriage prospects. This dynamic shows how patriarchy can be sustained by those it oppresses, maintaining male dominance through social and cultural coercion. 4. Legal and Institutional Support: In many regions, laws and institutional frameworks either implicitly support or fail to adequately address FGC. Lack of legal protection and enforcement against FGC reflects broader patriarchal values that do not prioritize women's rights and bodily autonomy. This legal neglect perpetuates a cycle of violence and discrimination against women and girls. FGC not only causes severe physical and psychological harm but also symbolizes the pervasive control of women's lives under patriarchal systems. Addressing FGC requires challenging and transforming these deep-seated patriarchal norms and empowering women and communities to advocate for their rights and health. 5. Identify the two types of discrimination, and give three examples of each. Answer: Discrimination can be broadly categorized into two types: direct discrimination and indirect discrimination. Direct Discrimination: Direct discrimination occurs when an individual is treated less favourably than another person in a similar situation because of a specific characteristic, such as race, gender, or disability. 1. Racial Discrimination: A qualified candidate of a minority racial group is passed over for a job in favour of a less qualified candidate from the majority racial group solely based on race. 2. Gender Discrimination: A woman with the same qualifications and experience as her male colleague is paid less salary for the same role solely because of her gender. 3. Age Discrimination: An older employee is overlooked for a promotion in favour of a younger, less experienced employee because of assumptions about the older worker's capabilities based on age. Indirect Discrimination: Indirect discrimination occurs when a policy, practice, or rule that applies to everyone in the same way has a worse effect on some people than others, often inadvertently disadvantaging a particular group. 1. Workplace Policies: A company implements a policy requiring all employees to work late hours. This could indirectly discriminate against employees with young children or other caregiving responsibilities, who are disproportionately women. 2. Educational Requirements: A job description that requires applicants to have a specific educational qualification that is not necessary for the role can indirectly discriminate against certain racial or socio-economic groups that may have less access to higher education. 3. Dress Codes: A workplace imposes a strict dress code that bans headscarves. This could indirectly discriminate against Muslim women who wear headscarves as part of their religious practice. 6. Choose one specific race or ethnic group discussed in your textbook to write an essay. Answer: For this essay, I will choose the African American community, a group that has faced a long history of discrimination and marginalization in the United States. The African American Experience in the United States The African American community in the United States has endured a complex and challenging history, characterized by resilience and a continuous fight for equality and justice. From the era of slavery to the civil rights movement and into the present day, African Americans have made significant contributions to the nation while confronting systemic barriers and discrimination. Historical Context The roots of the African American experience can be traced back to the transatlantic slave trade, which forcibly brought millions of Africans to America as slaves. This period of slavery, lasting from the early 17th century until the Civil War, was marked by brutal exploitation and dehumanization. Enslaved Africans were subjected to gruelling labor, severe punishment, and denial of basic human rights. The abolition of slavery in 1865 marked a pivotal moment in American history, but it did not end the struggle for African Americans. The Reconstruction era, though initially promising, saw the rise of "Black Codes" and later Jim Crow laws that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchisement. African Americans were subjected to widespread violence, lynching, and institutionalized racism. The Civil Rights Movement The mid-20th century saw the emergence of the Civil Rights Movement, a pivotal period in the fight for racial equality. Leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, Rosa Parks, and many others organized and participated in protests, boycotts, and legal challenges against segregation and discrimination. Landmark events such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the March on Washington, and the Selma to Montgomery marches galvanized public opinion and led to significant legislative changes. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were monumental achievements that aimed to dismantle legal segregation and protect voting rights. Despite these victories, the African American community continued to face systemic challenges and economic disparities. Contemporary Issues In the contemporary era, African Americans continue to confront issues of racial inequality. The Black Lives Matter movement, which gained prominence in response to police brutality and the killings of unarmed Black individuals, highlights ongoing concerns about racial profiling, mass incarceration, and social justice. Economic disparities persist, with African Americans experiencing higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and limited access to quality education and healthcare. The legacy of redlining and discriminatory housing practices has contributed to significant wealth gaps between Black and white families. Cultural Contributions Despite these challenges, African Americans have made profound contributions to American culture, arts, and society. The Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and 1930s was a cultural revival that celebrated Black creativity and intellect, influencing literature, music, and art. Jazz, blues, hip-hop, and other musical genres have roots in African American communities and have had a global impact. In literature, figures like Langston Hughes, Maya Angelou, and Toni Morrison have enriched American literary traditions. In sports, politics, science, and beyond, African Americans have broken barriers and achieved remarkable success. Conclusion The African American experience is a testament to resilience, strength, and the relentless pursuit of equality. While significant progress has been made, the journey toward true racial equality continues. Addressing systemic racism, economic disparities, and social injustices remains crucial to ensuring that the promise of freedom and equality is fully realized for all Americans. The contributions of African Americans to the fabric of American life are immeasurable, and their ongoing struggle for justice is a vital part of the nation's story. 7. Compare and contrast the experiences of Hispanics and Asians in the United States. Answer: Hispanics and Asians in the United States share both commonalities and differences in their experiences, shaped by unique histories, cultural backgrounds, and challenges. Historical Context: Hispanics: Hispanics, also referred to as Latinos, trace their roots to Latin American countries. Their history in the United States includes the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) and the annexation of territories such as California, Texas, and New Mexico, which brought large Hispanic populations under U.S. governance. Hispanic immigration surged in the 20th and 21st centuries, driven by economic opportunities and political unrest in Latin America. Asians: Asian Americans have diverse origins, including East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and Japanese internment during World War II mark significant historical events of exclusion and discrimination. Post-1965, changes in immigration laws led to increased immigration from Asia, bringing skilled professionals and family reunifications. Cultural Contributions: Hispanics: Hispanic culture has significantly influenced American society, particularly in areas such as cuisine, music, and festivals. Spanish is the second most spoken language in the U.S., and Hispanic traditions such as Cinco de Mayo and Dia de los Muertos are widely celebrated. Asians: Asian Americans have enriched American culture through cuisine, arts, and technology. Asian festivals such as Lunar New Year and Diwali are celebrated by broader communities, and Asian influence is evident in various aspects of American life, from sushi bars to yoga practices. Challenges and Discrimination: Hispanics: Hispanics often face challenges related to immigration status, language barriers, and economic disparities. Discrimination and stereotyping persist, with issues such as racial profiling and limited access to education and healthcare impacting many Hispanic communities. Asians: Asian Americans face the "model minority" stereotype, which assumes all Asians are successful and do not face discrimination, masking the struggles of many, particularly Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders. Anti-Asian sentiment and hate crimes, notably during the COVID-19 pandemic, highlight the discrimination faced by Asians in the U.S. Socioeconomic Status: Hispanics: Hispanic communities have varied socioeconomic statuses, but many face higher rates of poverty and lower educational attainment compared to the national average. However, Hispanic-owned businesses are growing, and there is an increasing presence of Hispanics in politics and higher education. Asians: Asian Americans also show a diverse socioeconomic range, with significant income and educational attainment disparities within the group. While some Asian communities have higher average incomes and education levels, others, particularly recent refugees, struggle with poverty and limited access to resources. Political and Social Influence: Hispanics: Hispanics are an influential and growing demographic, playing crucial roles in elections and political movements. Advocacy groups work towards immigration reform, workers' rights, and social justice. Asians: Asian Americans are increasingly visible in politics, with rising numbers of elected officials and activists. Issues such as immigration, education, and combating discrimination are central to Asian American advocacy. Conclusion: While Hispanics and Asians in the United States have distinct experiences shaped by their unique histories and cultural backgrounds, both groups face challenges related to discrimination and socioeconomic disparities. Despite these challenges, both communities have made significant contributions to American society and continue to play vital roles in the nation's cultural and political landscape. 8. List and describe the social classes commonly reported in the United States. Answer: In the United States, social classes are typically divided into several categories, reflecting differences in income, education, occupation, and lifestyle. The most commonly reported social classes include: 1. Upper Class: • Description: The upper class consists of individuals and families with significant wealth, often inherited, and high incomes from investments, businesses, and professional careers. This class includes top executives, major business owners, and heirs to large fortunes. • Characteristics: They enjoy a high standard of living, have substantial influence over political and economic policies, and possess extensive social networks. Access to elite education and cultural institutions is a hallmark of the upper class. 2. Upper Middle Class: • Description: The upper middle class includes highly educated professionals, such as doctors, lawyers, engineers, and corporate managers, who earn high salaries. • Characteristics: This class values education and career achievement, often holding advanced degrees. They typically have comfortable lifestyles, with significant savings, home ownership, and access to quality healthcare and education. 3. Middle Class: • Description: The middle class encompasses individuals and families with moderate incomes from skilled labor, administrative roles, and lower-level management positions. • Characteristics: This class values stability and education, often owning homes and having access to healthcare and retirement savings. The middle class aspires to upward mobility and places a strong emphasis on the education of their children. 4. Working Class: • Description: The working class includes individuals employed in manual labor, service industry jobs, and clerical work. Their incomes are generally lower than those of the middle class. • Characteristics: Working-class individuals may struggle with job security and limited access to healthcare and education. They often rent homes rather than own them and may live pay check to pay check. 5. Working Poor: • Description: The working poor are individuals and families who work full-time or part-time jobs but still fall below the poverty line due to low wages. • Characteristics: They face significant financial instability, limited access to healthcare, and difficulties in meeting basic needs such as housing, food, and education. The working poor often lack savings and may rely on public assistance programs. 6. Underclass: • Description: The underclass includes individuals who are unemployed or have very low incomes, often living in poverty for extended periods. • Characteristics: This class faces severe economic hardships, limited access to education and healthcare, and social exclusion. Issues such as homelessness, substance abuse, and chronic unemployment are prevalent in the underclass. 9. Describe the ways that social class affects families and close relationships. Answer: Social class significantly influences families and close relationships in various ways, affecting aspects such as family dynamics, opportunities, and stress levels. 1. Economic Stability and Resources: • Upper and Upper Middle Classes: Families in these classes have greater financial stability, allowing them to provide better education, healthcare, and extracurricular activities for their children. This economic security reduces stress and enables long-term planning. • Working Class and Poor: Families in lower social classes often struggle with financial instability, leading to stress and limited access to resources. This can affect relationships as financial strain may cause tension and limit opportunities for family bonding activities. 2. Educational Opportunities: • Upper and Upper Middle Classes: Access to high-quality education, private schooling, and extracurricular enrichment is more prevalent, leading to better academic outcomes and future career prospects for children. • Working Class and Poor: Limited access to quality education and extracurricular activities can hinder children's academic performance and future opportunities, perpetuating the cycle of poverty. 3. Family Dynamics and Parenting Styles: • Upper and Upper Middle Classes: These families often emphasize autonomy, critical thinking, and self-expression in their parenting styles, fostering independence and confidence in children. • Working Class and Poor: Families may prioritize obedience, respect for authority, and conformity, influenced by the need for stability and the realities of their work environments. 4. Health and Well-being: • Upper and Upper Middle Classes: Better access to healthcare, nutritious food, and safe living environments contributes to overall health and well-being, reducing stress and health-related issues. • Working Class and Poor: Limited access to healthcare, poor nutrition, and unsafe living conditions can lead to chronic health problems, affecting family members' ability to work and care for one another. 5. Social Networks and Support Systems: • Upper and Upper Middle Classes: Extensive social networks provide support, resources, and opportunities for upward mobility. These networks can offer assistance in times of need, reducing stress and enhancing stability. • Working Class and Poor: Social networks may be smaller and less influential, limiting access to resources and support. This can exacerbate challenges and reduce opportunities for upward mobility. 6. Stress and Mental Health: • Upper and Upper Middle Classes: Financial stability and access to mental health resources can help mitigate stress and promote mental well-being. • Working Class and Poor: Chronic financial stress, job insecurity, and limited access to mental health care can lead to higher levels of anxiety, depression, and family conflict. 10. Describe the consequences of poverty. Answer: Poverty has far-reaching and multifaceted consequences that affect individuals, families, and communities, leading to detrimental effects on health, education, social stability, and overall quality of life. 1. Health Consequences: • Poor Nutrition: Limited access to nutritious food leads to malnutrition and related health issues, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. • Chronic Illness: Lack of healthcare access results in untreated chronic conditions, exacerbating health disparities and increasing morbidity and mortality rates. • Mental Health: The stress and anxiety associated with poverty contribute to higher rates of mental health disorders, such as depression and anxiety. 2. Educational Outcomes: • Low Academic Achievement: Children in poverty often attend underfunded schools, leading to lower academic performance and reduced educational attainment. • Limited Opportunities: Financial constraints restrict access to extracurricular activities, tutoring, and higher education, perpetuating the cycle of poverty. 3. Social and Emotional Effects: • Social Exclusion: Poverty leads to social isolation and exclusion, limiting individuals' ability to participate in community and social activities. • Family Stress: Financial strain increases family stress and conflict, negatively affecting relationships and family cohesion. 4. Economic and Employment Impact: • Job Insecurity: Low-income individuals often work in unstable, low-paying jobs with little job security and few benefits, perpetuating economic instability. • Barriers to Employment: Lack of education, skills, and transportation limits job opportunities, making it difficult to secure stable, well-paying employment. 5. Housing Instability: • Homelessness: Inability to afford housing leads to homelessness or frequent moves, disrupting family stability and children's education. • Substandard Living Conditions: Poor families often live in inadequate housing with safety and health hazards, affecting overall well-being. 6. Crime and Safety: • Higher Crime Rates: Poverty-stricken areas often have higher crime rates, exposing residents to violence and increasing stress and insecurity. • Victimization: Poor individuals are more vulnerable to exploitation and victimization due to their precarious financial and social position. 7. Long-Term Consequences: • Intergenerational Poverty: The effects of poverty can span generations, with children raised in poverty more likely to experience poverty as adults. • Reduced Life Expectancy: Chronic stress, poor health, and lack of access to healthcare contribute to shorter life expectancies for individuals living in poverty. Conclusion: Poverty's consequences are extensive and interrelated, impacting health, education, economic stability, and social relationships. Addressing poverty requires comprehensive efforts to improve access to resources, education, healthcare, and economic opportunities, aiming to break the cycle of poverty and promote social and economic equity. Test Bank for Exploring Marriages and Families Karen T. Seccombe 9780205915194, 9780134708201, 9780133807776
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