CHAPTER 2 APPLICATION LAYER Chapter Summary The Application Layer (also called layer 5) is the software that enables the user to perform useful work. The software at the application layer is the reason for having the network because it is this software that provides the business value. This chapter examines the five fundamental types of application architectures used at the application layer (host-based, client-based, client-server, cloud-based, peer to peer). It then looks at the Internet and the primary software application packages it enables: the Web, email, Telnet, and instant messaging. Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to: understand host-based, client-based, client-server, cloud-based, and peer-to-peer application architectures understand how the Web works understand how email works be aware of how Telnet and instant messaging works Key Terms application architecture application logic client-based architecture client-server architecture cloud computing cluster data access logic data storage desktop videoconferencing distributed computing model dumb terminal email green computing H.320 H.323 host-based architecture HTTP request HTTP response Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) instant messaging (IM) Internet Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) mail transfer agent mail user agent mainframe middleware MPEG-2 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) network computer n-tier architecture peer-to-peer architecture personal computer Post Office Protocol (POP) presentation logic protocol request body request header request line response body response header response status scalability server virtualization Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) SMTP header SMTP body Telnet terminal thick client thin client three-tier architecture transaction terminal two-tier architecture uniform resource locator (URL) videoconferencing virtual server World Wide Web Web browser Webcasting Web server
Chapter Outline INTRODUCTION APPLICATION ARCHITECTURES Host-Based Architectures Client-Based Architectures Client-Server Architectures Cloud Computing Architectures Peer-to-Peer Architectures Choosing Architectures WORLD WIDE WEB How the Web Works Inside an HTTP Request Inside an HTTP Response ELECTRONIC MAIL How E-Mail Works Inside an SMTP Packet Attachments in Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension OTHER APPLICATIONS Telnet Instant Messaging Videoconferencing IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT SUMMARY Answers to Textbook Exercises What are the different types of application architectures? Host-based (all processing done on host system and all data on host with terminals providing access), client-based (with processing done on client and all data stored on server), and client-server (balanced processing; usually host provides data access and storage while the client provides application and presentation logic). Describe the four basic functions of an application software package. Data storage, data access logic, application logic, and presentation logic. What are the advantages and disadvantages of host-based networks versus client-server networks?
Host-based Client-server
Advantages Centralized security Integrated architecture from single vendor Simpler, centralized installation Balanced processing demands Lower cost; inexpensive infrastructure Can use software and hardware from different vendors Scalability
Disadvantages Having all processing on host may lead to overload Cost of software and upgrades; expensive infrastructure Terminal totally dependent on server Problems with using software and/or hardware from different vendors More complex installation or updating (although automated installation software helps greatly in this area). What is middleware and what does it do? Middleware manages client-server message transfer and shields application software from impacts of hardware changes. Middleware provides standard communication between products of different vendors through translation. Suppose your organization was contemplating switching from a host-based architecture to client-server. What problems would you foresee? Infrastructure supporting cabling hardware and software will need to be redesigned to support the client-server approach to the architecture. Someone would need to be designated to manage what would now become the local area network, so there may be a personnel impact. Security would be one area of concern, since processing can be done on individual workstations. There may be somewhat greater complexity of upgrades, although newer software is reducing the impact of this kind of problem. Which is less expensive: host-based networks or client-server networks? Explain. Client-server networks are less expensive because in a competitive market involving multiple vendors, software and hardware upgrades cost substantially less. Upgrades for host-based networks are generally very expensive, and occur in what is generally termed a “step function,” meaning requiring large, discrete steps in expenditure. LANs have the ability to be deployed with a smoother cost curve in less severe increments. Compare and contrast two-tiered, three-tiered, and n-tiered client server architectures. What are the technical differences, and what advantages and disadvantages do each offer? Two-tiered architectures have only clients and servers. Three-tiered architectures typical separate (1) presentation logic, (2) application logic, and (3) and data access logic and storage. In n-tiered architecture more than one tier may be used to support application logic, typically due to a Web server tier being included. Three-tiered or n-tiered architectures place a greater load on the network, but balances server load better and is more scalable. How does a thin client differ from a thick client? Thick clients support all or most application logic while thin clients support little or no application logic. Development and maintenance costs for more complex thick-client environments can be higher than for thin clients. 9. What are the benefits of cloud computing? Benefits include gaining access to experts to manage the cloud, potentially lower costs, scalability, and pay-as-you-g0. 10. Compare and contrast the three cloud computing models. Sure, let's compare and contrast the three primary cloud computing models: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). 1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): • Definition: IaaS provides virtualized computing resources over the internet. It includes virtual machines, storage, and networking capabilities. • Flexibility: Offers the highest level of flexibility as users have control over the infrastructure components, allowing them to customize their environments according to their needs. • Responsibility: Users are responsible for managing applications, data, runtime, middleware, and operating systems. • Example Providers: Amazon Web Services (AWS) EC2, Microsoft Azure Virtual Machines, Google Compute Engine. 2. Platform as a Service (PaaS): • Definition: PaaS provides a platform allowing customers to develop, run, and manage applications without dealing with the underlying infrastructure. • Abstraction: Abstracts away much of the infrastructure management complexity, offering pre-configured environments for application development and deployment. • Responsibility: Users manage applications and data, while the provider manages runtime, middleware, operating system, virtualization, servers, storage, and networking. • Example Providers: Google App Engine, Heroku, Microsoft Azure App Service. 3. Software as a Service (SaaS): • Definition: SaaS delivers software applications over the internet on a subscription basis, eliminating the need for users to install, maintain, and update the software locally. • Ready-to-Use: Offers fully functional applications accessible through a web browser or API without requiring installation or configuration. • Responsibility: Users only need to manage their data, while the provider handles all aspects of the application, including infrastructure, runtime, middleware, and data. • Example Providers: Google Workspace (formerly G Suite), Microsoft Office 365, Salesforce, Dropbox. Comparison: • Level of Control: IaaS offers the highest level of control, followed by PaaS and then SaaS. • Management Responsibility: As you move from IaaS to SaaS, the provider takes on more responsibility for managing various layers of the technology stack. • Customization: IaaS allows for extensive customization, PaaS offers some customization within the platform's constraints, while SaaS typically offers limited customization options. • Development Focus: IaaS and PaaS are more developer-centric, providing tools and resources for building and deploying applications, while SaaS is focused on end-user functionality. • Scalability: All three models offer scalability, but the level of control over scaling differs. IaaS provides the most control, followed by PaaS and then SaaS, which typically abstracts scaling complexities from users. In summary, while all three cloud computing models offer various benefits, the choice depends on factors such as the level of control needed, management responsibilities desired, customization requirements, and scalability needs. What is a network computer? A network computer supports Internet access but has no hard disk local storage. For what is HTTP used? What are its major parts? The standard protocol for communication between a Web browser and a Web server is Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). An HTTP request from a Web browser to a Web server has three parts. Only the first part is required; the other two are optional. the request line, which starts with a command (e.g., GET), provides the URL, and ends with the HTTP version number that the browser understands. the request header, which contains a variety of optional information such as the Web browser being used (e.g., Internet Explorer), the date, and a userid and password for use if the Web page is password-protected. the request body, which contains information sent to the server, such as information from a form. The format of an HTTP response from the server to the browser is very similar to the browser request. It has three parts, but only the last part is required; the first two are optional: the response status, which contains the HTTP version number the server has used, a status code (e.g., 200 means OK, 404 means page not found), and reason phrase (a text description of the status code) the response header, which contains a variety of optional information such as the Web server being used (e.g., Apache), the date, the exact URL of the page in the response body, and the format used for the body (e.g., HTML) the response body, which is the Web page itself. For what is HTML used? HTML is the language in which web pages are created. The response body of an HTTP response can be in any format, such as text, Microsoft Word, Adobe PDF, or a host of other formats, but the most commonly used format is HTML. The major parts of HTML are the heading (denoted by the tag) and the body (denoted by the tag) of the response. Describe how a Web browser and Web server work together to send a Web page to a user. In order to get a page from the Web, the user must type the Internet Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for the page he or she wants, or click on a link that provides the URL. The URL specifies the Internet address of the Web server and the directory and name of the specific page wanted. In order for the requests from the Web browser to be understood by the Web server, they must use the same standard protocol. The standard protocol for communication between a Web browser and a Web server is Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Can a mail sender use a two-tier architecture to send mail to a receiver using a three-tier architecture? Explain. Yes. With e-mail, users with the two-tier architecture will use the user agent software to interface with their email server, which will send out web based, SMTP packets to the far end receiver’s server computer with mail server software. The server at the far end will issue an IMAP or SMTP packet to the receiver’s server computer, which will then arrive at the receiver when they ask for the email with an HTTP request to the web based email application. Thus, a 2-tiered system easily interfaces with a three-tiered architecture over the internet using the appropriate protocols. Describe how mail user agents and message transfer agents work together to transfer mail messages. The sender of an e-mail uses a user agent (an application layer software package) to write the e-mail message. The user agent sends the message to a mail server that runs a special application layer software package called a message transfer agent. These agents read the envelope and then send the message through the network (possibly through dozens of mail transfer agents) until the message arrives at the receiver’s mail server. The mail transfer agent on this server then stores the message in the receiver’s mailbox on the server. When the receiver next accesses his or her e-mail, the user agent on his or her client computer contacts the mail transfer agent on the mail server and asks for the contents of the user’s mailbox. The mail transfer agent sends the e-mail message to the client computer, which the user reads with the user agent. What roles do SMTP, POP, and IMAP play in sending and receiving e-mail on the Internet? SMTP defines how message transfer agents operate and how they format messages sent to other message transfer agents. The SMTP standard covers message transmission between message transfer agents (i.e., mail server to mail server). A different standard called Post Office Protocol (POP) defines how user agents operate and how messages to and from mail transfer agents are formatted. POP is gradually being replaced by a newer standard called Internet Mail Access Protocol (IMAP). While there are several important technical differences between POP and IMAP, the most noticeable difference is that before a user can read a mail message with a POP user agent, the e-mail message must be copied to the client computer’s hard disk and deleted from the mail server. With IMAP, e-mail messages can remain stored on the mail server after they are read. What are the major parts of an e-mail message? The major parts of an e-mail message are: the header, which lists source and destination e-mail addresses (possibly in text form (e.g., “Susan Smith”) as well as the address itself (e.g., [email protected])), date, subject, and so on the body, which is the message itself. What is a virtual server? A virtual server is one computer that acts as several servers. Using special software like Microsoft Virtual PC, WMWare, or VirtualBox, several operating systems are installed on the same physical computer so that one computer appears as several different ones on the network. What is Telnet, and why is it useful? Telnet enables users on one computer to login into other computers on the Internet. Once Telnet makes the connection from the client to the server, a user can login into the server or host computer in the same way as that person would if they dialed in with a modem; the user must know the account name and password of an authorized user. Telnet enables a person to connect to a remote computer without incurring long distance telephone charges. Telnet can be useful because it enables access to servers or host computers without sitting at the dedicated computer’s keyboard. Most network managers use Telnet to work on their organization’s servers, rather than physically sitting in front of them and using the keyboards. What is cloud computing? With cloud computing, a company contracts with another firm to provide software services over the Internet, rather than installing the software on its own servers. The company no longer buys and manages its own servers and software, but instead pays a monthly subscription fee or a fee based on how much they use the application. Explain how instant messaging works. An instant messaging (client) communicates with an IM server application. Once a user is online, the server application can monitor connections so that multiple pre-identified clients can be notified and decide to participate in real-time messaging. IM may include video or audio. Video exchange, of course, requires cameras. Underlying this application requires a full-duplex connection between destination and host. Compare and contrast the application architecture for videoconferencing with the architecture for e-mail. Videoconferencing must deliver real-time services demanding high capacity data transfer for both image and voice transmission. Specialized hardware (and even rooms) may be required. E-mail messages (typically without large attachments) are relatively small by comparison, can be received by any Internet-capable computer, and do not have to be consumed in real time. Which of the common application architectures for e-mail (two-tier client-server, Web-based) is "best"? Explain. The best architecture for email can depend on how one wants to use e-mail. If a person wants to be able to access their e-mail from anywhere, then Web-based is best. If the person wants professional backup and storage within an organization, then two-tier client-server is best. If the person wants storage of e-mail strictly under their control and they also want to be able to access their e-mail files off-line when there is a network service interruption, then host-based is best. Employers may choose to use client-server architecture for email access within the organization and Web-based architecture for access to the same system for those times when employees are outside the company (at home, at another business, or on travel). Some experts argue that thin-client client-server architectures are really host-based architectures in disguise and suffer from the same old problems. Do you agree? Explain. While thin client have substantially less application logic than thick client, they have sufficient application logic (as, for example, a Web browser possibly with Java applets) to participate in a client-server relationship. The older host-based terminals did not even have this much application logic. While thin-client use today reflects some level of return to a more centralized approach, the client is likely served by multiple servers (and even multiple tiers), rather than a single large host server as in the past. Thus, the two approaches are similar, but not exact, from a technological design perspective. Mini-Cases I. Deals-R-Us Brokers (Part 1) Fred's information systems department has presented him with two alternatives for developing the new tools. The first alternative will have a special tool developed in C++ that clients will download onto their computers to run. The tool will communicate with the DRUB server to select data to analyze. The second alternative will have the C++ program running on the server; the client will use his or her browser to interact with the server. Classify the two alternatives in terms of what type of application architecture they use. Client-based is simple; however all data must travel to the client for processing, thus giving the potential for speed delays over the network. Client-server provides processing on the server, which could be an advantage if the data to be processed also resides on the server; yet, because it involves heterogeneous software, this can be a significant disadvantage in terms of interoperability. The two alternatives can be classified based on their application architecture as follows: 1. Alternative 1: Client-Server Architecture with Thick Client (Fat Client): • In this alternative, the special tool developed in C++ runs on the client's computer. • The client-side tool communicates directly with the DRUB server to select and analyze data. • This architecture is often referred to as "Thick Client" or "Fat Client" because the client-side application handles a significant portion of the processing and interacts directly with the server. • It requires clients to download and install the application on their computers. 2. Alternative 2: Client-Server Architecture with Thin Client: • In this alternative, the C++ program runs on the server, and clients interact with it using their web browsers. • The server-side program processes data and responds to client requests, with the client-side browser serving as the interface. • This architecture is commonly known as "Thin Client" because the client-side application (the web browser) has minimal processing capabilities and primarily acts as a presentation layer. • It eliminates the need for clients to download and install the application, as they can access it through their browsers. In summary, Alternative 1 utilizes a Thick Client architecture where the processing is distributed between the client and server, while Alternative 2 employs a Thin Client architecture with most processing occurring on the server side and the client serving primarily as a user interface. Outline the pros and cons of the two alternatives and make a recommendation to Fred about which is better. Certainly, let's outline the pros and cons of the two alternatives and then make a recommendation: Alternative 1: Thick Client (Client-Server Architecture with Thick Client) Pros: 1. Performance: The processing is distributed, allowing for potentially faster performance as some computations are handled locally on the client's machine. 2. Offline Access: Since the tool is installed on the client's computer, it can potentially work offline or with limited internet connectivity, depending on the design. 3. Customization: Clients may have more customization options and control over the tool's behavior since it's installed locally. 4. Direct Communication: The tool can directly communicate with the DRUB server, potentially reducing latency and improving responsiveness. Cons: 1. Installation Required: Clients need to download and install the application, which may deter some users and add complexity to deployment. 2. Compatibility Issues: Ensuring compatibility across various operating systems and device configurations can be challenging. 3. Maintenance: Updates and maintenance require distributing new versions of the tool to all clients, which can be cumbersome. 4. Security Concerns: Client-side applications can be more vulnerable to security threats compared to server-side solutions. Alternative 2: Thin Client (Client-Server Architecture with Thin Client) Pros: 1. Ease of Access: Clients can access the tool through their web browsers without the need for installation, making it more convenient and accessible. 2. Cross-Platform Compatibility: Since the tool runs on the server, it's platform-independent, ensuring consistent performance across different devices and operating systems. 3. Centralized Management: Updates and maintenance are easier as they only need to be applied to the server, ensuring all clients have access to the latest version simultaneously. 4. Scalability: Thin client architectures are typically more scalable as server resources can be adjusted to meet demand more easily. Cons: 1. Performance: Since most processing occurs on the server side, there may be increased latency, especially for complex computations or large datasets. 2. Internet Dependency: Clients require a stable internet connection to access the tool, limiting usability in offline scenarios. 3. Limited Customization: Clients may have fewer customization options compared to a thick client solution, as they're reliant on the server-side application. 4. Browser Compatibility: Ensuring compatibility with various web browsers and versions can be a challenge, potentially leading to inconsistent user experiences. Recommendation: Based on the outlined pros and cons, I recommend Fred to go with Alternative 2: Thin Client. While Alternative 1 offers potential performance benefits and offline access, the advantages of ease of access, centralized management, cross-platform compatibility, and scalability provided by a thin client architecture outweigh the drawbacks. Additionally, with the increasing trend towards web-based applications and the challenges associated with managing thick client deployments, a thin client approach aligns better with modern development practices and user expectations. II. Deals-R-Us Brokers (Part 2) Dears-R-Us Brokers has decided to install a new e-mail package. One vendor is offering an SMTP-based two-tier client server architecture. The second vendor is offering a Web-based e-mail architecture. Fred doesn't understand either one, but thinks the Web-based one should be better because, in his words "the Web is the future." a) Briefly explain to Fred, in layman's terms, the differences between the two. b) Outline the pros and cons of the two alternatives and make a recommendation to Fred about which is better. If they host the email in-house using Microsoft Exchange Server, this means that they purchase a physical computer to use as a mail server and install Microsoft Server as the operating system. Then, they will need to install the Microsoft Exchange Server software which will allow the server to be used as a mail server. The network administrator at DRUB can then configure and manage the email user accounts, etc himself. The second solution is to use one of the cloud-based providers and completely outsource the company email. Two examples are Gmail and GoDaddy. With each of these services, the DRUB will pay a monthly fee for one of the providers to configure and manage the mail servers for them. Each of these options has their advantages and disadvantages. A few of these include: In-house advantages: control, potentially lower cost In-house disadvantages: more work to do, potentially less expertise available Outsourcing advantage: potentially lower cost, better service, less work to do in-house Outsourcing disadvantages: loss of control, potentially higher costs III. Accurate Accounting Accurate Accounting managing partner Diego Lopez asks: Why can’t IM work as simply as e-mail? Will the new videoconferencing software and hardware work as simply as e-mail, or will it be IM all over again? Prepare a response to his questions. E-mail standards enable it to be used easily between companies. Lack of IM standards means that several competing protocols exist. This problem will be overcome as commercial interests push for standardization or development of middleware that enables disparate systems to talk to one another. The same pattern of innovation will likely happen that is typical of all new technologies. At present, there are large corporate concerns over the security aspects of externally based IM software deployments within an organization’s boundaries, limiting the use of IM packages in some organizations until these concerns are mitigated. IV. Ling Galleries How can the Internet help gallery owner Hoard Ling with his two new galleries? There are a variety of ways the Internet could help Mr. Ling. He could develop a website where his paintings would be featured and some additional information about the artist would be displayed for potential buyers to learn and explore more about the works. Further, the website could include an e-commerce function whereby visitors would be able to order prints of paintings they like. The site could help Mr. Ling track customer tastes so that he can better understand the types of paintings that sell well, thus allowing the business to develop while matching future production to the strongest market for the paintings. Next Day Air Service Case Study Prepare a brief management summary on the technical essential aspects of the Internet and the World Wide Web and how they work. Remember, the audience is not technical. He is confused about the relationship between the World Wide Web and the Internet and often states that they are the same. Please be sure to explain this in your summary. One thing to remember and to emphasize with your students is the point that this question brings out, namely that there is great confusion between what constitutes the Internet and what exactly is the World Wide WEB. The majority of my students are surprised to learn that there is a major difference. The answer is simple, one is the physical layer, hardware nuts & bolts that makes up the highway upon which network traffic will flow. The other (WWW) is but one, albeit now the largest, applications that are available to run over the Internet. The Internet actually began without the WWW. It was a bit level, text based network that evolved in a largely DOS based world. For the most part, from its inception it required the TCP/IP protocol suite to be running on the source and destination hosts that were interoperating as we use to refer to it back in those days. As WINDOWs and the graphical user interface evolved so did the ways that we used the Internet. In the early 90’s after a few years of using, testing and refining several other GUI applications to support Internetworking, the WWW application became standardized along with a few new protocols which were added to the TCP/IP protocol suite. These included HyperText Transfer Protocol now known simply as HTTP and Domain Name Server, now simply known as DNS. President Coone is particularly intrigued with the potential of the Internet, but he and the other members of management are not exactly sure what or how NDAS can use them to improve its competitive edge. Present some alternatives. President Coone reminds you that NDAS expects to enlarge its scope in the international market. Plans call for first offerings to be services to Britain, France, and Germany, with later expansion to South America. President Coone wants you to involve Bob Jones in your work on the Internet. The Internet is global these days. Carrier access providers, known as ISPs, can provide a company like NDAS with a number of network transport options to connect each of their sites, both domestic and international to the Internet. Once connected there are many applications that NDAS could consider. NDAS could put in place an Intranet at their headquarters. Each of the other sites could access any of t he applications running on the Intranet via the Internet. NDAS could for example have a standard Email application system and make this available to everyone in the company. NDAS could develop a WEB Site for its employees as well as its customers and suppliers to access via the Internet. It is common these days for companies to do this. The type of WEB Site applications typically can run from simple apps like providing essential information about the company to having elaborate back end database applications supporting things like order entry and making electronic payments. The Marketing departments of companies these days are involved in the development of corporate WEB Sites because of the tremendous reach that a WEB Site can have in the marketplace. As such, Bob Jones’ department should be consulted and have representation in the WEB Site development process. The image projected by the quality of the WEB Site will be a critical factor to its success. Bob Jones’ department has the expertise to lend in making sure that the WEB Site adequately represents the NDAS corporate image. 3 . With the updates planned for the network , President Coone wonders what other benefits could be derived from the network . One that he particularly is intrigued by is video-conferencing. Explain to him in a memo how the video-conferencing could be beneficial. The students should create a memo addressed to President Coone that includes some of these main benefits of video-conferencing: Decreased travel time Decreased travel expenditures Better communication (relative to phone) Additional Content Teaching Notes I usually spend 3 hours of class time on this chapter. I also include hands-on labs on (1) HTML (using Microsoft Word, Front Page, or Dreamweaver) to ensure that all students can create their own web pages and (2) FTP (using both a graphic-interface FTP application and command line FTP access) to ensure that students can transfer files. Sometimes I include a hands-on Web and e-mail lab as well. I have several goals when I teach this chapter. First, I want students to get a sense of the history of the Internet beyond what they already know. Most of my students think the Internet has always been there. The “traditional” history given in Introduction to Computing courses usually mentions that the Internet started in the late 1960s. This is true, but can be misleading; it implies the Internet has always been an important network. I try to show how small it was at first and illustrate that that it was only one of several possible networks that could have “won.” I also try to impress upon them the extremely rapid growth in the past few years. You might want to update the timeline with more recent statistics on the number of Internet users. See www.boardwatch.com. It is useful to explain that the Internet was not originally designed for commercial activities, and that this lack of a business intent carries over into some of the more difficult aspects of traffic management and control in today’s environment. I have two goals for the Internet applications section. First, I want students to become familiar with the Web, SMTP, FTP, and telnet, although for most students this is remedial. Starting with this material, however, helps students to understand the importance and relevance of the course – everyone wants to learn more about the Internet. The Internet applications discussion is also a good place to explain exactly what is meant by standards and layers from Chapter 1. The HTTP/SMTP standards help students understand why we need standards and most importantly that there are standards at all layers in the network model. This underscores the concept that each layer is distinct and has a packet within a packet within a packet, something I have always found that students have difficulty understanding. In my opinion, this concept is more important than having them memorize the contents and format of each type of packet, although I require them to be able to explain the parts of the packet and what each does. Electronic commerce is an important topic. Most students want to learn about it, and many have been exposed to it in prior classes. I cover enough to help them sort out what is going on the Web with respect to the use of the Internet to operate the back end of businesses using electronic commerce. I also try to link the material to their marketing or economics courses. We discuss aspects of purchasing goods over the internet, and I also ask them if they have purchased anything over the web, used instant messaging or else used desktop videoteleconferencing. Most students have done so, and they are interested in this chapter because it begins their understanding of the nuts and bolts of how web pages and web site forms might be transmitted over networks. War Stories Electronic Commerce and Prices (Objective: Illustrate the implications of electronic commerce for today’s businesses; The potential is immense). A friend of mine recently decided to get a car loan for a new car. After checking out Edmund’s (www.edmunds.com) for information, he clicked on the link to a car loan firm. The loan quote was 7.70%. He then called his bank and USAA (a large financial organization well known for offering cheap loans to U.S. veterans). Neither could match the loan rate, although USAA came the closet at 7.85%. Neither would match the Internet rate, even though he had extensive ties to both. It turns out the company offering the low rates on the Internet was actually his bank, doing business under a different name. Electronic commerce has vast implications for business, and this chapter is about the technical underpinnings of how this information moves around the internet. E-mail I usually describe my first experiences with e-mail, which were before the days of the Internet. You may also have some good e-mail war stories. The objective is to reinforce the changes in technologies; the Internet hasn’t always been dominant. Sometimes I cite an alternative e-mail technology, the US Veterans Affairs (VA) FORUM, the VA's national electronic mail system. Electronic discussions, conferences, distribution of VA directives, news, and computer programs are its primary functions. FORUM disseminates information across any communications medium and also hosts several national databases. Because VA FORUM works according to e-mail threads, it has been extensively used to document the process of software development in the VA health care system. Solution Manual for Business Data Communications and Networking Jerry FitzGerald , Alan Dennis , Alexandra Durcikova 9781118891681, 9781118086834
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