CH-19-20 Health and the Environment – Sociology : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 19 to 20 CHAPTER 19 HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. How does Parsons view the “sick role” from a functionalist perspective? Answer: Parsons views the "sick role" as a socially accepted behavior that allows individuals to be exempt from their normal social roles while they seek medical help to recover. From a functionalist perspective, this role helps maintain societal stability by legitimizing illness and defining the responsibilities of the sick person and the medical professionals. 2. What does the “medicalization of society” describe? Answer: The “medicalization of society” describes the process by which non-medical issues become defined and treated as medical problems, often involving the use of medical terminology and interventions. This expansion of medical authority can influence various aspects of daily life, from mental health to lifestyle choices. 3. What do conflict theorists mean by a “medical model”? Answer: Conflict theorists view the “medical model” as a system that emphasizes biological and physical explanations for health issues, often prioritizing treatment over prevention. They argue that this model serves the interests of powerful groups, such as pharmaceutical companies and healthcare providers, rather than addressing the social determinants of health. 4. How is medicine a social control mechanism? Answer: Medicine acts as a social control mechanism by defining what is considered normal or deviant behavior in terms of health. It can enforce societal norms and expectations, such as regulating behaviors deemed unhealthy or stigmatizing certain conditions, thereby exerting control over individuals' bodies and lifestyles. 5. How do interactionists approach the study of health and medicine? Answer: Interactionists focus on the everyday interactions and meanings individuals attach to health, illness, and medical care. They study how patients and healthcare providers construct their identities and experiences through social interactions, and how these interactions shape perceptions of illness and health behaviors. 6. How can labeling theory be applied to health and illness? Answer: Labeling theory can be applied to health and illness by examining how being labeled as "ill" affects an individual's identity and behavior. This theory suggests that societal reactions and labels can influence how individuals perceive themselves and are perceived by others, potentially leading to stigmatization and changes in self-concept and social interactions. 7. How do race and ethnicity affect views of patient autonomy? Answer: Race and ethnicity can affect views of patient autonomy by influencing cultural norms and expectations regarding decision-making in healthcare. Different racial and ethnic groups may have varying beliefs about the role of family, community, and healthcare providers in making medical decisions, which can impact the degree of autonomy patients expect and experience. 8. What does social epidemiology tell us about social class differences? Answer: Social epidemiology reveals that social class differences significantly impact health outcomes. Lower social classes often experience higher rates of illness, reduced access to healthcare, and poorer health conditions due to factors such as inadequate living conditions, limited education, and economic instability. 9. What does social epidemiology tell us about racial and ethnic differences? Answer: Social epidemiology highlights that racial and ethnic differences contribute to disparities in health outcomes. Minority groups often face higher rates of certain diseases, lower life expectancy, and barriers to healthcare access due to systemic issues such as discrimination, socioeconomic inequality, and cultural biases within the healthcare system. 10. In what way is sexism present in medical research? Answer: Sexism in medical research is evident in the historical underrepresentation of women in clinical trials and studies. This bias leads to a lack of understanding of how different diseases and treatments affect women, resulting in medical practices and recommendations that may not adequately address women's health needs and concerns. 11. What are some of the age-related social issues in health and medicine? Answer: Age-related social issues in health and medicine include access to adequate healthcare, ageism in medical treatment, and the management of chronic illnesses. Older adults often face difficulties in accessing healthcare services due to mobility issues, lack of transportation, or financial constraints. Ageism can lead to inadequate treatment or misdiagnosis, as healthcare providers may attribute symptoms to aging rather than treatable conditions. Additionally, managing multiple chronic illnesses becomes increasingly challenging with age, requiring coordinated and continuous care, which is often lacking in healthcare systems. 12. Why is the concept of stigma important in treating mental illness? Answer: The concept of stigma is crucial in treating mental illness because it can significantly impact individuals' willingness to seek help and adhere to treatment. Stigma associated with mental illness often leads to discrimination, social isolation, and internalized shame, which can exacerbate symptoms and hinder recovery. Addressing stigma through education, public awareness campaigns, and supportive policies is essential to encourage individuals to seek treatment without fear of judgment and to ensure they receive compassionate and effective care. 13. What are the most significant environmental problems, and what are the basic causes of these problems? Answer: The most significant environmental problems include climate change, pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and water scarcity. The basic causes of these problems are largely anthropogenic, including the burning of fossil fuels, industrial activities, deforestation for agriculture and urbanization, overconsumption of natural resources, and inadequate waste management. These activities release greenhouse gases, pollutants, and disrupt natural ecosystems, leading to severe environmental degradation and impacting human health and livelihoods. 14. What has been the impact of globalization on the environment? Answer: Globalization has had both positive and negative impacts on the environment. On the negative side, increased industrialization, transportation, and trade have led to higher emissions of greenhouse gases, widespread pollution, and greater exploitation of natural resources. This has accelerated environmental degradation and contributed to climate change. However, globalization has also facilitated the spread of environmental awareness, the development of green technologies, and international cooperation on environmental issues. It has enabled the sharing of best practices and the implementation of global environmental agreements aimed at mitigating environmental damage. 15. How do conflict theorists view environmental issues? Answer: Conflict theorists view environmental issues through the lens of power and inequality. They argue that environmental problems are often the result of social and economic inequalities, where powerful groups exploit natural resources for profit, while marginalized communities bear the brunt of environmental degradation. Conflict theorists emphasize the role of capitalist economic systems in perpetuating environmental destruction and highlight the need for systemic change to address the unequal distribution of environmental benefits and burdens. They advocate for policies that promote environmental justice and equitable access to resources. 16. What is environmental justice? Answer: Environmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of race, ethnicity, income, or education level, in the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. It aims to ensure that no group bears a disproportionate share of negative environmental impacts and that everyone has equal access to a clean and healthy environment. Environmental justice addresses the inequities in the distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, advocating for policies that protect vulnerable and marginalized communities from environmental harm. 17. Viewed from a conflict perspective, why have policymakers been slow to respond to the AIDS crisis? Answer: From a conflict perspective, policymakers have been slow to respond to the AIDS crisis because the groups most affected by AIDS, such as the LGBTQ+ community, people of color, and those living in poverty, often lack political power and influence. Conflict theorists argue that societal elites prioritize issues that affect more powerful and affluent groups while neglecting the needs of marginalized populations. Additionally, stigma and discrimination against those affected by AIDS have further hindered a timely and effective policy response, as policymakers may be influenced by prevailing social prejudices and biases. 18. What light does the functionalist perspective shed on the AIDS crisis? Answer: The functionalist perspective views the AIDS crisis in terms of its impact on the stability and functioning of society. Functionalists would examine how AIDS disrupts social institutions, such as healthcare, family, and the economy, and how these institutions adapt to manage the crisis. They would highlight the importance of coordinated efforts to educate the public, prevent the spread of the disease, and provide care and support to those affected. From this perspective, the AIDS crisis also prompts changes in social norms and policies, leading to increased awareness, research funding, and the development of support systems to restore societal equilibrium. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus’s views on world population. Do you think his predictions will likely come true? Why or why not? Answer: Strengths: Malthus accurately highlighted the potential for population growth to outpace food production, which can lead to scarcity and famine. His emphasis on the limits of natural resources remains relevant. Weaknesses: Malthus underestimated the impact of technological advancements in agriculture and food production, which have significantly increased the world's capacity to sustain larger populations. Prediction Likelihood: It is unlikely that Malthus's predictions will come true in the near future due to continued technological innovations and improved resource management. However, concerns about sustainability and resource depletion still persist, especially in the context of climate change. 2. Identify the various social factors that could lead to a second “baby boom” similar to what we experienced after World War II. Discuss the likelihood of these factors occurring. Answer: Social Factors: • Economic Prosperity: A strong economy with job security and higher wages can encourage higher birth rates. • Cultural Shifts: Societal values that emphasize family and child-rearing can influence people to have more children. • Government Policies: Policies such as parental leave, child benefits, and affordable childcare can incentivize larger families. Likelihood: The likelihood of a second baby boom is uncertain. While economic and policy incentives could promote higher birth rates, factors such as changing gender roles, career priorities, and the high cost of living may counteract these trends. 3. Discuss how social relations change as communities evolve from simple preindustrial cites to large industrial ones. How would such a transition likely affect crime rates? Answer: Social Relations Change: In preindustrial societies, social relations are often close-knit and based on family and community ties. As communities industrialize, social relations become more impersonal and based on economic and social status. Impact on Crime Rates: Industrialization can lead to increased crime rates due to factors such as urbanization, social disorganization, and economic inequality. The anonymity of large cities and the breakdown of traditional social controls can contribute to higher crime rates. 4. Describe the various medical decisions and practices physicians might use to discriminate between older and younger patients within their practice. Discuss how socialization may play a part in their decision making. Answer: Medical Decisions and Practices: • Diagnostic Bias: Physicians may attribute symptoms in older patients to aging rather than treatable conditions. • Treatment Options: Older patients might receive less aggressive treatments due to assumptions about their life expectancy or quality of life. • Preventive Care: Younger patients might receive more preventive care measures compared to older patients. Socialization: Physicians' decision-making can be influenced by societal attitudes towards aging, which often involve stereotypes about the elderly being frail or less deserving of intensive care. Medical training and societal norms play a significant role in shaping these biases. 5. Identify the main premise of functionalism concerning the delivery of healthcare services. Do you think it is equitable that certain individuals should be entitled to better care and services than others? Answer: Main Premise of Functionalism: Functionalism views healthcare as a system that maintains societal stability by ensuring the well-being of its members. It emphasizes the role of healthcare in preventing disease, treating illness, and promoting health, thereby enabling individuals to fulfill their societal roles. Equitability: From an ethical standpoint, it is not equitable for certain individuals to receive better care and services than others. Access to quality healthcare should be based on need rather than socioeconomic status to ensure fairness and social justice. 6. Ask students to identify recent United States government decisions that could create environmental consequences for populations, and discuss the functionalist and conflict theory views on environmental issues. Answer: Recent Government Decisions: • Rollbacks on environmental regulations: Reducing emissions standards for industries. • Policies promoting fossil fuel extraction: Opening public lands for oil drilling. Functionalist View: Functionalists would examine how these decisions impact the stability and functioning of society. They might argue that while such policies could boost economic growth and job creation, they could also lead to long-term environmental degradation that threatens public health and social stability. Conflict Theory View: Conflict theorists would argue that these decisions benefit powerful industries and wealthy individuals at the expense of marginalized communities who are more likely to suffer from environmental harms. They emphasize the need for equitable policies that protect vulnerable populations from environmental injustice. TOPICS AND SOURCES FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Women in the Healthcare Field: Students can use this book as a starting point for understanding how different cultures incorporate women into male-dominated healthcare professions. Elianne Riska. Medical Careers and Feminist Agendas: American, Scandinavian, and Russian Women Physicians. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2001. The Environment and Human Health: Have students research the controversies regarding environmental illnesses. Steve Kroll-Smith, Phil Brown, and Valerie J. Gunter (eds.). Illness and the Environment: A Reader in Contested Medicine. New York: New York University Press. A First-Person Commentary on AIDS: There are many poignant accounts of what it is like to live with AIDS. See David Sanford, “Back to a Future: One Man’s AIDS Tale Shows How Quickly Epidemic has Turned,” The Wall Street Journal (November 8, 1996): A1, A10. Healthcare and Race: See Nancy Krieger and Stephen Sidney, “Racial Discrimination and Blood Pressure: The CARDIA Study of Young Black and White Adults,” American Journal of Public Health 86 (October 1996): 1370–1378. Also see Bruce P. Lamphear, Michael Weitzman, and Shirley Eberly, “Racial Differences in Urban Children’s Environmental Exposure to Lead,” American Journal of Public Health 86 (October 1996): 1460–1463. Poverty and Healthcare: See Laura E. Montgomery, John L. Kiely, and Gregory Pappas, “The Effects of Poverty, Race, and Family Structure on U.S. Children’s Health: Data from the NHIS, 1978 through 1980 and 1989 through 1991,” American Journal of Public Health 86 (October 1996): 1401–1405. Social Impact of Chronic Illness: Begin your study of this topic with the review essay by Robert Sussman, Contemporary Sociology 25 (March 1996): 143–148. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION AIDS at Issue: Coping with an Epidemic (Filmakers Library, 1992, 22m). This documentary addresses a host of controversial social issues related to the AIDS epidemic, among them AIDS prevention education, mandatory testing, and needle exchange programs. AIDS and Love: An Interview with Dr. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (1993, 39m). Dr. Kübler-Ross has championed the cause of prisoners with AIDS. In the early 1980s, she warned officials that they were underestimating the extent of the epidemic in correctional institutions. Later she saw with her own eyes how these sick prisoners were denied treatment and comfort. She became an advocate for these patients and has seen their situation improve. Housing America: Demographics and Development (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2002, 60m). As the twenty-first century unfolds, how are Americans adapting to urgent issues involving sustainable growth, quality of life, and community planning? This multi-segment program addresses this question using four community cases. Increase and Multiply? (1989, 55m). This documentary shows in human terms the consequences of withdrawing family planning support; increasing numbers of illegal abortions, abandoned babies, juvenile delinquency, and diminished natural resources. Meet with the men and women who are eager for help in limiting the size of their families. Leper: Life Beyond Stigma (Bruno Films, 2000, 25m). A documentary filmmaker looks at the social consequences of one of the most stigmatizing diseases, leprosy. Based on numerous interviews with residents of a leprosy colony in Nepal. Livable Landscapes: By Chance or By Choice? (Bullfrog Films, 2003, 57m). This film looks at urban sprawl in New England, and how it affects communities and lives there. Case studies of five communities are utilized. Populations (1992, color, 14m). Examines various influences on populations, including environment, biological factors, territoriality, and population density. Save Our Land, Save Our Towns (Insight Media, 2000, 57m). This video examines the causes and effects of urban sprawl, and offers suggestions on how Americans can prevent the negative effects related to congestion and land space issues. Too Many People, Too Little Space (1991, 60m). Defines standard demographic terms in consideration of the impact of densely populated urban centers. The Uninsured: Forty-Four Million Forgotten Americans (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2001, 47m). This video highlights the social costs of corporate cost cutting and downsizing on healthcare in the United States. The program illustrates how such states as California, Texas, and Tennessee are dealing with the desperate needs of the uninsured. Virtual Friends: Living in Cyberspace (McGraw Hill, 1996, 25m). Relationships in the modern megalopolis: interpersonal or impersonal? This program investigates the new interactive society model in which physical neighborhoods connected by proximity have been displaced by virtual neighborhoods linked by technology. Topics discussed include the intimate anonymity of the Internet, the use of emoticons in email, the growing importance of telecommunications, the Pavlovian response to a ringing telephone, and the relationship category defined as “familiar strangers.” ADDITIONAL READINGS Calthorpe, Peter, and William Fulton. 2001. The Regional City: Planning for the End of Sprawl. Washington, DC: Island Press. Using San Francisco as a case study, two sociologists rethink the notion that the central cities are all declining and the suburbs are all flourishing. Cockerham, William C. 1999. Health and Social Change in Russia and Eastern Europe. New York: Routledge. An examination of the sociological causes of the decline in life expectancy—unusual in an industrialized society—that began in the 1960s in the countries of the former Soviet Union. Conley, Dalton, Kate W. Strully, and Neil G. Bennett. 2003. The Starting Gate: Birth Weight and Life Chances. Berkeley: University of California Press. This study is an excellent example of the interplay between health and social outcomes. Duany, Andres, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck. 2000. Suburban Nation: The Rise and Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream. New York: North Point Press. A critical look at most post-World War II suburban development, both residential and commercial. Epstein, Steven. 1996. Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. A sociologist examines AIDS research from the perspective of how it has been influenced by social and political forces. Fitzpatrick, Kevin, and Mark LaGory. 2000. Unhealthy Places: The Ecology of Risk in the Urban Landscape. New York: Routledge. Two urban planners take a spatial view of urban ecology and raise the concept of the “urban health penalty”; the effect of place on an individual’s access to health resources. Guillemin, Jeanne. 1999. Anthrax: The Investigation of a Deadly Outbreak. Berkeley: University of California Press. A sociologist describes her social-epidemiological investigation into the mystery-shrouded outbreak of anthrax in the Soviet Union in 1979. Hurley, Andrew. 2001. Diners, Bowling Alleys and Trailer Parks: Chasing the American Dream in the Postwar Consumer Culture. New York: Basic Books. An examination of how suburban institutions foster a sense of connectedness, while reinforcing social class distinctions. Johns, Michael. 2002. Moment of Grace: The American City in the 1950s. Berkeley: University of California Press. How have urban communities changed in the past 50 years? This book, about U.S. cities in the 1950s, gives a perspective on this question. Lassey, Marie L., William R. Lassey, and Martin J. Jinks. 1997. Health Care Systems around the World: Characteristics, Issues, Reforms. Upper Saddle Rive, NJ: Prentice Hall. A comparative look at healthcare delivery in 13 countries, including Canada, China, Japan, Mexico, Russia, and Sweden. Leavitt, Judith Walzer. 1996. Typhoid Mary: Captive in the Public’s Health. Boston: Beacon. A professor of the history of medicine and women’s studies examines how scientists discovered that a healthy body could carry typhoid, using a notorious case study from the early 1900s. Macunovich, Diane J. 2002. Birth Quake: The Baby Boom and Its Aftershocks. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cohort size can have significant long-term consequences for a society. This book looks at what the baby boom did to American society. Moore, Richard M. III. 2001. The Hidden America: Social Problems in Rural America for the Twenty-First Century. Selingsgrove, PA: Susquehanna University Press. This anthology includes essays on topics such as substance abuse, immigration, and homelessness among rural Americans. Riska, Elianne. 2001. Medical Careers and Feminist Agendas: American, Scandinavian, and Russian Women Physicians. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine De Gruyter. A comparison of female physicians in three nations. Sassen, Saskia. 2001. The Global City, 2nd ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Princeton University Press. A sociologist explains how the transition to a global economy has caused massive social change in New York, London, and Tokyo. Shilts, Randy. 1987. And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Shilts, a reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle, offers this devastating critique of the nation’s medical, political, and media establishments for allowing the AIDS epidemic to reach grave proportions before taking it seriously. Sites, William. 2003. Remaking New York: Primitive Globalization and the Politics of Urban Community. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Addresses the impact of globalization at the community level. Solnit, Rebecca. 2001. Hollow City: Gentrification and the Eviction of Urban Culture. London: Verso. A highly critical work that sees in gentrification the uprooting of bohemian exclaves by the privileged. JOURNALS Among the journals dealing with issues of health, illness, and healthcare are Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness, and Medicine (founded in 1997), Journal of Gender, Culture, and Health (1996), Journal of Health and Social Behavior (1965), Millbank Memorial Quarterly (1923), and Social Science and Medicine (1967). The Population Reference Bureau (1875 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Suite 520, Washington, DC 20009-5728) publishes Population Bulletin (quarterly), Population Today (11 times annually), Interchange (quarterly), and occasionally Teaching Modules. These publications provide up-to-date information on population and environmental trends. CHAPTER 20 POPULATION, COMMUNITIES, AND URBANIZATION ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Summarize Malthus’s arguments as they relate to population growth. Answer: Thomas Malthus argued that population growth tends to outpace food production, leading to inevitable shortages and famines. He believed that while population grows geometrically (exponentially), food production only increases arithmetically (linearly). This imbalance would result in overpopulation, scarcity of resources, and societal collapse unless population growth is controlled through preventative checks (e.g., moral restraints, delayed marriage) and positive checks (e.g., famines, wars, diseases). 2. Summarize Karl Marx’s criticisms of Malthus’s work. Answer: Karl Marx criticized Malthus's perspective as overly simplistic and ignoring social and economic factors. He argued that Malthus failed to consider how capitalist systems contribute to resource scarcity and poverty. According to Marx, the issue is not population growth but the unequal distribution of resources and the exploitation inherent in capitalist societies. He believed that technological advancements and equitable distribution could overcome the problems Malthus predicted. 3. What are the arguments made by contemporary neo-Malthusians? Answer: Contemporary neo-Malthusians extend Malthus's arguments to emphasize environmental sustainability. They argue that unchecked population growth exacerbates environmental degradation, resource depletion, and climate change. Neo-Malthusians advocate for population control measures such as family planning, education, and policies that promote sustainable resource use to prevent ecological collapse and ensure a balance between population and the environment. 4. What are the elements of demography and how are they interrelated? Answer: The elements of demography include birth rates, death rates, migration, and population composition (age, sex, race, etc.). These elements are interrelated in shaping population size, structure, and dynamics. For example, high birth rates and low death rates contribute to population growth, while migration can alter the demographic makeup of a region. Population composition influences social services and economic development, as the needs of a young population differ from those of an aging population. Understanding these interrelationships helps in planning and policy-making to address demographic challenges. 5. What is the theory of demographic transition? Answer: The theory of demographic transition describes the transformation of a country from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as it develops economically. It consists of four stages: 1. Pre-industrial stage: High birth and death rates result in a stable population. 2. Transitional stage: Death rates decline due to improvements in healthcare and sanitation, while birth rates remain high, leading to rapid population growth. 3. Industrial stage: Birth rates begin to decline as economic conditions improve, and population growth slows. 4. Post-industrial stage: Both birth and death rates are low, stabilizing the population. 6. What are the demographic patterns of developing nations and how are they changing in some nations? Answer: Developing nations often exhibit high birth rates and declining death rates, leading to rapid population growth. However, demographic patterns are changing in some nations due to factors such as improved access to healthcare, education, and family planning. These changes result in lower birth rates, slower population growth, and an increasing proportion of older adults. Urbanization and economic development are also contributing to these shifts, as more people move to cities and adopt different lifestyles. 7. Discuss the social and political implications of family planning in developing nations. Answer: Family planning in developing nations has significant social and political implications. Socially, it can empower women by giving them control over their reproductive choices, leading to improved health and economic opportunities. Politically, family planning can be contentious, as it involves navigating cultural, religious, and ethical considerations. Governments may face opposition from groups that view family planning as conflicting with traditional values. However, successful family planning programs can contribute to sustainable development, reduce poverty, and improve overall quality of life. 8. Discuss China’s changing population policies. Answer: China’s population policies have evolved significantly over time. The one-child policy, implemented in 1979 to control population growth, led to a decline in birth rates but also caused issues such as an aging population and gender imbalances. In response to these challenges, China introduced a two-child policy in 2015, allowing all couples to have two children. In 2021, China further relaxed its policy to a three-child policy, aiming to boost birth rates and address the economic and social impacts of an aging population. These changes reflect the government's efforts to balance population control with economic and demographic needs. 9. What was the “baby boom” and what were its causes? Answer: The “baby boom” refers to the significant increase in birth rates in many Western countries, particularly the United States, from the late 1940s to the early 1960s. Its causes include the end of World War II, which led to economic prosperity and stability; a desire to return to traditional family structures; and increased societal optimism. The economic prosperity of the post-war era, along with improvements in healthcare and living standards, also contributed to higher birth rates during this period. 10. What are the social and economic implications of zero population growth? Answer: • Social Implications: Zero population growth (ZPG) can lead to an aging population with a higher proportion of elderly individuals, potentially increasing the burden on social services and healthcare systems. It may also affect family structures and generational relationships, as fewer younger people are available to support an older population. • Economic Implications: Economically, ZPG can result in a shrinking labor force, which may slow economic growth and impact productivity. It may also lead to challenges in sustaining economic dynamism and innovation. Conversely, ZPG can reduce environmental pressures and resource consumption, contributing to more sustainable development. 11. Why has immigration become a controversial issue in recent years? Answer: Immigration has become controversial due to a combination of factors including economic concerns, such as competition for jobs and resources; cultural and identity issues, with fears about cultural assimilation and changes in national identity; security concerns, including fears of crime and terrorism; and political factors, as immigration debates often become polarized and politicized. The global nature of migration has heightened these debates in many countries. 12. What are the three distinctive recent trends of internal migration in the United States? Answer: • Urban to Suburban Migration: There has been a significant movement of people from urban centers to suburban areas, driven by desires for more space, better schools, and a perceived higher quality of life. • South and Westward Migration: Many Americans have moved from the Northeast and Midwest to the South and West regions, attracted by warmer climates, lower costs of living, and job opportunities. • Rural to Urban Migration: Despite the suburban trend, there is still a continued movement from rural areas to cities, driven by economic opportunities, educational facilities, and healthcare services. 13. What social factors were necessary for establishment of the early communities? Answer: • Cooperation and Social Organization: Early communities required cooperation among members to manage resources, defense, and social norms. Social structures and leadership roles emerged to facilitate organization and decision-making. • Shared Beliefs and Values: Common beliefs, values, and cultural practices were essential for creating a sense of identity and cohesion within the community. • Economic Activities: Establishing productive activities such as agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship provided the economic foundation for early communities, allowing them to sustain themselves and grow. • Geographical Factors: Access to resources like water, fertile land, and strategic locations influenced where early communities were established, as these factors were crucial for survival and development. 14. What factors restricted urbanization in preindustrial cities? Answer: • Technological Limitations: Limited technology and infrastructure constrained the ability to support large populations and complex urban systems. • Economic Constraints: Economies were primarily agrarian, with few resources available for urban development and expansion. • Sanitation and Health Issues: Poor sanitation and frequent outbreaks of disease made urban living less desirable and restricted population growth. • Transportation and Communication: Limited transportation and communication infrastructure hindered the expansion and integration of urban areas. 15. Compare and contrast preindustrial, industrial, and postindustrial cities. Answer: • Preindustrial Cities: Characterized by small populations, limited infrastructure, and economies based on agriculture and local crafts. Urban areas were typically centers of trade and administration but had limited technological and economic development. • Industrial Cities: Emerged during the Industrial Revolution, marked by rapid population growth, significant technological advancements, and economic shifts toward manufacturing and industry. Urban areas expanded rapidly, often leading to crowded and unsanitary conditions. • Postindustrial Cities: Focus on service-based economies, technology, and information. These cities often experience high levels of urbanization and are characterized by advanced infrastructure, improved living standards, and a shift away from manufacturing to sectors such as finance, technology, and healthcare. 16. How do urban ecologists approach the study of cities? Answer: Urban ecologists study cities through the lens of ecological principles, focusing on how urban environments interact with and impact human populations and natural systems. They analyze patterns of land use, population distribution, and the flow of resources and energy within cities. Their approach emphasizes understanding cities as ecosystems where social, economic, and environmental factors are interconnected and influence each other. 17. What are squatter settlements? Answer: Squatter settlements are informal, unplanned urban areas where people establish housing without legal rights to the land. These settlements often lack basic services such as clean water, sanitation, and infrastructure. They typically emerge on the peripheries of cities and are characterized by substandard living conditions and insecure land tenure. 18. Explain the factors that result in the emergence of squatter settlements. Answer: • Rapid Urbanization: High rates of rural-to-urban migration often lead to the formation of informal settlements as cities cannot accommodate the influx of new residents in formal housing. • Lack of Affordable Housing: Insufficient affordable housing options force newcomers to occupy vacant or underdeveloped land without legal claims. • Economic Inequality: Economic disparities and poverty drive individuals to settle in informal areas where they can find space and resources, despite the lack of formal recognition. • Weak Land Use Regulations: Inadequate enforcement of land use and property rights allows the development of informal settlements on land that is not formally designated for residential use. 19. Describe the social organization of a squatter settlement. Answer: Squatter settlements often have informal social structures characterized by community networks and local leadership. Residents typically organize themselves into self-help groups to address basic needs such as water and sanitation. Social organization is marked by strong community bonds, mutual support, and reliance on informal economies. Leadership is often local and informal, with community leaders emerging based on respect and influence rather than formal authority. 20. Explain either concentric zone or multiple-nuclei theory. Answer: Concentric Zone Theory: This theory, developed by Ernest Burgess, posits that cities grow outward in concentric circles from a central business district (CBD). The model suggests that the city is divided into distinct zones, including a central area of commercial and industrial activity, surrounded by transitional zones of deteriorating housing, and then residential areas that progressively become more affluent as one moves further from the center. 21. How does the new urban sociology differ from urban ecology? Answer: • Urban Ecology: Focuses on cities as ecosystems, emphasizing the relationship between urban areas and their environment, and studying patterns of land use, population distribution, and resource flow. • New Urban Sociology: Criticizes the limitations of urban ecology by incorporating broader socio-economic and political contexts. It emphasizes the impact of global economic forces, political power, and historical processes on urban development, and examines issues such as social inequality, power dynamics, and the role of institutions in shaping urban life. 22. Apply world systems theory to our understanding of urban life. Answer: World systems theory, developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, posits that cities and their development are influenced by their position within the global economic system. Core cities, which are economically developed and powerful, drive global economic processes, while peripheral and semi-peripheral cities are shaped by their economic dependence on core cities. This theory helps us understand how global economic forces impact urban life, shaping local economies, social structures, and patterns of inequality. 23. Describe Herbert Gans’ typology of the five basic types of people found in U.S. cities. Answer: Herbert Gans identified five types of people in U.S. cities: 1. The Cosmopolites: Highly educated, well-off, and involved in the city's cultural and intellectual life. 2. The Unmarried and Childless: Young professionals or students who live in cities for social and economic opportunities. 3. The Ethnic Villagers: People who maintain strong cultural ties and live in ethnic enclaves within cities. 4. The Deprived: Low-income individuals who face economic hardship and social exclusion. 5. The Trapped: Residents who are economically or socially stuck in deteriorating neighborhoods with limited mobility. 24. How do conflict theorists view the problems of our nation’s largest cities? Answer: Conflict theorists view the problems of large cities through the lens of social inequality and power struggles. They argue that urban issues such as poverty, crime, and inadequate housing are outcomes of systemic inequalities and exploitation by powerful groups. According to this perspective, the wealthy and powerful maintain control over resources and opportunities, leading to marginalization and disadvantage for poorer and less influential populations. 25. What is meant by American apartheid? Answer: American apartheid refers to the racial segregation and systemic inequality experienced by African Americans and other minority groups in the United States. This term highlights the persistent racial segregation in housing, education, and employment, as well as the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities that maintain racial disparities and social exclusion. 26. What have been the recent trends in suburbanization? Answer: Recent trends in suburbanization include: • Increased Population Growth: More people are moving to suburban areas for more space, better schools, and perceived safety. • Economic Development: Suburbs are seeing growth in commercial and industrial activities, diversifying their economies. • Technological Advances: Improved transportation and communication technologies have made suburban living more feasible and attractive. • Changing Demographics: Suburbs are becoming more diverse with the influx of different racial and ethnic groups. 27. What role has public policies and financing played in suburbanization? Answer: Public policies and financing have significantly facilitated suburbanization through: • Infrastructure Development: Investments in roads, highways, and public transportation have made suburban areas more accessible. • Housing Policies: Policies such as mortgage subsidies and tax incentives have encouraged home ownership in suburban areas. • Zoning Laws: Zoning regulations have promoted the development of residential and commercial properties in suburban areas. • Urban Renewal: Federal and local funding for urban renewal projects in central cities has often led to displacement and a shift of residents to suburban areas. 28. Discuss cultural diversity and homelessness in contemporary suburbs. Answer: • Cultural Diversity: Contemporary suburbs are increasingly diverse due to immigration and changing demographics. This diversity brings a variety of cultural practices, cuisines, and community organizations, enriching suburban life but also presenting challenges in terms of integration and social cohesion. • Homelessness: Despite the perception of suburban affluence, homelessness is also present in these areas. Factors contributing to suburban homelessness include high housing costs, economic disparities, and insufficient support services. Homeless individuals in suburbs often face different challenges than those in urban centers, including greater social isolation and limited access to resources. 29. What has been the impact of the postindustrial revolution on rural communities in the United States? Answer: The postindustrial revolution has led to significant changes in rural communities, including: • Economic Shifts: Decline in traditional agricultural and manufacturing jobs, leading to reduced economic opportunities in these areas. • Population Decline: Outmigration to urban areas in search of better employment and educational opportunities. • Technological Changes: Introduction of technology and automation in agriculture, which has transformed farming practices but also reduced labor needs. • Economic Diversification: Some rural areas have diversified into tourism, recreation, and niche markets to adapt to changing economic conditions. 30. Discuss the existence of homelessness from a global perspective. Answer: Homelessness is a significant global issue, characterized by varying causes and conditions: • Economic Factors: Economic instability, unemployment, and poverty contribute to homelessness worldwide. • Conflict and Displacement: War, political instability, and natural disasters lead to large numbers of displaced and homeless individuals. • Social Services: Variability in social safety nets and support systems impacts the prevalence and conditions of homelessness. • Urbanization: Rapid urbanization in developing countries often exacerbates homelessness as cities expand faster than housing infrastructure. 31. Discuss homelessness as a master status and indicate the changing composition of the homeless population in the last 40 years. Answer: • Homelessness as a Master Status: Homelessness often serves as a master status, meaning it dominates how individuals are perceived and treated, overshadowing other aspects of their identity. This can lead to stigmatization and marginalization. • Changing Composition: Over the last 40 years, the composition of the homeless population has shifted to include: • Increased Family Homelessness: More families, including children, experiencing homelessness. • Rising Numbers of Veterans: A significant number of homeless individuals are veterans. • Mental Health and Substance Abuse Issues: Growing recognition of mental health and substance abuse issues within the homeless population. • Elderly Homeless: An increasing number of elderly individuals facing homelessness due to inadequate pensions and rising living costs. 32. Have public policies in recent years harmed or benefited the homeless? Why? Discuss some of these policies. Answer: Beneficial Policies: • Affordable Housing Initiatives: Programs aimed at increasing affordable housing stock and providing rental assistance. • Homeless Prevention Services: Efforts to prevent eviction and provide emergency shelters and support services. Harmful Policies: • Defunding of Social Services: Cuts to mental health services, substance abuse treatment, and affordable housing programs. • Criminalization of Homelessness: Policies that criminalize activities associated with homelessness, such as loitering or panhandling, which can exacerbate the problem. Overall Impact: While some policies have provided essential support and resources, others have exacerbated homelessness or failed to address underlying causes. Effective policy requires a balanced approach that includes prevention, support, and affordable housing. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how the social relations change as communities evolve from simple preindustrial cities to large industrial ones. How would such a transition likely affect crime rates? Answer: Social Relations: • Preindustrial Cities: Social relations are typically intimate and personal, with tight-knit communities based on kinship and local ties. • Industrial Cities: Social relations become more impersonal and formal, with increased social stratification and a focus on economic and occupational roles. • Impact on Crime Rates: The transition to industrial cities can lead to higher crime rates due to factors like increased social anonymity, economic disparity, and urban density. The anonymity of city life and socioeconomic inequalities can foster conditions conducive to crime. 2. Discuss the main separation between functionalists and conflict theorists regarding the expansion of cities and communities. Which view is likely to be more compassionate toward preserving the environment? Answer: • Functionalists: Emphasize how cities and communities evolve to meet social needs and functions, focusing on stability, integration, and the role of various institutions in maintaining social order. • Conflict Theorists: Highlight how expansion leads to power struggles, social inequalities, and exploitation. They focus on how the interests of the wealthy and powerful shape urban development at the expense of marginalized groups. • Environmental Compassion: Conflict theorists are more likely to be compassionate toward preserving the environment, as they critique how the pursuit of profit and power often leads to environmental degradation and the neglect of environmental concerns for less affluent communities. 3. Discuss how the emergence of “squatter settlements” might be related to our national and state policies regarding low-income assistance. What could be done to reduce or eliminate such settlements? Answer: Relation to Policies: • Inadequate Assistance: Limited or ineffective low-income assistance policies can contribute to the growth of squatter settlements by failing to provide affordable housing or support for low-income individuals. • Housing Shortages: Insufficient investment in affordable housing and social services can force people to settle in informal or unregulated areas. Solutions: • Increase Affordable Housing: Expand affordable housing initiatives and support low-income housing development. • Improve Social Services: Enhance social safety nets, including access to healthcare, education, and employment services. • Urban Planning: Implement policies to integrate squatter settlements into formal city plans and provide infrastructure and services. 4. Discuss how community-based programs could restore a sense of gemeinschaft to a gesellschaft community. Give examples of any community-based programs that may be utilizing this type of approach. Answer: Restoring Gemeinschaft: • Community-Based Programs: These programs focus on fostering social cohesion, mutual support, and strong interpersonal relationships in urban environments. Examples: • Neighborhood Associations: Local groups that organize community events, improve public spaces, and encourage local involvement. • Community Gardens: Projects that bring residents together to grow food, promoting social interaction and a sense of shared purpose. • Youth Mentoring Programs: Initiatives that connect young people with mentors from their community to build relationships and support. 5. Discuss how technology and inventions may have assisted the decline of rural farming areas in the United States and what efforts could be undertaken to bring about change. Answer: Impact of Technology: • Automation: Advances in agricultural technology and automation have reduced the need for manual labor, leading to job losses and rural depopulation. • Mechanization: The use of large machinery and industrial farming practices has increased efficiency but reduced the number of small, family-owned farms. • Efforts to Bring About Change: • Support for Small Farmers: Provide subsidies, grants, and technical support to help small and family-owned farms remain viable. • Diversification: Encourage the development of alternative agricultural and rural industries, such as agro-tourism and renewable energy projects. • Community Development: Invest in rural infrastructure and programs that enhance the quality of life and economic opportunities in rural areas. TOPICS AND SOURCES FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS Census Definitions of Urban Areas: See Fanglan Du, “What’s in a (Metro) Name?” American Demographics 18 (June 1996): 14, 17. Also see John R. Ottensmann, “The New Central Cities: Implications of the New Definition of the Metropolitan Area.” Urban Affairs Review 31 (May 1996): 681–691. Communities Influencing Child Development: See Frank Dobbin et al., “Equal Opportunity Law and the Constitution of Internal Labor Markets,” American Journal of Sociology 99 (September 1993): 396–427. Hispanics in Rural Areas: See Lionel Cantú, “The Peripherization of Rural America: A Case of Latino Migrants in America’s Heartland,” Sociological Perspectives 38 (3):399–414. Homeless and Social Movements: See David Wagner and Marcia B. Cohen, “The Power of the People: Homeless Protestors in the Aftermath of Social Movement Participation,” Social Problems 38 (November 1991): 543–561. Human Ecology and Housing Development: See Theodore D. Fuller et al., “Household Crowding and Family Relations in Bangkok,” Social Problems 40 (August 1993): 410–429. Poverty in Urban Areas: See Claudi J. Coulton et al., “Geographic Concentration of Affluence and Poverty in 100 Metropolitan Areas, 1990,” Urban Affairs Review 32 (November 1996): 186–216. Segregation and Quality of Life: See Carol J. DeFrances, “The Effects of Racial Ecological Segregation on Quality of Life,” Urban Affairs Review 31 (July 1996): 799–809 VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION Block by Block: Reclaiming Neighborhoods by Design (Insight Media, 2001, 56m). This video provides an examination of how civic activism rejuvenated three American neighborhoods. It describes the revitalization of inner-city communities from crime-ridden areas into profitable markets. Communities, Societies, and Nations (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video explores the interdependencies among communities, societies, and nations. It describes Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft societies, primary and secondary groups, and various characteristics of communities and nations. Edens Lost and Found (Bullfrog Films, 2006, 228m). This series of four films looks at urban development in Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Seattle. The projects it highlights are eco-oriented. Housing America: Demographics and Development (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2002, 60m). As the twenty-first century unfolds, how are Americans adapting to urgent issues involving sustainable growth, quality of life, and community planning? This multi-segment program addresses this question using four community cases. Livable Landscapes: By Chance or By Choice? (Bullfrog Films, 2003, 57m). This film looks at urban sprawl in New England, and how it affects communities and lives there. Case studies of five communities are utilized. Save Our Land, Save Our Towns (Insight Media, 2000, 57m). This video examines the causes and effects of urban sprawl, and offers suggestions on how Americans can prevent the negative effects related to congestion and land space issues. Virtual Friends: Living in Cyberspace (McGraw Hill, 1996, 25m). Relationships in the modern megalopolis: interpersonal or impersonal? This program investigates the new interactive society model in which physical neighborhoods connected by proximity have been displaced by virtual neighborhoods linked by technology. Topics discussed include the intimate anonymity of the Internet, the use of emoticons in email, the growing importance of telecommunications, the Pavlovian response to a ringing telephone, and the relationship category defined as “familiar strangers.” ADDITIONAL READINGS Calthorpe, Peter, and William Fulton. 2001. The Regional City: Planning for the End of Sprawl. Washington, DC: Island Press. Using San Francisco as a case study, two sociologists rethink the notion that the central cities are all declining and the suburbs are all flourishing. Duany, Andres, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck. 2000. Suburban Nation: The Rise and Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream. New York: North Point Press. A critical look at most post-World War II suburban development, both residential and commercial. Fitzpatrick, Kevin, and Mark LaGory. 2000. Unhealthy Places: The Ecology of Risk in the Urban Landscape. New York: Routledge. Two urban planners take a spatial view of urban ecology and raise the concept of the “urban health penalty”—the effect of place on an individual’s access to health resources. Hurley, Andrew. 2001. Diners, Bowling Alleys and Trailer Parks: Chasing the American Dream in the Postwar Consumer Culture. New York: Basic Books. An examination of how suburban institutions foster a sense of connectedness, while reinforcing social class distinctions. Johns, Michael. 2002. Moment of Grace: The American City in the 1950s. Berkeley: University of California Press. How have urban communities changed in the past 50 years? This book, about U.S. cities in the 1950s, gives a perspective on this question. Moore, Richard M. III. 2001. The Hidden America: Social Problems in Rural America for the Twenty-First Century. Selingsgrove, PA: Susquehanna University Press. This anthology includes essays on topics such as substance abuse, immigration, and homelessness among rural Americans. Sassen, Saskia. 2001. The Global City, 2nd ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Princeton University Press. A sociologist explains how the transition to a global economy has caused massive social change in New York, London, and Tokyo. Sites, William. 2003. Remaking New York: Primitive Globalization and the Politics of Urban Community. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Addresses the impact of globalization at the community level. Solnit, Rebecca. 2001. Hollow City: Gentrification and the Eviction of Urban Culture. London: Verso. A highly critical work that sees in gentrification the uprooting of bohemian exclaves by the privileged. JOURNALS The Population Reference Bureau (1875 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Suite 520, Washington, DC 20009-5728) publishes Population Bulletin (quarterly), Population Today (11 times annually), Interchange (quarterly), and occasionally Teaching Modules. These publications provide up-to-date information on population and environmental trends. The Bureau of the Census issues Current Population Reports, which are helpful to researchers. Other journals focusing on demographic issues include American Demographics (founded in 1979), Demography (1964), and International Migration Review (1964). Among the journals that focus on community issues are European Journal of Housing Policy (founded in 2001), Journal of Urban Affairs (1979), Rural Sociology (1936), Urban Affairs Review (formerly Urban Affairs Quarterly, 1965), Urban Anthropology (1972), and Urban Studies (1964). Solution Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669