CH-2-3 Characteristics of Culture – Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge : Exam Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 2 to 3 Chapter 2 – Characteristics of Culture MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The gradual process of making beneficial adjustments to the environment is called A. adjustment. B. adaption. C. adaptation. D. acclimatization. E. alteration. Answer: C 2. Humans’ major mode of adaptation, which enables them to live effectively in diverse environments, is A. education. B. culture. C. bureaucracy. D. religion. E. biology. Answer: B 3. All of the following are long-term challenges associated with high-yield marginal farmlands in the U.S. except: A. loss of topsoil. B. high cost of fossil fuel. C. decreasing salinity of soil. D. silting of irrigation works. E. high cost of fresh water. Answer: C 4. The ability to build homes and make clothing to insulate us against cold environments is a(n) A. physiological adaptation. B. evolutionary adaptation. C. physical adaptation. D. cultural adaptation. E. congenital adaptation. Answer: D 5. The first clear and comprehensive definition of culture was made by A. Franz Boas. B. Ralph Linton. C. Edward B. Tylor. D. Bronislaw Malinowski. E. Clyde Kluckhohn. Answer: C 6. The process by which culture is transmitted from one generation to the next is called A. enculturation. B. pluralism. C. adaptation. D. cultural relativism. E. subcultural variation. Answer: A 7. Which of the following statements about society and culture is incorrect? A. Culture can exist without a society. B. Every culture is learned, shared, based on symbols, integrated, and dynamic. C. All culture is learned rather than biologically inherited. D. A culture is shared by the members of a society. E. Although members of a society may share a culture, their behavior is not uniform. Answer: A 8. The cultural definitions of what it means to be a male or female today A. are determined by biological differences. B. are independent of biological differences. C. stem from biological differences that are less significant today. D. developed about 60 million years ago when our species first emerged. E. have no relationship to sex. Answer: C 9. Which of the following statements about the relationship between sex and gender is incorrect? A. Sex is the same as gender. B. Sex refers to physical differences between males and females, whereas gender refers to the cultural meanings assigned to sex. C. Sexual differences are biological; gender differences depend on cultural definition. D. Gender differences began with human culture, several million years ago. E. The biological differences between males and females have decreased since the time of the earliest humans. Answer: A 10. People share the same culture if they A. are dependent on each other for survival. B. are able to interpret and predict each other’s actions. C. live in the same territory. D. behave in an identical manner. E. have the same last name. Answer: B 11. Which of the following statements is incorrect? A. All culture is learned. B. All learned behavior is cultural. C. Culture is humankind’s “social heredity.” D. Culture is not biologically inherited. E. Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next through enculturation. Answer: B 12. In the movie Witness, a policeman named John Book was able to hide from his corrupt boss by staying with the Amish. He was protected by adopting their mode of dress, by the fact that they had no telephones, and by their being a close-knit community united by shared values that differed from those of the larger society. The Amish in the United States are an example of a(n) A. pluralistic society. B. subculture. C. integrated culture. D. world culture. E. complex society. Answer: B 13. The Amish may be used as an example of subcultural variation because A. they are racially different. B. they share the values of thrift, hard work, independence, and close family ties that Americans respect. C. they maintain a distinctive way of life that emphasizes agrarian living and loyalty to fellow Amish rather than to the state. D. they participate in a rite of passage called rumschpringe. E. they have their own church and do not speak English. Answer: C 14. Which of the following statements is correct? A. Subcultural groups always have separate religious affiliations. B. Ethnic groups live outside of national borders. C. Subcultural groups have biological differences that ethnic groups do not have. D. Ethnic groups collectively and publicly identify themselves as distinct. E. Subcultural groups collectively and publicly identify themselves as distinct. Answer: D 15. A set of cultural ideas held by a group that collectively and publicly identifies itself as distinct based on shared features is called A. tradition. B. custom. C. subculture. D. culture. E. ethnicity. Answer: E 16. The belief that one’s own way of life is superior to others is called A. ethnocentrism. B. cultural relativism. C. egocentrism. D. Kultur pride. E. ethnicity. Answer: A 17. A sound, emblem, or other sign that is arbitrarily linked to something else and represents it in a meaningful way is called a(n) A. myth. B. symbol. C. omen. D. subculture. E. ethnic group. Answer: B 18. As a result of _____ work, in 1981, the Apache’s were able to move into houses that had been designed with their participation, for their specific needs. A. Walter Goldschmidt’s B. George Esber’s C. David Maybury-Lewis’s D. Bronislaw Malinowski’s E. Margaret Mead’s Answer: B 19. As a prelude to social interaction, Apache hosts feel compelled to offer their guest A. cattle. B. beer. C. food. D. small gifts. E. seats. Answer: C 20. China is a pluralistic society. Which ethnic group dominates others in China and has a socially and politically ethnocentric ruling policy? A. Buddhists B. Uyghur C. Li D. Mongol E. Han Answer: E 21. All of the following statements about pluralistic societies are correct except: A. these are societies in which two or more ethnic groups coexist within the same state. B. together these societies comprise a nation. C. pluralistic societies did not exist before about 5,000 years ago. D. these societies have a more complex order than those states composed of a single ethnic group. E. ethnocentrism can be maladaptive within pluralistic societies. Answer: B 22. The most important symbolic aspect of culture is A. art. B. language. C. religion. D. money. E. politics. Answer: B 23. A society is held together by a shared sense of identity and worldview. This collective body of ideas allows a society to make sense of the world, its challenges, and opportunities. It is known as A. infrastructure. B. cultural relativism. C. superstructure. D. religion. E. structure. Answer: C 24. Culture is an integrated and interrelated whole, which means that A. people of all different races get along well together. B. subcultural variations can be tolerated and are of great benefit to a state. C. if you alter one aspect of a culture, you can drastically affect and possibly even endanger the functioning of the whole. D. primitive people live in harmony and do not require contact with other cultures, nor do they undergo internal change. E. society maintains a fragile balance that can be destroyed by any contact with an outside influence. Answer: C 25. Infrastructure can be best described as a society’s A. subsistence system. B. religious system. C. political system. D. domestic activities and daily life. E. kinship system. Answer: A 26. The rule-governed relationships that hold a society together, with all their rights, duties, and obligations, are known as its A. constitution. B. social structure. C. cultural relativism. D. laws. E. ethnocentrism. Answer: B 27. Which of the following is not an element associated with the barrel model of culture? A. Interstructure B. Social structure C. Infrastructure D. Superstructure E. Environment Answer: A 28. As represented by the barrel model of culture, culture is an integrated system that responds to a combination of A. structural integrity. B. ideology and religion. C. international factors. D. ethical integrity. E. internal factors. Answer: E 29. Among the Kapauku Papuans of New Guinea, the fact that an attempt to eliminate warfare (which would create a balanced sex ratio) would affect the practice of polygyny, which would affect the economy (since women raise pigs, and the more wives a man has, the more pigs he can keep), shows that culture is A. materialistic. B. relative. C. pluralistic. D. integrated. E. enculturated. Answer: D 30. Cultures respond to motions and actions within and around them because they are A. symbolic. B. functional. C. ethnocentric. D. dynamic. E. integrated. Answer: D 31. According to Bronislaw Malinowski, the nature of an institution is determined by its A. structure. B. function. C. culture. D. superstructure. E. infrastructure. Answer: B 32. _____ set a new standard for fieldwork in anthropology through his research with the Trobriand people. A. E.E. Evans-Pritchard B. Claude Levi-Strauss C. Bronislaw Malinowski D. Ruth Benedict E. Alfred Wallace Answer: C 33. Which of the following statements is correct? A. A society is a union of multiple cultures. B. Human survival depends on every individual being fit. C. A correctly functioning culture has consistency across all of its parts, though not necessarily harmony. D. Unregulated self-gratification does not impact the society as a whole. E. Although all individuals are not exactly the same, all are enculturated equally. Answer: C 34. What does Laura Nader mean when she says that the beauty industry and many plastic surgeons are involved in “standardizing” bodies? A. They focus on the cultural body, treating others as in need of changes and adjustments to be culturally normal B. They are working to sell cosmetics only to people who meet cultural ideals and do not address their markets to other women C. They are not interested in selling their products anywhere but in the United States D. They work together and have the same advisory boards so that there will be no competition between each other’s companies E. They are working on cloning experiences so that future people will have a perfect body Answer: A 35. What percentage of cosmetic procedures and nonsurgical procedures were done on women in the United States in 2011? A. 100 B. 91 C. 83 D. 61 E. 47 Answer: B 36. Though pastoral nomadic peoples are often blamed for causing environmental degradation, the fault is often not theirs. Rather, in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa it is caused by A. unrestricted development. B. a tremendous increase in tourism. C. the ever-burgeoning use of off road vehicles. D. governments that restrict their movements causing overgrazing. E. global warming. Answer: D 37. All of the following are common causes of cultural change except: A. ecological shifts. B. cultural relativism. C. foreign invasion. D. new trade goods. E. new technology. Answer: B 38. The position that because cultures are unique, each one can be evaluated only according to its own standards and values is called A. ethnocentrism. B. cultural relativism. C. cultural materialism. D. adaptation. E. pluralism. Answer: B 39. Most cultures are ethnocentric. In fact, the way that most societies name and refer to themselves is typically a word that translates into A. funny talkers. B. the only adults. C. true gods. D. all people. E. true human beings. Answer: E 40. All of the following are signs that a culture is not adequately satisfying the needs and expectations of those who live by its rules except: A. recovering environments. B. high crime rate. C. high delinquency rate. D. malnutrition (including obesity). E. emotional disorders. Answer: A TRUE/FALSE 1. Everything that humans do well is adaptive. Answer: False 2. Behavior that has been adaptive at one time may become maladaptive later. Answer: True 3. Examples of socially learned behavior are particularly evident among other primates. Answer: True 4. A group of people without a common culture who are stranded together for a month on a desert island and who learn to work together for survival while they are there, may be said to constitute a society. Answer: False 5. To say that culture is shared means that all members of a society behave in the same way. Answer: False 6. A larger culture is more likely to tolerate a subculture if their values and physical appearance are similar. Answer: True 7. George Esber worked with architects to create more culturally responsive houses for the Navajo. Answer: False 8. North American Indians form subcultures within the United States. Answer: True 9. States are socially organized bodies of people who share ethnicity. Answer: False 10. Symbols are arbitrary. Answer: True 11. Cattle herding is the mainstay around which all of Kapauku Papuan society revolves. Answer: False 12. A society’s economic base is part of the superstructure. Answer: False 13. The most important symbolic aspect of culture is religion. Answer: False 14. Bronislaw Malinowski used standard methods of fieldwork for his work among the Trobriand. Answer: False 15. Every culture provides its members ways to think of the meaning of life and death. Answer: True 16. A culture must strike a balance between the needs and desires of the individual and those of society as a whole. Answer: True 17. All societies require the same degree of cultural uniformity in order to function properly. Answer: False 18. Most cultures are ethnocentric. Answer: True 19. Because of the objectivity of anthropological training, anthropologists are able to eliminate the biases that might affect their descriptions of culture in the field. Answer: False 20. Cross-cultural studies show that homicide rates mostly decline after the death penalty is abolished. Answer: True SHORT ANSWER 1. What is cultural adaptation? Provide an example. Answer: Cultural adaptation refers to the process through which individuals or groups adjust to the cultural practices, beliefs, and norms of a new or foreign environment. It involves acquiring the necessary skills, knowledge, and behaviors to function effectively within a different cultural context. Example: An example of cultural adaptation is when immigrants move to a new country and learn the language, customs, and social norms of their host society. This adaptation allows them to integrate into the community, build relationships, and navigate daily life more smoothly. Over time, they may blend their original cultural practices with those of the new culture, creating a unique blend of traditions and behaviors. 2. How are modern definitions of culture different from the first definition of culture in 1871? Answer: The concept of culture has evolved significantly since its first definition in 1871 by Edward Tylor. Modern definitions of culture differ in several key ways: • Scope: Tylor’s definition focused primarily on material and intellectual aspects of culture, such as tools, arts, laws, and beliefs. Modern definitions are broader, encompassing social practices, values, symbols, rituals, language, and shared meanings. • Complexity: Early definitions viewed culture as a homogeneous entity shared by a group. Modern definitions recognize culture as dynamic and diverse, shaped by interactions between individuals and groups, and evolving over time. • Relativity: Contemporary perspectives emphasize cultural relativism, understanding cultures within their own contexts without judging them against external criteria. This contrasts with earlier views that often imposed Western standards as universal norms. • Interdisciplinary Approach: Today, culture is studied across various disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, psychology, and cultural studies, reflecting a multidimensional understanding that integrates insights from different fields. In summary, while Tylor’s definition laid the foundation for the study of culture, modern definitions have expanded to incorporate its complexity, diversity, and dynamic nature, reflecting a more inclusive and nuanced understanding of human societies. 3. Distinguish between the terms “society” and “culture.” Answer: Society refers to a group of people who share a common territory, interact with one another, and share a common culture. It encompasses social relationships, institutions, and organized patterns of interaction among individuals. Culture, on the other hand, refers to the shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a group or society. It includes both tangible aspects (such as food, clothing, and technology) and intangible aspects (such as beliefs, norms, language, and rituals). Key Differences: • Scope: Culture is broader than society, as it encompasses the entire range of learned behaviors and beliefs, whereas society refers specifically to the social organization and interactions among individuals. • Transmission: Culture is learned and transmitted from one generation to another through socialization and education. Society provides the context within which cultural practices and norms are developed and maintained. • Dynamic Nature: While societies can change over time, cultures are particularly dynamic, evolving through interactions, migrations, and cultural exchanges between different groups. In essence, society provides the structure and framework within which culture operates, shaping social relationships and influencing cultural practices, while culture defines the shared norms, values, and identities that bind members of a society together. 4. Describe the process by which culture is learned. Answer: Learning culture involves the acquisition of knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, customs, and behaviors that are shared and transmitted within a society or group. The process by which culture is learned includes several key mechanisms: • Socialization: This is the primary process through which individuals learn culture. It begins in childhood and continues throughout life. Socialization occurs through interactions with family members, peers, educators, and other social agents who impart cultural knowledge and expectations. • Observation and Imitation: Individuals learn cultural behaviors by observing others and imitating their actions. This includes learning language, gestures, rituals, and social etiquettes by observing how others within their cultural group behave. • Formal Education: Schools and educational institutions play a crucial role in transmitting cultural knowledge. Formal education teaches language, history, literature, arts, and societal norms, reinforcing cultural values and identities. • Media and Technology: Mass media, including television, films, the internet, and social media platforms, also contribute to cultural learning by disseminating cultural narratives, values, and norms on a global scale. • Peer Influence: Peers and peer groups play a significant role in transmitting cultural practices, norms, and behaviors, especially during adolescence and young adulthood when individuals seek to fit in and establish their identity within social groups. Overall, cultural learning is a lifelong process that occurs through a combination of social interactions, formal education, observation, and participation in cultural activities. It shapes individuals’ identities, behaviors, and worldviews within their cultural context. 5. What are the characteristics of culture? Answer: Culture is characterized by several key features that distinguish it as a fundamental aspect of human societies: • Learned: Culture is acquired through socialization and education rather than being biologically inherited. • Shared: Culture is shared among members of a group or society, providing a sense of identity and belonging. • Symbolic: Culture includes symbols, rituals, language, and other forms of expression that convey meaning and facilitate communication. • Dynamic: Culture is not static; it evolves over time through interactions, adaptations, and innovations within and between societies. • Integrated: Different elements of culture—such as beliefs, values, customs, and institutions—are interconnected and form a coherent system that guides behavior and social relationships. • Adaptive: Culture allows societies to adapt to environmental, social, and technological changes while maintaining continuity and stability. • Normative: Culture establishes norms—rules and expectations—that govern appropriate behavior and social interactions within a society. Understanding these characteristics helps anthropologists and scholars across disciplines analyze and interpret the complexities of human cultures and societies. 6. How was the rise of the state linked to the emergence of plural societies? Answer: The rise of the state was linked to the emergence of plural societies through processes of colonialism, migration, and globalization. Plural societies are characterized by the coexistence of diverse ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups within a single political entity or geographical area. These societies often result from historical processes such as colonization, which brought together people from different cultural backgrounds under a single political authority. The state, as a political entity with centralized authority, plays a crucial role in managing the relationships and interactions between these diverse groups, shaping their integration, assimilation, or segregation within society. 7. How did an anthropologist assist in house design for Apache Indians? Answer: An anthropologist assisted in house design for Apache Indians by studying their traditional lifestyle, climate conditions, and cultural practices to create housing designs that were more suitable and practical for their needs. 8. What is a subculture, and how do they fit within a larger society? Provide an example. Answer: A subculture is a smaller cultural group within a larger society that shares distinctive beliefs, values, norms, and practices that distinguish them from the dominant culture. For example, skateboarders form a subculture within the larger society, characterized by their unique style, music preferences, and recreational activities. 9. Distinguish between a nation and a state. Answer: A nation refers to a group of people who share a common identity based on factors like culture, history, language, or ethnicity. A state, on the other hand, is a political entity with defined boundaries and sovereignty over a territory. Not all nations have their own state (e.g., Kurds), and not all states are homogenous nations (e.g., United States). 10. How can ethnocentrism be maladaptive? Answer: Ethnocentrism can be maladaptive because it can lead to misunderstandings, conflicts, and hinder effective communication between different cultural groups. It can also perpetuate stereotypes and prejudices, which can be detrimental to social cohesion and global understanding. 11. What is the “barrel model of culture”? Answer: The "barrel model of culture" suggests that culture can be likened to a barrel where different aspects of culture (like beliefs, values, norms, and symbols) are like staves that support and reinforce each other. If one stave is removed or changes, it can affect the stability and coherence of the entire cultural system. 12. What is a pluralistic society? Give an example of a country that is pluralistic in nature. Answer: A pluralistic society is one where multiple cultural groups coexist and maintain their cultural identities while participating equally in the larger society. Canada is often cited as an example of a pluralistic society due to its policy of multiculturalism and recognition of diverse cultural communities alongside a common national identity. 13. Why is language the most important symbolic aspect of culture? Answer: Language is crucial because it allows for communication, transmission of knowledge, expression of thoughts and emotions, and the preservation of cultural heritage. It shapes how individuals perceive the world and is essential for the continuity and coherence of cultural practices and beliefs. 14. Describe how the culture of the Kapauku is integrated. Answer: The culture of the Kapauku, studied by anthropologist Leopold Pospisil, is integrated through kinship systems, rituals, economic activities, and beliefs that reinforce social cohesion and cooperation. Each aspect of their culture supports and reinforces others, creating a holistic and interconnected cultural system. 15. What did Malinowski mean by biological, instrumental, and integrative needs that must be resolved by culture? Answer: Malinowski argued that culture serves to fulfill biological needs (like food, shelter), instrumental needs (tools, technology), and integrative needs (social order, emotional support). Culture provides solutions to these needs through norms, customs, and institutions that ensure survival, cooperation, and well-being within society. 16. What is the relationship between the individual and culture and society? Answer: Culture and society shape individuals' identities, behaviors, beliefs, and values through socialization and shared norms. At the same time, individuals contribute to and reshape culture through their actions, choices, and innovations, creating a dynamic relationship where culture both influences and is influenced by individuals. 17. How does the beauty industry reinforce the cultural ideal? Answer: The beauty industry shapes and reinforces cultural ideals of attractiveness through media, advertising, and products that promote specific standards of beauty. This influences individuals' self-perception, social status, and societal norms regarding appearance. 18. What is cultural relativism? Answer: Cultural relativism is the principle that a culture must be understood and evaluated on its own terms rather than judged according to the standards of another culture. It emphasizes the importance of respecting cultural diversity and understanding behaviors and beliefs within their cultural context. 19. How can we evaluate how adaptive a culture is for its people? What are the signs of a culture that is functioning well and one that is stressed? Answer: A culture that is adaptive supports the well-being and resilience of its members, provides effective solutions to challenges, fosters social cohesion, and allows for cultural change and innovation. Signs of a well-functioning culture include high levels of social harmony, effective problem-solving mechanisms, and cultural practices that enhance quality of life. A stressed culture may show signs such as social unrest, inequality, conflict, or difficulty in meeting basic human needs. 20. Name four signs of a culture that is not functioning well. Answer: Signs of a culture that is not functioning well include social unrest (e.g., protests, conflicts), high levels of inequality or discrimination, inability to meet basic human needs (e.g., food, shelter), and cultural practices that harm individuals' well-being or hinder social progress. ESSAY 1. What does it mean to say that a culture has adaptive characteristics? Answer: A culture with adaptive characteristics effectively addresses the needs and challenges of its environment and its members. It evolves over time to ensure survival, social cohesion, and the well-being of its people. Adaptive cultures demonstrate flexibility, innovation, and resilience in response to changes in their surroundings and internal dynamics. 2. Anthropologists say that “culture is learned and shared.” What do they mean by this, and how does this occur? Answer: Anthropologists emphasize that culture is not innate but acquired through socialization and interaction within a society. It is learned through observation, instruction, and participation in cultural practices, norms, values, and beliefs passed down from generation to generation. Culture is shared among members of a group or society through communication, rituals, traditions, and institutions that reinforce and perpetuate cultural identity and cohesion. 3. Why do cultures exist? Consider why humans have culture and why there is cultural diversity. Answer: Cultures exist to provide frameworks for human interaction, meaning-making, and adaptation to diverse environments. Humans have culture because it allows for collective learning, cooperation, and the transmission of knowledge and traditions across generations. Cultural diversity arises from historical, geographical, and social factors, shaping unique adaptations to local conditions and fostering creativity, resilience, and social identity among different groups and societies. 4. Compare and contrast the earliest definition of culture provided by E.B. Tylor and those that we use today. How are they alike and different? Answer: E.B. Tylor's definition of culture, from the late 19th century, viewed culture as a complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as members of society. Today, while Tylor's emphasis on culture as a broad, integrated system remains influential, modern definitions often highlight culture as dynamic, adaptive, and context-specific. Both definitions recognize culture as learned and shared among members of a society, but contemporary views also stress diversity, hybridity, and the influence of power dynamics on cultural practices. 5. Using the Amish as an example of subcultural variation, discuss the factors that seem to determine whether or not subcultural variation is tolerated by the larger culture. Compare the Amish with another group less well tolerated in our own society. Answer: The Amish exemplify a subculture that is often tolerated due to their adherence to non-violence, strong work ethic, and self-sufficiency, which align with broader societal values despite their distinct practices. Factors influencing tolerance include perceived threat to societal norms, economic self-sufficiency, and their willingness to coexist peacefully without demanding extensive societal changes. In contrast, groups like certain religious sects or marginalized communities may face intolerance due to perceived radical beliefs, cultural practices challenging dominant norms, or historical prejudices, leading to social exclusion or discrimination. 6. Discuss the role of culture in architecture. Answer: Culture profoundly influences architecture by shaping design principles, building materials, spatial organization, and aesthetic preferences based on cultural values, beliefs, and traditions. Architecture reflects societal priorities, religious practices, climate considerations, and historical influences, serving as a tangible expression of cultural identity and heritage. It evolves over time, influenced by globalization, technological advancements, and changing social needs, while continuing to embody cultural continuity and innovation. 7. Explain the statement that people everywhere are ethnocentric in nature and practice. Answer: Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to evaluate other cultures according to the standards and values of one's own culture, often leading to biases and judgments. This phenomenon is universal because individuals typically perceive their own cultural practices as natural, correct, or superior, while viewing unfamiliar customs through a comparative lens. Ethnocentrism can manifest subtly in everyday interactions or more overtly in cultural conflicts and misunderstandings. Recognizing and mitigating ethnocentric tendencies is crucial for promoting intercultural understanding and cooperation in diverse global contexts. 8. How has technology changed the biological basis for contrasting gender roles? Answer: Technology has significantly altered traditional gender roles by reducing the reliance on physical strength and endurance for economic productivity. Advancements in automation, machinery, and digital tools have democratized access to various roles and professions, previously dominated by one gender due to physical demands. This shift has allowed individuals to redefine their contributions based on skills and abilities rather than biological characteristics alone, leading to more fluid and diverse expressions of gender roles in modern society. 9. Using the example of the Kapauku Papuans, explain the idea that culture is “integrated”. Illustrate the concept of the integration of culture with another example as well. Answer: Culture is often described as integrated, meaning its various elements such as beliefs, practices, and social structures are interconnected and mutually supportive. For example, among the Kapauku Papuans of New Guinea, their agricultural practices, kinship systems, and religious rituals are deeply intertwined. The way they clear land, grow crops, and distribute food reflects their social organization and spiritual beliefs. Another example can be seen in Japanese culture, where traditional tea ceremonies are not just rituals but are also connected to broader cultural values of respect, harmony, and mindfulness, influencing aspects of daily life and social interactions. 10. What is the role of the individual in culture? Answer: The role of the individual in culture is complex and multifaceted. Individuals both shape and are shaped by culture. They contribute to cultural practices, norms, and traditions through their actions, choices, and interactions with others. Simultaneously, culture provides individuals with a framework of meaning, identity, and social norms that guide their behavior and shape their worldview. Thus, individuals act as both creators and products of culture, continually influencing and being influenced by the cultural context in which they live. 11. Apply the “barrel model of culture” to your own culture. Answer: The barrel model of culture conceptualizes culture as a barrel filled with various components such as values, norms, symbols, and artifacts. These components interact within the barrel, influencing each other and contributing to the overall stability or change of the cultural system. Applying this to my own culture, for instance, in contemporary Western culture, values such as individualism, equality, and consumerism interact with norms of personal freedom, legal rights, and social justice. Symbols like national flags, iconic landmarks, and popular media also play significant roles in reinforcing cultural identity and collective meaning. Artifacts such as technological innovations, fashion trends, and architectural styles further reflect and shape cultural values and practices. Together, these elements form a dynamic and interconnected cultural system that evolves over time in response to internal and external influences. 12. Bronislaw Malinowski said that the ethnographer’s goal is “to grasp the native’s point of view.” Discuss the meaning of this statement and how it affects the way anthropologists do fieldwork. Answer: Malinowski emphasized the importance of understanding cultural practices and beliefs from the perspective of the people being studied, rather than imposing external interpretations or biases. This approach, known as "emic perspective," involves immersing oneself in the community, learning the local language, and participating in daily activities to gain insights into how individuals perceive and make sense of their world. It encourages anthropologists to appreciate cultural diversity, complexities, and nuances, fostering more accurate and respectful representations of studied cultures. 13. What is the relationship between culture, society, and the individual? Answer: Culture encompasses the shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices of a society, shaping the behaviors and identities of individuals within that society. Society provides the framework within which culture operates, facilitating social interactions, institutions, and collective endeavors that reinforce cultural norms. Meanwhile, individuals actively engage with and contribute to culture through their thoughts, actions, and interpretations, influencing social dynamics and cultural evolution over time. 14. Discuss the effects of commercial industry on the individual in society. Consider examples such as that of the beauty industry. Answer: The commercial industry, particularly sectors like the beauty industry, exerts significant influence on individuals by promoting societal ideals of attractiveness and self-image through advertising, media representation, and consumer products. This can create standards that impact self-esteem, body image, and social status, influencing consumer behavior and cultural norms. However, it also reflects broader societal values and trends, illustrating how economic forces intersect with cultural ideals to shape individual identity and collective norms related to appearance and personal grooming. 15. What is the measure of a society’s success? Answer: The measure of a society's success can vary depending on the perspectives and values held within that society and by external observers. Traditionally, success might be measured by factors such as economic prosperity, technological advancement, political stability, social cohesion, quality of life indicators (like healthcare and education), cultural richness, or environmental sustainability. Different societies may prioritize different aspects of success based on their historical context, cultural values, and current challenges. 16. Someone once remarked that a Holocaust survivor was hardly likely to be a confirmed cultural relativist. How is cultural relativism related to moral relativism? That is, can we think about the Nazis, or similar movements, in relativistic terms? Is there a role in anthropology for a universalistic conception of human rights? Answer: Cultural relativism is the concept that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual within their own cultural context. This means that what is considered moral or immoral can vary from culture to culture, and no culture's values can be objectively judged as superior or inferior to another's. Moral relativism extends this idea to ethical principles, suggesting that moral judgments are not absolute but are culturally determined. In the context of the Holocaust and similar atrocities perpetrated by regimes like the Nazis, cultural relativism faces significant challenges. While cultural relativism seeks to understand actions within their cultural context, it does not imply that all actions are morally equivalent or immune to moral critique. The atrocities committed by the Nazis, such as genocide and systematic oppression, are universally condemned from a human rights perspective, which suggests a universalistic conception of human rights. Anthropology can contribute to this by promoting awareness of human rights violations, advocating for justice, and fostering cross-cultural understanding without compromising universal ethical principles. 17. Explain how ethnocentrism impacts culture change. Answer: Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to view one's own culture as superior to others and to evaluate other cultures based on the standards and values of one's own culture. This bias can impact culture change in several ways: • Resistance to Change: Ethnocentric attitudes may lead to resistance against adopting practices or ideas from other cultures perceived as inferior. • Cultural Isolation: Ethnocentrism can promote cultural isolation, where a group or society avoids interactions with others, limiting exposure to new ideas and influences. • Conflict and Misunderstanding: Ethnocentric beliefs can lead to intergroup conflict or misunderstanding when different cultural groups interact, as each may judge the other's norms and behaviors through their own cultural lens. • Innovation and Adaptation: Conversely, ethnocentrism can sometimes spur cultural innovation or adaptation as a reaction against perceived external threats or challenges. Overall, ethnocentrism can both hinder and stimulate cultural change depending on the context and the attitudes of the individuals or groups involved. Awareness of ethnocentrism can help promote cultural sensitivity and understanding in a diverse global society. Chapter 3 – Ethnographic Research: Its History, Methods, and Theories MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Cultural anthropology is composed of which two scholarly components? A. Ethnography and ethnohistory B. Ethnography and ethnology C. Ethnology and ethnohistory D. Ethnohistory and ethnoarchaeology E. Linguistics and ethnography Answer: B 2. The new term for salvage ethnography is A. contemporary ethnography. B. urgent anthropology. C. critical anthropology. D. fieldwork anthropology. E. historical anthropology. Answer: B 3. Anthropology has sought directly to do each of the following except: A. document the practice of culture. B. impose a Western and modern approach to life. C. document disappearing cultural practices. D. reconstruct traditional ways of life. E. educate its audience on the importance of culture. Answer: B 4. When anthropologists go to the places that they study in order to experience the culture firsthand, it is called A. fieldwork. B. ethnology. C. excavation. D. laboratory analysis. E. field study. Answer: A 5. Acculturation is best defined as A. a process in which two cultures come into contact and both of them are changed because of the culture contact. B. a process of unequal culture contact when a smaller culture is forced to adopt some of the ways of the dominant society. C. a process of culture change in which individuals grow older and adapt to the new biological and cultural needs they have within their own society. D. the process by which members of a society are taught cultural knowledge from their elders. E. genocide; it occurs when one culture eradicates another. Answer: B 6. Which of the following best defines applied anthropology? A. The use of anthropological techniques to better prepare populations for market research and the introduction of capitalism B. The application of anthropological types of change in order to help indigenous people develop further C. The use of anthropological knowledge and methods to solve practical problems in communities confronting new challenges D. The implementation of change into indigenous populations only in order to save and preserve them E. Teaching anthropology in the classroom to a new generation of students Answer: C 7. “Culture at a distance” is an approach in anthropology that allowed the study of other cultures through all of the following except: A. interviews with immigrants. B. foreign films and newspapers. C. photographs. D. on-location ethnographic fieldwork. E. literature. Answer: D 8. All of the following are examples of early studies of contemporary state societies except: A. Alfred Métraux, study of race relations in Brazil. B. Ruth Benedict, study of New York City. C. Hortense Powdermaker, study of racial segregation in Mississippi. D. Julian Steward, study of industrialization in Kenya. E. Napoleon Chagnon, study of warfare among the Yanomamo. Answer: E 9. Why is it important to study peasants? A. They represent societies that are beginning to develop out of a primitive condition B. They are the poorest people in the world C. They always cause political revolution because they generate social unrest D. They are the largest social category in the world E. They are the primary source of labor throughout the capitalist world Answer: D 10. Robert Hitchcock works in advocacy anthropology with the San peoples in southern Africa in order to A. ensure their land rights. B. provide jobs for adults. C. improve the health and nutritional status of the children. D. help them obtain representation at the government level. E. encourage them to establish a sense of national identity. Answer: A 11. Anthropologist _____ is a leading advocacy anthropologist today and a special rapporteur for the United Nations High Commission on Human Rights. A. Rodolfo Stavenhagen B. Clifford Geertz C. Stephen Lansang D. Gregory Bates E. Jonathan Marks Answer: A 12. Laura Nader has called on anthropologists to “study up.” What does she mean by this term? A. Anthropologists should study high-altitude peoples and cultures in order to understand adaptation. B. Anthropologists should people of a higher class than themselves. C. Anthropologists should study the elites of a society and not only the common people. D. Anthropologists should intensify their studies and become more involved in advocacy anthropology. E. Anthropologists should be more committed to urgent anthropology before indigenous peoples are all gone. Answer: C 13. Andrea Louie studied the ethnic Han group of China by collecting data in San Francisco, Hong Kong, and southern China. This approach is an example of A. transnational ethnography. B. multi-sited ethnography. C. diasporic ethnography. D. transitional ethnography. E. salvage ethnography. Answer: B 14. A study of Facebook communities and the ways people interact using social media as a “cyber” fieldsite is an example of A. multi-sited ethnography. B. global ethnography. C. transnational ethnography. D. visual ethnography. E. digital ethnography. Answer: E 15. Individuals who live and work far from their original homelands form part of a growing population that is classified as A. international. B. multinational. C. migratory. D. emigratory. E. diasporic. Answer: E 16. The primary method in the anthropologist’s toolkit, regardless of the time period, has always been A. participant observation. B. mapping. C. random sampling. D. formal interviews. E. mentoring. Answer: A 17. What is the first step in doing ethnographic fieldwork? A. Doing preparatory research B. Choosing a research question C. Participant observation on site D. Gathering data E. Choosing a theoretical approach Answer: B 18. Anthropologists advise that A. it is best to do your first fieldwork as part of a team of researchers, some of them experienced. B. it is best to do your first fieldwork in your own culture so that you become experienced. C. it is best to do your first fieldwork in a culture other than your own. D. it is best to work in societies that are different from your own but now located very far away from where you live. E. it is best to study peasants as part of your first fieldwork experience. Answer: C 19. The members of a society who work most closely with the anthropologist to provide an understanding of cultural phenomena are called A. primary consultants. B. key consultants. C. cultural brokers. D. cultural liaisons. E. key leaders. Answer: B 20. If an anthropologist studies religion and interviews church leaders about how they were called to their positions, attends various rites of passage, writes down impressions and beliefs of the practitioners, and uses nonstatistical descriptions of the religion as a way of presenting information, the anthropologist is employing what type of data collection? A. Quantitative B. Qualitative C. Inductive D. Deductive E. Conversive Answer: B 21. When researchers use things such as photographs in order to prompt people to speak with them about a particular topic, these are called A. soliciting devices. B. eliciting devices. C. prompting devices. D. circular conversations. E. participant tools. Answer: B 22. Why are informal interviews central to ethnographic fieldwork? A. They provide a fixed structure that allows the researcher to quantify the data collection B. They are conversations between friends and allow the anthropologist access to information that is confidential C. They are part-time ways of gathering data that allow the anthropologist time to do other work while working in the field D. They are casual exchanges in which the anthropologists can gain insight into the things that matter most to the cultural group E. They are pieces of a larger conversation and allow anthropologists to work in a team with each person contributing to the conversation Answer: D 23. All of the following are reasons it is important to map the field site with information from local people except: A. much cultural information is contained on a key consultant’s map. B. the map will contain local place names. C. the map will contain information on local features and land use in the area. D. social information will be contained on the map. E. local informants have official maps available to make this accurate and quantitative. Answer: E 24. Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson did their most significant photographic research in A. Tonga. B. Hawaii. C. Indonesia. D. Samoa. E. Bali. Answer: E 25. Margaret Mead argued that ethnographers should make much more effective use of A. photography. B. mapping. C. interviews. D. participant observation. E. collecting material artifacts. Answer: A 26. Among the indigenous Canela, William Crocker was A. adopted into networks of kinship at his field site. B. awarded the honor of outstanding fieldworker. C. considered master fieldworker by quantitative researchers. D. a pioneer in the development of field photography. E. threatened with illnesses and contracted malaria. Answer: A 27. In her field site, because of political unrest, June Nash was accused of A. stealing. B. being a CIA agent. C. being a Bolivian spy. D. slander. E. murder. Answer: B 28. Lincoln Keiser was treated with great disdain and suspicion in his field site in _____ because of his study focus on feuding. A. Myanmar B. China C. India D. Pakistan E. Burma Answer: D 29. In order to minimize the impact of subjectivity, the anthropologist should consider all of the following except: A. how people think they really behave. B. the people’s ideal sense of how a society should be run. C. what the anthropologist actually sees happening. D. what the anthropologist observes in his/her own culture. E. the general cultural rules of the people being studied. Answer: D 30. What was the focus of Annette Weiner’s research in the Trobriands? A. Women’s reproductive work B. Women’s productive work C. The village religious structure D. Men’s canoeing and trade relations E. Migratory patterns and changes in family structure Answer: B 31. All of the following were differences between Bronislaw Malinowski’s original field research in the Trobriands and that of Annette Weiner some 60 years later except: A. differences in field methodology. B. differences in theoretical interests. C. differences in researchers’ disciplines. D. changes over time. E. differences in researchers’ genders. Answer: C 32. Validation in ethnographic research is difficult because of all of the following except: A. there is a very stable cultural and environmental status. B. observational access is often limited. C. there may be insufficient funding for the research. D. there may be logistical difficulties in reaching the site. E. there may be problems in obtaining permission to do the study. Answer: A 33. An explanation in science of natural phenomena, supported by a reliable body of data, is called a(n) A. theory. B. hypothesis. C. fact. D. doctrine. E. intuition. Answer: A 34. The vast collection of cross-indexed ethnographic and archaeological data catalogued by cultural characteristics and geographic locations is called the A. Hominid Relatives Area Files. B. Human Relatives Area Files. C. Human Relations Area Microfiche. D. Human Relations Association Files. E. Human Relations Area Files. Answer: E 35. Which of the following is not a materialist theoretical approach? A. Cultural ecology B. Cultural materialism C. Cognitive anthropology D. Sociobiology E. Marxism Answer: C 36. Marvin Harris argues that pork was not generally raised in the Middle East historically because A. it was considered sinful in all Middle Eastern religions. B. some Middle Eastern societies owned all of the land and prevented pig-raising. C. no ethnic group in the Middle East would eat pork. D. pig-raising threatened the natural ecosystem. E. pig-raising was economically inefficient in such a humid environment. Answer: D 37. The theoretical approach exhibited in the Marvin Harris inset on “Pig Lovers and Pig Haters” arguing that the natural conditions made pig-raising inefficient over the long-term is A. symbolic anthropology. B. neo-evolutionism. C. cultural ecology. D. political ecology. E. cultural materialism. Answer: E 38. Ethical responsibilities for anthropologists include all of the following except: A. communicate the impact of the research to those who are providing information. B. represent the interests of the anthropologist and protect the researcher. C. make sure the research does not harm the privacy of the people with whom they work. D. obtain informed consent from those who participate in the research. E. remain constantly vigilant and alert for potentially emerging problems. Answer: B 39. A formal, recorded agreement to participate in research is called A. informed consensus. B. informed consent. C. informal consent. D. informal consensus. E. a research agreement. Answer: B 40. Which of the following anthropological activities has been controversial within the discipline since the 1960s? A. Working with the U.S. military B. Working for foreign governments C. Doing fieldwork in enemy countries D. Working as advocates for indigenous peoples E. Teaching anthropology to undergraduates Answer: A TRUE/FALSE 1. Anthropology emerged as a scientific discipline less than 20 years ago. Answer: False 2. Historically, anthropologists have worked with non-Western peoples. Answer: True 3. Ruth Benedict was able to develop “culture-at-a-distance” studies without changing anthropology’s methodology. Answer: False 4. Hortense Powdermaker was an early pioneer in “national character” studies. Answer: False 5. One of the first advocacy projects in anthropology was among the Meskwaki (or, Fox Indians) in Iowa. Answer: True 6. “Studying up” means to study people who are in a higher educational bracket than the anthropologist doing the research. Answer: False 7. Multi-sited ethnography makes use of various interdisciplinary approaches to research and analysis. Answer: True 8. The hallmark of anthropological fieldwork is participant observation. Answer: True 9. The most important anthropological research tool by far is participant observation. Answer: True 10. Key consultants are individuals who tell the anthropologist things that other members of the society do not want to share. Answer: False 11. Anthropologists use only qualitative data-gathering techniques. Quantitative data is used by sociologists and psychologists. Answer: False 12. Among the Canela, it is improper for a mother, sister, or daughter to cut a man’s hair. Answer: True 13. Both Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson were pioneers in the method of field mapping. Answer: False 14. It is often an indication of acceptance when anthropologists are given kinship terms by the people they are studying. Answer: True 15. Annette Weiner worked in the Trobriand Islands in the 1960s. Answer: False 16. In a culture, there is a difference between ideal and real behaviors. Answer: True 17. Scientific theories are open to future challenges. Answer: True 18. The Human Relations Area Files provide a great deal of data but prohibit cultural comparison. Answer: False 19. An idealist perspective is an approach that emphasizes how people explain and feel about things. Answer: True 20. Anthropology has increasingly supported collaboration with the military. Answer: False SHORT ANSWER 1. What is urgent anthropology? Give an example of how this would be used. Answer: Urgent anthropology refers to applying anthropological insights and methodologies to address pressing social issues or crises, often in collaboration with affected communities. An example could be anthropologists working with indigenous communities to document and preserve traditional knowledge and practices threatened by environmental degradation or modernization. 2. What is acculturation? Give at least two examples of some early studies of acculturation. Answer: Acculturation refers to the process through which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits or practices of another culture. Early studies include the research by John and Beatrice Whiting on Navajo children attending boarding schools, and the work of Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead among Pacific Islander populations during American colonial administration. 3. Describe the methodology of culture at a distance. Answer: Culture at a distance involves studying a culture without direct physical immersion, often relying on secondary sources such as written records, media, and interviews with individuals who have knowledge of the culture. This approach requires careful interpretation and validation of information to understand cultural practices, beliefs, and societal norms from afar. 4. What is important about peasant studies? Answer: Peasant studies focus on understanding rural societies, particularly agricultural communities, their economic practices, social structures, and cultural dynamics. They highlight the resilience, adaptive strategies, and contributions of rural populations to broader socio-economic systems, challenging stereotypes and promoting social justice in rural development policies. 5. What does it mean to “study up”? Give an example. Answer: To "study up" means to examine powerful or elite groups, institutions, or systems, often critiquing their influence, practices, and impacts on society. For example, anthropologists studying corporate executives or government officials to understand how their decisions and policies affect marginalized communities or environmental sustainability would be an example of studying up. 6. Globalization has affected the way anthropologists do fieldwork. Describe two different types of ethnography that are more contemporary examples of “global” work. Answer: Contemporary ethnography in globalization includes virtual ethnography, where researchers study online communities and digital cultures, and multi-sited ethnography, which examines social phenomena across multiple geographical locations linked by global processes like migration or trade. 7. Define ethnographic fieldwork. Answer: Ethnographic fieldwork involves immersive, firsthand research conducted by anthropologists or social scientists within a specific cultural group or community. It aims to understand social phenomena, cultural practices, and meanings through participant observation, interviews, and other qualitative methods. 8. Name the primary steps involved in ethnographic fieldwork. Answer: Ethnographic fieldwork typically involves: 1. Preparation: Planning research objectives, gaining entry into the community, and establishing rapport. 2. Data collection: Conducting participant observation, interviews, and gathering other relevant data. 3. Analysis: Interpreting collected data, identifying patterns, and developing insights. 4. Writing: Documenting findings in ethnographic texts or reports, often reflecting on the researcher's experiences and insights gained during fieldwork. 9. Discuss the advantages of qualitative and quantitative data gathering. Answer: Qualitative data gathering (e.g., interviews, observations) provides in-depth insights into meanings, contexts, and subjective experiences, offering rich, detailed understandings of social phenomena. Quantitative data gathering (e.g., surveys, statistical analysis) allows for generalization and numerical comparisons, providing statistical validity and identifying patterns across larger populations. 10. Compare and contrast formal and informal interviews. Answer: Formal interviews follow a structured format with predetermined questions, aiming for standardized responses and comparability. Informal interviews are more conversational, allowing for flexibility in questioning and often leading to richer, contextual insights. Formal interviews are suited for quantitative research, while informal interviews are valuable in qualitative studies for exploring complex meanings and cultural nuances. 11. What are eliciting devices? Answer: Eliciting devices are techniques used by anthropologists during interviews or fieldwork to encourage informants to provide more detailed or specific information. Examples include using open-ended questions, probes, visual aids, or role-playing scenarios to prompt discussion and elicit richer data. 12. Who are Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson? What are their contributions to anthropology? Answer: Margaret Mead was a pioneering anthropologist known for her studies on gender roles and cultural variation, particularly in Samoa and New Guinea. Gregory Bateson, her husband, was an anthropologist and social scientist who contributed to cybernetics and communication theory. Together, they collaborated on studies of cultural patterns, communication, and social change, influencing anthropological thought on culture and personality. 13. What types of challenges do anthropologists face in the field? Discuss and give examples. Answer: Anthropologists face challenges such as gaining trust and access within communities, navigating cultural and language barriers, maintaining objectivity in emotionally charged situations, and managing personal safety and ethical dilemmas. For instance, researchers studying conflict zones may encounter security risks, while those researching sensitive topics like indigenous rights must negotiate trust and confidentiality concerns. 14. Describe the challenges of subjectivity while in the field. Answer: Subjectivity in fieldwork refers to the researcher's personal biases, interpretations, and cultural background influencing data collection and analysis. This can lead to researcher bias in selecting informants, interpreting observations, or framing research questions. Anthropologists mitigate subjectivity through reflexivity, acknowledging their positionality, and using triangulation methods to validate findings across multiple sources or perspectives. 15. Contrast the research by Bronislaw Malinowski with that of Annette Weiner in the Trobriand Islands. Answer: Bronislaw Malinowski conducted seminal ethnographic research in the Trobriand Islands focusing on economic exchange, rituals, and social organization. His work emphasized functionalism and the holistic study of culture. Annette Weiner's research revisited the Trobriand Islands, challenging Malinowski's gender biases and highlighting women's roles in economic and ceremonial life. Her study critiqued earlier interpretations, emphasizing gender dynamics and challenging traditional anthropological assumptions about matrilineal societies. 16. What is the role of validation in anthropological research? Answer: Validation in anthropological research refers to the process of ensuring the reliability and credibility of findings through various methods such as triangulation (using multiple sources or methods), peer review, member checking (consulting with participants), and reflexivity (reflecting on the researcher's biases and influences). It helps establish the trustworthiness of data and interpretations, enhancing the overall quality and validity of anthropological studies. 17. Compare and contrast the idealist and materialist perspectives in anthropological research. Answer: • Idealist Perspective: Emphasizes ideas, beliefs, symbols, and meanings as central to understanding cultures. Idealists focus on cultural norms, values, and worldview as shaping social behavior and practices. • Materialist Perspective: Focuses on material conditions such as economic factors, technology, and environmental influences as primary drivers of cultural change and social organization. Materialists often analyze how economic systems, resources, and power dynamics impact cultural practices and societal structures. 18. Describe and discuss the materialist approach to explaining the prohibition of pork in the Middle East. Answer: The materialist approach attributes the prohibition of pork in the Middle East to practical and ecological factors rather than solely religious or symbolic reasons. It suggests that in arid regions, pig farming may be less sustainable compared to other livestock due to their water and resource demands. Additionally, pork can be more prone to disease in warmer climates, making its consumption less advantageous from a health perspective. These material factors, influenced by environmental and economic conditions, are seen as shaping cultural norms and dietary restrictions regarding pork in the region. 19. What are anthropologists’ primary ethical responsibilities in fieldwork? Answer: Anthropologists have several primary ethical responsibilities in fieldwork, including: • Informed Consent: Respecting the autonomy of participants by ensuring they understand the research purpose, risks, and benefits before agreeing to participate. • Confidentiality: Safeguarding the privacy of individuals and communities by protecting sensitive information gathered during research. • Avoiding Harm: Minimizing potential harm to participants, communities, and cultural heritage through respectful and ethical conduct. • Cultural Sensitivity: Recognizing and respecting cultural norms, values, and practices while conducting research. • Accountability: Being transparent about research methods, findings, and potential biases. 20. Why is anthropological collaboration with the military a controversial matter? Answer: Anthropological collaboration with the military is controversial because it raises ethical concerns about the potential misuse of anthropological knowledge and methods for military purposes. Critics argue that such collaboration can compromise anthropologists' impartiality and undermine trust with the communities they study. It also raises questions about informed consent, as military goals may conflict with anthropological principles of protecting research participants and cultural integrity. Additionally, collaboration with the military may contribute to perceptions of anthropology as serving political or strategic interests rather than scholarly or humanitarian goals. ESSAY 1. What is the relationship between anthropology and colonialism? Answer: Anthropology has historically been intertwined with colonialism as anthropologists often served colonial interests by studying and categorizing colonized peoples, cultures, and territories. This relationship involved justifying and perpetuating colonial control, exploitation, and cultural domination through anthropological knowledge and practices. Today, anthropology reflects on and critiques its colonial legacy, emphasizing ethical research practices, decolonization efforts, and collaborative engagement with indigenous and marginalized communities. 2. What are the challenges and opportunities provided by the practice of urgent anthropology? Answer: Urgent anthropology involves addressing immediate social, environmental, or humanitarian crises through anthropological insights and interventions. Challenges include navigating urgent time constraints, ensuring ethical engagement with affected communities, and managing the complexities of rapid response research. Opportunities include making meaningful impacts on pressing issues, collaborating with diverse stakeholders, and generating knowledge that informs effective policy and interventions. 3. Discuss the challenges and opportunities provided by the practice of applied anthropology. Choose an applied anthropology project that you believe would be useful and explain. Answer: Applied anthropology involves using anthropological theories, methods, and insights to address practical problems and improve societal conditions. One useful project could be applying anthropology to public health initiatives in underserved communities. Anthropologists could collaborate with healthcare providers and community members to understand local beliefs, practices, and barriers to healthcare access. This approach could inform culturally sensitive healthcare delivery, promote health education, and empower communities to address health disparities effectively. 4. What is the history of “culture at a distance,” and what contributions did it make to the long-term study of anthropology? Answer: "Culture at a distance" refers to studying cultures without direct physical immersion, relying on secondary sources like written records, media, or interviews with diasporic communities. This approach emerged as anthropologists sought to study globalizing societies and cultural dynamics across borders. It contributed to anthropology by expanding research possibilities beyond traditional fieldwork, allowing for comparative analyses, understanding transnational cultural flows, and examining the impact of globalization on cultural practices and identities. 5. What effects has globalization had on anthropological research? Answer: Globalization has expanded the scope of anthropological research by facilitating access to diverse cultural contexts, enabling cross-cultural comparisons, and studying transnational flows of people, ideas, and goods. It has also influenced research topics, such as migration, cultural hybridity, and global interconnectedness. However, globalization has posed challenges, including ethical dilemmas, the homogenization of cultures, and navigating power dynamics in global research collaborations. 6. Discuss the relationship between advocacy anthropology and social justice. Answer: Advocacy anthropology involves using anthropological knowledge and research to promote social change, address inequalities, and advocate for marginalized or oppressed communities. It aims to amplify the voices of those affected by social injustices, challenge power structures, and inform policy interventions that promote equity and human rights. By engaging with grassroots movements and advocating for inclusive practices, advocacy anthropology contributes to broader social justice efforts. 7. Describe and discuss the steps involved in ethnographic research. Answer: Ethnographic research typically involves several key steps: 1. Research Design: Planning research objectives, selecting a research site, and gaining access to the community. 2. Data Collection: Conducting participant observation, interviews, and document analysis to gather qualitative data. 3. Data Analysis: Interpreting collected data, identifying patterns, and developing themes or theoretical insights. 4. Writing: Documenting findings in ethnographic texts or reports, often reflecting on the researcher's positionality and ethical considerations. 8. Describe what kinds of situations would be best for using formal versus informal interviewing. Answer: Formal interviews, with structured questions and standardized procedures, are suitable for quantitative research requiring comparability and reliability across respondents. Informal interviews, more conversational and flexible in questioning, are ideal for qualitative research exploring complex meanings, cultural nuances, and personal experiences. 9. Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative methodology. Answer: Qualitative methodology (e.g., ethnography, interviews) offers in-depth insights into meanings, contexts, and subjective experiences, promoting rich understanding and theoretical depth. However, it can be time-consuming, subject to researcher bias, and challenging to generalize findings. Quantitative methodology (e.g., surveys, statistical analysis) provides numerical data for statistical validation and generalizability but may oversimplify complex phenomena and overlook contextual nuances. 10. What kinds of challenges do anthropologists face in the field? Answer: Anthropologists encounter various challenges in the field, including gaining trust and access within communities, navigating cultural and language barriers, managing logistical and practical issues (such as transportation and accommodation), addressing ethical dilemmas, maintaining objectivity in emotionally charged situations, and ensuring personal safety and security. Additionally, adapting to unfamiliar environments, balancing researcher roles with local expectations, and coping with the physical and psychological demands of fieldwork contribute to the complex nature of anthropological research in the field. 11. What types of physical danger may anthropologists encounter in the field? Choose two different field locations that might interest you, and consider what types of physical (environmental) challenges would be present in those places. Answer: Anthropologists conducting fieldwork in diverse locations may face physical dangers such as extreme weather conditions, natural disasters (like earthquakes or hurricanes), wildlife encounters (such as venomous animals), rugged terrain (including mountainous or remote regions), and health risks (like tropical diseases or altitude sickness). For example, in the Amazon rainforest, researchers may contend with dense vegetation, unpredictable weather patterns, and potential encounters with venomous snakes or insects. In Arctic regions, challenges might include freezing temperatures, icy conditions, and isolation from medical facilities or support networks. 12. Compare and contrast the field studies of Bronislaw Malinowski and Annette Weiner. What were the major differences and what were the causes of these differences? Answer: Bronislaw Malinowski and Annette Weiner conducted fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands but with different emphases and methodologies. Malinowski's seminal work focused on economic exchange, rituals, and social organization, emphasizing a functionalist approach to understanding culture as integrated systems. In contrast, Weiner's research revisited the Trobriand Islands decades later, critiquing Malinowski's gender biases and highlighting women's roles in economic and ceremonial life. The major differences stemmed from shifts in anthropological theory and research paradigms over time, with Weiner's study reflecting feminist anthropology perspectives and a critical reevaluation of earlier ethnographic interpretations. 13. Discuss the challenges of subjectivity that exist in the anthropological research situation. Are there any possible advantages to the presence of subjectivity? Answer: Subjectivity in anthropological research refers to the influence of researchers' personal biases, perspectives, and cultural backgrounds on data collection, interpretation, and analysis. Challenges include potential researcher bias in selecting informants, interpreting observations, or framing research questions, which can impact the validity and reliability of findings. However, subjectivity also offers advantages by enriching understanding through the researcher's empathetic engagement, reflexivity, and sensitivity to cultural nuances. Acknowledging subjectivity encourages transparency, reflexivity, and critical self-awareness, enhancing the depth and contextuality of anthropological insights. 14. Discuss the importance of theory in gathering and analyzing anthropological data. Answer: Theory plays a crucial role in anthropological research by providing frameworks, concepts, and analytical tools to interpret and make sense of ethnographic data. Theoretical perspectives guide research design, shape hypotheses, and inform data collection methods, allowing anthropologists to contextualize findings within broader social, cultural, and historical contexts. Moreover, theory fosters comparative analysis, facilitates the exploration of social dynamics and power relations, and contributes to the development of anthropological knowledge. Theory-driven research promotes theoretical innovation, challenges assumptions, and advances understanding of human diversity and social change across different cultural settings. 15. Take a broad view of anthropology over its first century of practice. What challenges and changes has it faced? How are fieldwork and theory different today? Answer: Over its first century, anthropology has evolved significantly, confronting numerous challenges and undergoing transformative changes. Initially rooted in colonial contexts, early anthropology faced criticisms of ethnocentrism, bias, and the exploitation of indigenous knowledge and cultures. The discipline gradually shifted towards more ethical and reflexive practices, emphasizing cultural relativism, collaboration with communities, and the recognition of anthropologists' roles in power dynamics. Technological advancements and globalization have revolutionized fieldwork practices. Contemporary anthropologists utilize digital tools, virtual ethnography, and multi-sited studies to explore global connections, migration, and transnationalism. Fieldwork today incorporates diverse methodologies, including participatory action research and community-based participatory research, focusing on collaborative approaches that empower communities and prioritize ethical considerations. Theoretical frameworks in anthropology have diversified, incorporating postcolonial, feminist, and indigenous perspectives that critique and expand upon earlier paradigms. Contemporary theory addresses complex issues such as globalization, environmental sustainability, and the impact of neoliberalism on cultural practices. Moreover, interdisciplinary collaborations with fields like sociology, geography, and environmental studies have enriched anthropological perspectives, fostering innovative approaches to understanding human societies and their interactions. 16. Describe the moral and ethical dilemmas responsibilities in anthropological research and possible solutions to those dilemmas. Answer: Anthropological research entails moral and ethical responsibilities, including considerations of informed consent, confidentiality, cultural sensitivity, and the fair representation of research participants. Ethical dilemmas may arise from power differentials, conflicting interests between researchers and communities, or the potential for unintended harm through data dissemination. Possible solutions to these dilemmas involve adopting ethical guidelines and protocols, such as those outlined by professional organizations like the American Anthropological Association (AAA). These guidelines emphasize transparency, accountability, and respect for cultural values and practices. Practices such as obtaining informed consent, maintaining confidentiality, sharing research findings with communities, and engaging in reciprocal relationships are crucial to ethical conduct in anthropological research. Moreover, reflexivity—critical self-awareness of one's biases, positions, and impacts on research—helps mitigate ethical challenges by promoting transparency and reflexivity in research design, data collection, and interpretation. Collaborative and participatory approaches involve community members in the research process, ensuring their voices are heard, and research benefits are shared equitably. In summary, ethical practice in anthropology involves ongoing reflection, dialogue, and adaptation of methods to uphold principles of justice, respect, and integrity in research relationships. By addressing ethical dilemmas with sensitivity and diligence, anthropologists contribute to the ethical advancement of the discipline and promote social justice and cultural understanding. Test Bank for Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge William A. Haviland, Harald E. L. Prins, Bunny McBride, Walrath 9781305633797