Chapter 18 Environmental Sociology True or False 1. Shishmaref is now abandoned due to the effects of global warming. Answer: False 2. Primitive is often used as a synonym for preindustrial society. Answer: True 3. Magic, to an anthropologist, is indicative of an ability to control nature. Answer: False 4. Emile Durkheim noted that totemism was common among many indigenous groups, including American Indians. Answer: True 5. The modern Catholic Church also has objects that are sacred, like totems. Answer: True 6. Marx and Engel's thesis sees craftspeople as having discrete tasks that maximized their efficiency. Answer: False 7. Unlike Marx and Engels, Diamond is a determinist. Answer: False 8. Sociologists at the University of Chicago in the early 1900s viewed the city as the "natural habitat of civilized man," in which various sections of the city were akin to ecological niches. Answer: True 9. People interact with the environment not just in an economic sense, but in a social sense. Answer: True 10. The University of Chicago scientists are, like Marx and Engels, also determinists. Answer: True 11. The Anthropocene era would be the first geologic era attributed to human intervention. Answer: True 12. The problem with CO2 is that it's not a clean source of energy. It is a fossil fuel. Answer: False 13. The long-term warming trend is unequal to anything human history has yet recorded. Answer: True 14. Climate change is a more accurate categorization than global warming. Answer: True 15. The world's supply of oil is known and should last only a few more centuries. Answer: False 16. Love Canal was yet another environmental disaster that had no regulatory impact. Answer: False 17. Sociology's contribution to the study of environmental problems is the creation of an environmental movement. Answer: False 18. John Muir believed that the sheer beauty of a region was reason enough to preserve it. Answer: True 19. Paul Ehrlich predicted that population pressures would eventually result in the collapse of modern society as we know it. Answer: True 20. Bill Clinton signed the Kyoto Accords. His successor, George Bush, broke the treaty. Answer: False 21. A single American consumes as much energy as dozens of people in developing countries. Answer: True 22. Sustainability involves the development of new resources. Answer: False 23. We cannot expect the majority of people to regulate themselves as long as the negative consequences of their actions will not be apparent until far in the future. Answer: True 24. The fair trade movement was formed by communities joining together to increase their wages and improve their working conditions, while growing food in ways that promote the health of the surrounding ecosystem. Answer: True 25. Hybrid automobiles are powered entirely by renewable fuel sources. Answer: False Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following defines environmental sociology? A. the study of the environmental movement and how it has become another form of sociology B. a social science that incorporates the life science of ecology C. understanding the ways that society simultaneously shapes and is shaped by the physical environment D. sociology that factors in not only people, but animals and plants, weather patterns, and the like Answer: C 2. The plight of the Inupiat, in addition to the effects of climate change, illustrates __________. A. that the costs of environmental problems are evenly distributed B. that indigenous peoples are often the perpetrators of environmental degradation C. that environmental problems reveal and intensify social inequality D. that, for better or worse, the Inupiat have adapted poorly to their environment Answer: C 3. From the point of view of an environmental sociologist, the crisis that threatens the Inupiat __________. A. has a social origin—the burning of fossil fuels B. is the result of the poor adaptations that humans make with the environment C. has an ecological origin in the burning of coal and other fossil fuels far from Shishmaref D. is a combination of causes, both self-inflicted and natural Answer: A 4. The transition of societies from traditional (i.e., rural, agricultural) to modern (urban, technological) is accompanied by __________. A. new coal mines, oil dripping, and fracking B. decreases in the land used to raise food C. greater exploitation of natural resources D. larger families that use more resources Answer: C 5. What do environmental sociologists mean when they say that the relationship between environment and society is interdependent? A. It is dynamic for the way it varies over time and place. B. Environmental change can transform societies and societal change can transform the environment. C. Social contexts and environmental contexts mean the same thing. D. There is a link between humankind and the land. Answer: B 6. The field of __________ revealed how so-called primitive societies __________ nature. A. anthropology; are dependent on B. environmental sociology; are interdependent on C. ecology; are based on D. archaeology; worship Answer: A 7. __________ made the correlation between magic and the control the environment while observing the rites of Fiji islanders before ocean fishing expeditions. A. Margaret Mead B. Bronislaw Malinowski C. Colonial administrators D. Emile Durkheim Answer: B 8. A Native American rain dance and cloud seeding represent the use of __________ and __________ to tame nature. A. religion; science B. art; technology C. the primitive; the modern D. natural; unnatural means Answer: A 9. One clan of indigenous peoples in Papua New Guinea adopted the fish as the _________ of their group. A. religious identity B. mascot C. animal symbol D. totem Answer: D 10. What did Emile Durkheim discover about the clans of various Aboriginal tribes in Australia? A. They were united by elaborate family ties symbolized by an animal. B. Clans could either be plant people or animal people. C. One did not have to have a blood kinship to his or her clan, but rather an allegiance to a particular totem. D. They observed a religious faith called "totemism." Answer: D 11. Given Durkheim's consideration of "primitive" religion, the natural environment is revered in proportion to a society __________. A. seeing itself as connected to nature B. recognizing its sacred totems C. and the number of totems that it recognizes from nature D. participating in environmental rituals Answer: A 12. Even before the Industrial Revolution, humans began exerting some control over their natural environments. Which of the following would be the earliest manifestation? A. crop irrigation B. animal domestication C. permanent settlements D. trade and barter Answer: B 13. The __________ distinguishes other technological leaps in history from the Industrial Revolution. A. railroad B. steamboat C. mining of coal D. steam engine Answer: D 14. According to Marx and Engels, not only all of society, but the __________ depended on transforming natural resources into material possessions. A. clergy B. nature of individuals C. nobility D. division of labor Answer: B 15. The division of labor led to the development of a(n) __________ and __________ power. A. priestly class; religious B. egalitarian society; shared C. food surplus; water-driven D. elite class; economic Answer: D 16. What does Jared Diamond's study of New Zealand's Maori contribute to our understanding of how one society exploits its environment and that of other societies? A. how global advantages and inequalities arise from geographic differences B. how a purely Marxist interpretation is incomplete C. how Western Europe enjoys a huge advantage in raw materials D. how primitive people are as much at fault for their disappearance as the West is Answer: A 17. Which is NOT a feature of the mindset called anthropocentrism? A. humans are superior to animals and plants B. mankind is at the center of the natural world C. humans are spiritual beings and not subject to the laws of nature D. humans exist cooperatively with nature Answer: D 18. Marx, Engels, and Diamond are sometimes labelled __________ because their theories imply that a society’s environment determines everything else—from its social structure to individuals’ thoughts. A. communists B. determinists C. materialists D. socialists Answer: B 19. __________ is the branch of science that studies the relationship between organisms and their environment. A. Environmental Science B. Ecology C. Sociobiology D. Anthropology Answer: B 20. The transition from a(n) ________ to a(n) _________ mode of production was realized through social revolutions that reorganized society around commodity production. A. anthropocentric; capitalistic B. agricultural; anthropocentric C. capitalistic; agricultural D. agricultural; capitalistic Answer: D 21. A group of University of Chicago sociologists examined how cities were influenced by their landscapes. Which of the following labels for neighbourhoods and industrial sections did they NOT use? A. ecological niches B. natural habitats for civilized people C. both barriers to and resources for development D. endangered communities Answer: D 22. If you saw a city the same way as the Chicago school sociologists did in the early 1900s, which of the following might be a pathological social adaptation to an urban neighbourhood with high unemployment for minority women? A. working as waitresses B. prostitution C. finding temporary work as unskilled laborers D. joining the military Answer: B 23. According to Taylor (1998), early American settlers destroyed forests not only to clear the land. Why did they do this? A. The forests were seen as dark and evil. B. They needed the wood for enormous houses they did not have back in Europe. C. They were superstitious and believed the forests were inhabited by witches. D. They wanted to deny dangerous animals and Indians a place to hide. Answer: A 24. Why do different people take on different views of the environment? A. If they are conservative, they are against the environment. B. If they are liberal, they tend to take a realistic view of the environment. C. They either believe in science or believe in pseudoscience. D. Their views reflect the contexts in which their environment and society interact. Answer: D 25. What did Rik Scarce (2005) discover about the local ranchers' reaction to the reintroduction of the Gray wolf into Yellowstone Park? A. They were not threatened by the wolves, but rather by wealthy outsiders who simply wanted their wilderness more authentic. B. They believed the wolves would impact their livelihoods and that their issues were being ignored by other stakeholders in the region. C. They feared the wolves would eat their livestock and felt undermined by outsiders who could impose their will on them. D. The ranchers saw themselves as the victims of class warfare conducted from as far away as Hollywood. Answer: C 26. The geological era in which humans have sped up the process of global warming is called the __________. A. Anthropocene B. Homocene C. Misocene D. Holocene Answer: A 27. The scientist who first began monitoring levels of CO2 in the atmosphere and linked it to human activities was __________. A. Herman Wouk B. Charles David Keeling C. Michael Morris Mann D. Phil Jones Answer: B 28. What is that phenomenon that allows the sun's heat to pass through to the Earth's surface while stopping it from spreading back into space? A. greenhouse effect B. global warming C. ozone layer D. CO2 emission Answer: A 29. What happens to regions just above sea level when the sea ice melts? A. Sea levels fall. B. They are subject to flooding and possibly disappearing under water. C. New land becomes available for farming. D. Immigration increases. Answer: B 30. Climatologist Michael Mann and his colleagues have graphed a thousand-year period (the famous "hockey stick" chart) that shows how __________ were more or less constant until they spiked __________. A. CO2 levels; 100 years ago B. carbon dioxide and monoxide; in the last century C. global temperatures; in the past half-century D. organic matter levels; in the past half-century Answer: C 31. What might offset ever-greater carbon emissions, and which is also contributory to these increased emissions because it, too, is a resource that is being overused? A. forests B. coral reefs C. sea ice D. acid rain Answer: A 32. Global warming theorists predict that up to __________ will be extinct by the turn of the next century. A. 50 percent of all species B. 50 percent of currently endangered species C. 20 percent of animal and plant species D. 60 percent of the polar bear population Answer: A 33. The small island nation of __________ may soon be completely underwater due to the melting of polar ice and warming ocean temperatures. A. the Canary Islands B. Hawaii C. Cuba D. the Maldives Answer: D 34. Why are such phenomena as Hurricane Katrina and rare earthquakes in regions where oil shale is fracked called "hundred-year" events? A. They take place every other century. B. They can be statistically averaged as taking place every 100 years. C. They are statistical outliers that typically do not occur within a normal human lifespan. D. That is a folkloric term intended to be hyperbole. Answer: C 35. What is the sociological impact of an environmentally catastrophic event such as Deepwater Horizon? A. People lose their jobs and homes. B. Vacationers, fishermen, and other stakeholders in the region become more likely to join environmental causes. C. Coastal residents discover that the government and oil companies have failed them. D. Coastal fishermen and vacationers experience inequality vis-à-vis the oil companies. Answer: D 36. The petroleum released by the Deepwater Horizon explosion created a "kill zone" of 80 square miles. What happens in a kill zone? A. Virtually all sea life is eventually destroyed from the oil released into the water. B. The oxygen levels are so depleted that any animal that swims into this area is suffocated. C. All the animal and plant life drowns. D. Underwater fireballs literally burn all the sea life. Answer: A 37. What is the daily consumption of oil in the United States? A. 72 million barrels B. 3 million barrels C. 72 percent of the world's output per day D. 19 million Answer: D 38. Which of the following statements about non-renewable energy sources is false? A. A non-renewable energy source can only be used once. B. There is a finite supply of non-renewable energy sources. C. A non-renewable energy source cannot be replaced. D. Non-renewable energy sources currently provide 95 percent of the energy consumed around the world. Answer: D 39. How much electricity consumed by Americans is generated by coal? A. 50 percent B. 66 percent C. one-third D. one-half Answer: C 40. Tropical rainforests provide a natural habitat for __________ of all species on earth. A. 50 percent B. 66 percent C. one-third D. one-half Answer: B 41. Most deforestation in the world is a result of __________. A. making charcoal for fuel B. farming C. logging D. livestock Answer: B 42. Ecologists estimate that __________ are being driven into extinction each day due to __________. A. New England's fisheries; gigantic nets B. up to ten kinds of fish; overfishing C. 150 species; CO2 pollution D. about 137 species; deforestation Answer: D 43. In addition to oil, what other underground resource is being depleted and not being regenerated at the same historical rates? A. water B. soil C. aquifers D. salt Answer: A 44. Which world river is threatened by the damming projects of the developing nations through which it and its tributaries flow? A. the Amazon B. the Yellow C. the Nile D. the Mississippi Answer: C 45. What is the lesson of Easter Island? A. that it teaches us about the collapse of an ecosystem B. that one industry (carving enormous statues) can induce an ecological collapse C. that deforestation can lead to the extinction of humankind D. that living things that dwell interdependently in a particular place share energy and resources Answer: A 46. What is a "throwaway society"? A. a society that is not working toward sustainability B. a society that uses Styrofoam C. a society that uses products for convenience and disposability D. a society that does not have enough landfills Answer: C 47. Despite efforts to educate the public and establish recycling programs, each American produces approximately __________ of trash in a day. A. 5 pounds B. 25 pounds C. 2.5 pounds D. 10 pounds Answer: A 48. What is the sociological effect of New York City having filled up its own landfills? A. New York can reclaim its landfills as public spaces for parks and the like. B. New York citizens have to be mindful of the garbage they dispose. C. New Yorkers must contract with other municipalities to collect their garbage. D. Poorer parts of the United States have created an industry selling New York space in their landfills. Answer: D 49. Which byproduct of smog is formed by and dispersed by naturally occurring weather patterns? A. respiratory illness B. ozone depletion C. smog alerts D. acid rain Answer: D 50. Why are clean air and healthy lungs "luxuries" developing societies cannot afford? A. Developing societies feature cultures in which environmental awareness is a foreign concept. B. Developing societies may not have to, since many of these countries are already benefiting from cleaner technologies. C. Developing societies have to make the hard choice between clean air and cheaper energy. D. Developing societies must go through all the phases of capitalism, so these problems are unavoidable. Answer: C 51. __________ is one of the earliest American texts that inspired its readers to value the environment for its intrinsic rather than economic value. A. Uncle Tom's Cabin B. Nature C. The Raven D. Walden Answer: D 52. Who established the Yosemite region in California, which eventually became the first national park? A. John Muir B. William Howard Taft C. Henry David Thoreau D. Theodore Roosevelt Answer: D 53. Which of the following best states the utilitarian view of conservationists? A. National parks and the like should pay for themselves and be established as tourist attractions. B. Natural resources should be set aside and responsibly managed so that they are available for commercial use by future generations. C. Natural resources should have an immediate economic purpose, such as for recreation. D. Natural resources in a community should be ordered according to how much water moves through subsurface soils. Answer: B 54. Unlike any other book before it, __________ had an almost immediate impact on U.S. environmental policy. A. Silent Spring B. To Kill a Mocking Bird C. One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest D. Walden II Answer: A 55. To make the public aware of the lasting effects of DDT, what did the author Rachel Carson compare this pesticide to? A. world war B. nuclear fallout C. bubonic plague D. polio Answer: B 56. Which U.S. president established the Environmental Protection Agency and signed one of the first important pieces of environmental legislation, the Clean Water Act? A. Bill Clinton B. Jimmy Carter C. John F. Kennedy D. Richard Nixon Answer: D 57. The U.S. environmental justice movement got its start primarily from what kinds of incidents and concerns? A. the disproportionate exposure of minority Americans to hazardous waste B. Three Mile Island C. Love Canal D. the lead paint found in ghetto neighbourhoods Answer: A 58. What kind of readily accessible data did the Commission for Racial Justice use in its 1987 report to prove that minority neighbourhoods hosted far more hazardous waste facilities than other American neighbourhoods? A. census data B. building permits C. ZIP codes D. phone records Answer: C 59. New York University's Institute for Environmental Medicine discovered what medical link that revealed that residents of the South Bronx suffered from more environmental stresses than residents in other parts of New York City? A. asthma rates and air pollution B. the number of waste-transfer stations C. congested expressways D. poverty and race Answer: A 60. The primary goal of environmental justice is to __________. A. bring about a bill of environmental rights B. establish a government agency to regulate the corporations that pollute C. achieve equal protection from environmental hazards for all people D. convert all coal-firing plants to clean coal Answer: C 61. Two major branches of the environmental justice movement exist. One concerns itself with environmental problems as violations of civil rights and the other is largely concerned with __________. A. environmental rights of the white working class B. protecting people from exposures to toxic substances C. landfills and the like D. global warming Answer: B 62. What inequality contributed to the impact of Hurricane Katrina on the black community in New Orleans? A. government mismanagement B. environmental racism C. the lack of a means to comply with the evacuation order D. no drivers for the city's school buses Answer: C 63. How do companies bypass stringent environmental laws in their own countries? A. by off-shoring production to countries that have lax or poorly enforced environmental laws B. by closing down polluting factories C. updating their equipment D. switching to green energy Answer: A 64. Which of the following is NOT a natural ecological cycle capable of producing renewable energy? A. solar B. wind C. water D. paper Answer: D 65. What special problems do developing nations face given such treaties as the Kyoto Protocol? A. Such treaties fall disproportionately on them rather than on the wealthy nations that cause the most pollution. B. It forces them to modernize without the capital to do so. C. They are forced to falsify their compliance. D. They see such treaties as constraining their ability to modernize. Answer: B Scenario Multiple Choice 1. Carl loves to go camping in the woods, but his camping habits surprise his friends. Sometimes he cuts down small trees where he wants to put up his tent. He seldom picks up his trash and ignores pleas to be more respectful of the area. Carl contends that the land is there to serve him, not the other way around. Which of the following belief systems describes Carl's attitude and actions? A. anthropocentrism B. conservationism C. determinism D. totemism Answer: A 2. For as long as she can remember, Emma, a high school senior, has been fascinated with the environment. She has a basic understanding of the connection we have with the natural world and now wants to explore this relationship further. Which of the following fields of study would best fit Emma's interests? A. anthropology B. ecology C. sociobiology D. sociology Answer: B 3. Which of the following explanations for deforestation is responsible for the greatest environmental damage to forested lands? A. Forests are being cleared to make way for increasing numbers of fast-food restaurants. B. Forests are being cleared to make room for more meat-packing plants. C. Forests are being harvested to produce more paper packaging for beef products. D. Forests are being burned down by ranchers to create more space for cattle to graze. Answer: D 4. DeRon believes that his neighbourhood park is an environmentally valuable piece of land that should not be used so heavily by the general public. He appreciates the natural beauty of the land and the lake within its boundaries and fears continued public usage will cause deterioration. DeRon espouses a __________ ideology. A. conservationist B. deterministic C. preservationist D. socioeconomic Answer: C 5. Rosa, her family, and many of her neighbours have all suffered from serious health problems for a prolonged period of time. They live in an economically disadvantaged part of their city and have felt powerless in getting authorities to investigate the possibility that the neighbourhood itself is making its residents sick. The people in Rosa's community are possibly victims of __________. A. climate change B. environmental justice C. environmental racism D. global warming Answer: C 6. Ethan and Felicia are arguing over how to improve the environment. Ethan contends that real strides can be made only if government and big industry change their environmental habits. Felicia agrees with the need for greater effort of government and industry to be resource efficient but asserts that each person's commitment to sustainability affects our planet as well. She suggests that Ethan read about __________ to learn of the shared responsibility that individuals have in improving the environment for all. A. anthropology B. environmental justice C. totemism D. the tragedy of the commons Answer: D 7. Hyde Park Homebuilders has decided to go green. The company wants to make sure that the houses it constructs are environmentally friendly and operationally sustainable. One of the features of Hyde Park homes is an assembly of solar panels, which utilize natural sunlight to generate heat and electricity. In this scenario, Hyde Park Homebuilders is making good use of __________ sources. A. chemical B. consumption C. greenhouse D. renewable energy Answer: D 8. Carmen's boss is complaining about the government intrusion into his factory's operations. He told Carmen, "Washington is going to set a limit on my carbon emissions and sell me some kind of permit that lets me know exactly how many carbons I can emit. If I go over my assigned amount, I'll have to buy pollution credits from a business emitting less than its allowable amount." What program is Carmen's boss referring to? A. a cap-and-trade program B. a deterministic program C. a renewable energy program D. a social construction program Answer: A 9. A group of concerned citizens brainstorms ideas about ways to encourage more people to ride bicycles and walk whenever possible. Which of the following ideas is most likely to make the transition to biking palatable for the largest number of people? A. educating potential riders on bicycle safety and rules of the road B. educating potential riders on the health benefits of cycling C. incentivizing potential riders with financial, social, and physical rewards D. opening up more bicycle shops, making a wide variety of bike brands available at various price points Answer: C 10. Jing Li wants his community to become more serious about protecting the environment. He has tried to implement some ecological programs, but he is having trouble getting others involved. of the following actions that Jing Li could take, which is more likely than the others to achieve his goal and to produce the best and most enduring results in his community? A. establish incentives that make recycling and conservation more appealing, cost effective, and easier to incorporate into daily life B. host informational lectures by environmental experts C. send mass mailings identifying locations of local recycling centres D. create social media messages about the dangers of pollution and climate change Answer: A Short Answer 1. What motivated the Aborigines—and by extension, American Indians, and other tribal peoples—in their reverence for nature, according to Emile Durkheim? Answer: "Primitive" people chose animals and plants as their sacred objects, Durkheim believed, simply because their lifestyles were intimately connected to nature. 2. Marx and Engels saw the rise of individual human nature correlated with what socioeconomic phenomenon? Answer: The division of labor, that is, when technology made it possible for fewer people to be engaged in the raising of crops. Once humans began to transform vast stretches of forests into fields through agriculture, the more complex social structure could develop. 3. When we say that Marx and Engels are determinists in the environmental sense, what is meant? Answer: They are considered determinists because their theories imply that a society's environment, or the technology that it has developed to exploit its environment, determines everything else—from its social structure to individuals' thoughts. 4. What is the definition of ecology? Answer: Ecology is the branch of science that studies the relationship between organisms and their environment. 5. In just 200 years, humans have sped up the process of global warming so much that they may have pushed the Earth into a new geologic era. What do geologists propose to call this new era? Answer: Fittingly, geologists propose to call this era Anthropocene. It suggests the concept of anthropocentrism. 6. In addition to showing the dramatic rise in temperatures after 1960, Michael Mann and his colleagues showed another important yardstick in climate change. How did they do this? Answer: They showed how the spike in global temperatures could be correlated ("mapped") to a chart showing a rise in CO2 levels. 7. What would you tell a friend who is skeptical of global warming? Answer: Of course, there has been the occasional April snowstorm or an unusually harsh winter as evidence that global warming is not happening. There have also been unusually hot summers. Nevertheless, both kinds of events confuse short-term weather events with long-term climate trends. 8. Are the manifestations of climate change around the world uniformly "warming" events (e.g., drought)? Answer: No. Global warming upsets the balance of ecosystems to such a degree that they become destabilized. Some regions of the planet may even become temporarily cooler because of the disruption of oceanic and atmospheric circulation. 9. What are the non-renewable sources of fossil fuel? How much of the world's output comes from these sources? Answer: Oil, coal, and natural gas are the primary non-renewable resources, which currently provide about 85 percent of the energy consumed around the world. 10. Why is meat production more harmful to the environment than the internal combustion engine? Answer: A Greenpeace report attributes 80 percent of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon to cattle ranching, and the United Nations estimates that, through the slashing and burning of CO2-absorbing trees, meat production contributes more to global warming than either car tailpipes or industrial smokestacks. 11. Why is it economic—that is, cost effective—to pollute? Answer: Pollution is cheap. Consumers want inexpensive goods and sources of energy, and producers operate in a competitive environment in which they must keep down costs. 12. Sociologists label the phenomenon that many hazardous waste facilities are located in African American neighbourhoods as environmental racism. Is this a real form of racism, like that of white supremacist groups, for example? Answer: Though environmental racism suggests conscious discrimination against minorities, it is often a matter of economics on the part of polluting industries to choose the path of least resistance, placing facilities where land is cheaper and where residents are not politically organized. 13. What interests sociologists about natural disasters? Answer: Although sociologists do not deny the destructive power of natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, and heat waves, they analyse the ways in which the outcomes of such events—such as who lives and who dies, who evacuates and who remains—are patterned by social forces. 14. What do ecologists mean by sustainability? Answer: Ecologists argue that, to avoid impending environmental and social crises, societies must work toward a model of sustainability, which refers to development and consumption that satisfies a society's current needs without imperilling the ability of future generations to do the same. 15. What is the essential premise of Garrett Hardin's influential article "The Tragedy of the Commons"? Answer: He contended that free markets do not self-regulate and produce optimal collective outcomes. The opposite is often true: Each individual acting in his or her own self-interest will, in the long run, bring ruin to everyone. Essay 1. What is totemism and what is Emile Durkheim's contribution to our understanding of so-called primitive religions? Answer: Emile Durkheim produced one of the most well-known explanations of "primitive" religion based on his study of Aboriginal tribes in Australia. He noted that these tribes were organized into clans based on spiritual rather than blood kinship, with each clan adopting a particular plant or animal—called a totem—as the symbol of the clan. Clans considered their totem plants or animals to be sacred and so killing and consuming them was generally taboo. Clans inscribed ceremonial objects with the emblem of their totem, which made these objects sacred as well. This belief system, called totemism, was common among many indigenous groups—including American Indians. Durkheim realized that it was only once plants or animals became a symbol of the clan that they were elevated to the status of sacred. 2. How does Jared Diamond's study of New Zealand's Maori and its subjugation of the Moriori of the Chatham Islands explain the advantage Western Europe had over the countries that it colonized? Answer: Diamond provides a compelling illustration of how the Maori settled New Zealand and developed a thriving agricultural society. The Maori improved their agricultural technology so that they could support many people. Population density and resource abundance spawned a division of labor: a stratum (or segment of society) of craft- and tool-making specialists, a group of political leaders, and a warrior class. Over time, the Maori invaded and conquered other societies and acquired new technologies from them, such as guns. They then turned this advantage on a tribe of Maori who had chosen to live on another island where a hunter–gatherer society developed. This tribe was easily conquered. Diamond contends that the societies around the globe that developed the fastest were those graced with an abundance of plants and animals that could be readily domesticated. Many parts of Europe naturally possessed many of the large mammals that could be domesticated—horses, pigs, cows, and sheep—as well as many of the cereals and grains that would become the backbone of agriculture, such as wheat. As these societies flourished and modernized, they settled new places, conquered the locals, and brought their technology, animals, and crops with them. This is the modern history of the Americas, whose relatively resource deprived and preindustrial indigenous societies met their demise at the hands of technologically advanced invaders from Europe. 3. Rik Scarce wanted to study the social construction of the environment into which the gray wolf was reintroduced—not the animal's immediate environmental impact on, say, its prey. What is a social construction? What did Scarce learn about the stakeholders in his study? Answer: To get a handle on how social contexts shape people's interactions with the environment, sociologist Rik Scarce documented the conflict that erupted over the reintroduction of the gray wolf into Yellowstone Park. In sociological terms, he was interested in the social construction of the environment—the process by which the natural world was interpreted and made meaningful to people who lived in the vicinity of the park. In an era that celebrates the restoration of ecosystems to their original state, the return of once-endangered gray wolves was a feel-good story to many people. But Scarce found that local farmers had a different view. One concern was economic: Wolves would eat their livestock. But their animosity toward the wolves ran deeper. For years, farmers felt that their community was slowly being undermined by the growing presence of wealthy neighbors who valued the area only for its wilderness and did not involve themselves in local life. This feeling led farmers to interpret the reintroduction of gray wolves as a misguided effort by "outsiders" to impose their will on the local community. People's attitudes toward ecological restoration in Yellowstone were patterned by their social position in society, revealing how our relationships with nature reflect who we are and what we value. 4. Explain why scientists are switching from the term "global warming" to "climate change." Answer: The change in terminology is due to the complexity and variations in which global warming manifest itself. Climatologists point to extreme weather events, from heat waves to droughts to floods, which will likely occur with greater frequency in this century. We may see so-called "hundred-year storms" like Hurricane Katrina happening several times in a single generation as tropical storms are able to gather greater force from the additional heat and evaporation given off by warming oceans. Because of the variety of environmental changes that warming temperatures are producing, a growing number of scientists prefer to use the term climate change instead of global warming. 5. Why is deforestation considered one of the most harmful forms of resource depletion? What statistical and observable evidence (i.e., environmental degradation) supports this assertion? Answer: Perhaps the most environmentally harmful form of resource depletion is deforestation. Tropical rainforests provide a natural habitat for two-thirds of all species on the planet, including many plants that are used in medicine, and play a crucial role in capturing CO2 and converting it into oxygen. Though forests are often cut down to produce paper and lumber, most deforestation is a result of farming. As the global demand for beef continues to grow, firms and individual ranchers are eager to burn down stands of trees and replace them with pastures where cattle can graze. A Greenpeace report attributes 80 percent of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon to cattle ranching, and the United Nations estimates that, through the slashing and burning of CO2absorbing trees, meat production contributes more to global warming than either car tailpipes or industrial smokestacks. Deforested areas also suffer greatly from soil erosion, sometimes degenerating into desert-like landscapes. Ecologists estimate that deforestation is causing the extinction of as many as 50,000 plant and animal species every year (137 species per day), and they predict that the rainforests, which once covered 14 percent of the earth's land surface, may be entirely gone by the end of this century unless major restrictions are put in place and enforced. 6. In July 1995, a severe heat wave in Chicago revealed how one element of the population was particularly vulnerable in a scenario that anticipated like tragedies, such what happened in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. What did the sociologist Eric Klinenberg reveal and what special phrase did he coin to describe it? Answer: Eric Klinenberg argued that the massive loss of life that took place during the heat wave was in fact a "structurally determined catastrophe" due to the city's neglect of the neighbourhoods hardest hit. To Klinenberg, this was a catastrophe that could mostly have been prevented. The heat wave did not take lives at random. Rather, that vulnerability was concentrated in the low-income, elderly, African-American, and more violent regions of the city. Poor neighbourhoods were underserved by municipal agencies that could have reached out to social isolates and people without air conditioners, and their local hospitals were overwhelmed and understaffed. Klinenberg also argued that the city had allowed poor neighbourhoods to become so deteriorated and dangerous that residents feared leaving their homes even as the temperatures rose to dangerous levels. 7. What does Garrett Hardin's mean by the "commons"? What are his ideas for more environmentally friendly behavior? Answer: Hardin's analogy of the commons comes from how people would share and take care of common pastureland for raising livestock. This cooperative tradition has been lost in modernity. He highlights the tension between short-term and long-term rewards, and between individual and collective interest. Such phenomenon as global warming threatens us all because it is in the short-term economic interest of people, firms, and nations to continue business-as-usual practices rather than pay the cost of going green. In order to promote environmentally friendly behavior, Hardin argues, we would need to restrict the amount of a particular resource that a single entity can use (e.g., permits or quotas), enact economic sanctions that punish polluters (e.g., taxes or fines), and create economic incentives that reward sustainable practices (e.g., tax breaks). The idea, in other words, is to replace self-regulation with political regulation. Our entire planet is our "commons." If we continue to avoid regulation and "foul our own nest," future generations may find it uninhabitable. 8. Discuss Allan Schnaiberg's assessment of the uncontrolled destruction of the environment as an essential feature of the contemporary economic system. What is the end result of his "treadmill of production"? Answer: Allan Schnaiberg forcefully advanced this perspective through his concept of the "treadmill of production." While one of the principles of ecology is balance and a tendency toward equilibrium, such as when a forest fire clears out the underbrush so that new trees can grow, the pursuit of profit tends toward disequilibrium. The basis of capitalism is continued economic expansion—measured in profits, market shares, gross domestic product, and so on. Producers, laborers, and governments all share an interest in growing the economy by increasing production and consumption. Doing so, of course, entails the consumption of more energy and the production of more pollution. Thus, economic expansion increases wealth, but at the expense of the environment. Schnaiberg argued that the treadmill of production helps ensure business's profits by externalizing the environmental costs of their activities to the poor and the powerless, meaning that economic growth also increases environmental inequality. 9. How does cap-and-trade work to reduce greenhouse gases? Answer: One method for achieving carbon reduction goals is through a cap-and-trade program. The idea is that governments set a limit on the total amount of carbon emissions that are allowable (the cap) and then sell permits to businesses that entitle them to a designated amount of emissions. If firms need to emit more than their permit allows, they must purchase pollution credits from firms that are emitting less than their permit entitles them to (the trade). Such a system ensures a reduction in the total amount of carbon emitted into the atmosphere, rewards firms that move toward clean technology, and makes dirty firms pay for their pollution. The European Union was an early adopter of a trading program for greenhouse gases. 10. Summarize various ways in which people can create a sustainable lifestyle for themselves and thus begin the process of environmental justice on an individual basis. Answer: While economics and politics are key areas in which changes are necessary in order to move toward sustainability, environmentalists stress that small changes to one's lifestyle can also have a major impact. One can, for example stop using disposable plastic bags. These bags are made from the non-renewable resource petroleum, and their production releases toxins into the air. Essentially nonbiodegradable, after one use plastic bags usually wind up in a landfill or become litter that fouls the land and waterways and chokes unsuspecting animals. To avoid this waste, many people are turning to reusable bags made out of durable materials like canvas. Similarly, consumers concerned about the waste produced by billions of paper cups and Styrofoam containers are switching to travel mugs and reusable food containers. Businesses also respond when consumers demand green alternatives. Because of consumer anxiety about the toxic chemicals that wind up in the ground and water as a result of conventional farming practices, organic produce is now widely available in supermarkets. And in many parts of the country, consumers can tell their electric company that they would like part or all of their energy to come from renewable resources. Given the added cost, not everyone can afford to make these choices, but more and more consumers are deciding that the benefits are worth it. A lifestyle choice that has major implications for sustainability is transportation. While there is always room for improvement, cities like New York and Portland have taken great strides to make walking, biking, and public transportation more attractive by adding bike and bus lanes and extending service hours and regional service. Indeed, everyone can take steps to learn more about the wider ecological impacts of their lifestyle and then decide what environmentally friendly changes are possible or attractive to them. Test Bank for The Sociology Project : Introducing the Sociological Imagination Jeff Manza, Richard Arum, Lynne Haney 9780205949601, 9780205093823, 9780133792249
Download
Close
Close
