This Document Contains Chapters 17 to 18 Chapter 17 Government and Politics CHAPTER OUTLINE POWER Types of Authority TYPES OF GOVERNMENT Monarchy Oligarchy Dictatorship and Totalitarianism Democracy POLITICAL BEHAVIOR IN THE UNITED STATES Participation and Apathy Race and Gender in Politics MODELS OF POWER STRUCTURE IN THE UNITED STATES Power Elite Models Pluralist Model WAR AND PEACE War Peace Terrorism POLITICAL ACTIVISM ON THE INTERNET SOCIAL POLICY AND POLITICS: CAMPAIGN FINANCING Boxes Trend Spotting: Democracy on the Rise? Sociology in the Global Community: Sovereignty in the Aloha State Research Today: Why Don’t More Young People Vote? Taking Sociology to Work: Joseph W. Drummond, Management Analyst, U.S. Army Space and Missle Defense Command Research Today: Why Don’t More Young People Vote? LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 17 1. Define and differentiate between power, force, and influence. 2. Identify and describe the various types of authority. 3. Describe the various types of government. 4. Discuss patterns of political behavior in the United States. 5. Describe the power elite model of power structure. 6. Discuss the Mills and Domhoff models of power structure. 7. Describe the pluralist model of power structure. 8. Discuss issues of war and peace from a sociological perspective. 9. Discuss the use of the Internet today for political purposes. 10. Discuss the issue of regulating campaign financing. • Chapter-opening excerpt from Is Voting for Young People, by Martin P. Wattenberg • Sociology in the Global Community Box, “Sovereignty in the Aloha State” • Trend Spotting Box, “Democracy on the Rise” • Discussion of the nation-state perspective on the benefits of war • Taking Sociology to Work Box, “Joseph Drummond, Management Analyst • Updated and expanded coverage of terrorism • Updated discussion of the role of the Internet in politics • Updated Social Policy section on campaign financing, including discussion of the 2010 Supreme Court decision in Citizens United vs. Federal Election Commission CHAPTER SUMMARY Power is at the heart of a political system. Max Weber defined power as the ability to exercise one’s will over others. Weber identified three ideal types of authority. Legitimate power based on traditional authority is conferred by custom and accepted practice. Power made legitimate by law is known as rational-legal authority, in which authority is derived from written rules and regulations. Charismatic authority refers to power made legitimate by a leader’s exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers. There are five basic types of government: monarchy, in which a single member of a royal family holds power; oligarchy, in which a few individuals rule; dictatorship, in which a single person has near total power; totalitarianism, a dictatorship in which control over people’s lives is overwhelming; and democracy, or rule by the people. People are becoming more apathetic in their participation in the political process. Studies reveal that only 8 percent of people in the United States belong to a political club or organization. Women and racial and ethnic minorities continue to be underrepresented in the halls of government. Karl Marx and Sociologist C. Wright Mills argued that power rested in the hands of a few, both inside and outside government, the so-called power elite. G. William Domhoff suggested that the elites of corporate communities and leaders of policy-formation organizations are largely White male upper-class groups that exercise a vast amount of power over other groups. Critics charge that power is more widely shared than the elite model of power relations contends. According to the pluralist model of power relations, many competing groups within the community have access to government, so that no single group is dominant. Conflict is a central aspect of social relations. Too often it becomes ongoing and violent, engulfing innocent bystanders as well as intentional participants. War is defined as conflict between organizations that possess trained combat forces equipped with deadly weapons. Sociologists have considered peace to be both the absence of war and a proactive effort to develop cooperative relations among nations. Sociologists and other social scientists who draw on sociological theory and research have tried to identify conditions that deter war. Terrorism is the use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in pursuit of political aims. The Internet has emerged as a new force in political activism. Use of the Internet for news doubled from 2002 to 2006. Internet users use online information to check the accuracy of candidates’ claims. Political activists worldwide use the Internet to gain and share information and recruit members. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources 1. What are the key sources of power in political systems? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: politics, power, force, influence Visual Support: Photo of crown IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: 17-2, 17-6 Video Resources: The Power Game REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Political Power 2. What are the key types of authority in political systems? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: authority, traditional authority, rational-legal authority, charismatic authority Visual Support: Figure 17-1 “Filtering Information: Political Content” 3. What are the main types of government? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, totalitarianism, democracy, representative democracy Visual Support: Photo of voter; Photograph of North Korean boy IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 17-1 4. What are the trends in U.S. political behavior? IN THE TEXT Box: Trend Spotting, “Democracy on the Rise?” Box: Sociology in the Global Community, “Sovereignty in the Aloha State” Box: Research Today, “Why Don’t More Young People Vote” Visual Support: Figure 17-2 “Voter Turnout Worldwide”; Photo of Keith Ellison taking oath IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: 17-1, 17-3, 17-4, 17-5 5. What models have been used to describe the power structure of the United States? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: elite model, power elite, pluralist model Visual Support: Figure 17-3, “Women in National Legislatures, Selected Countries”; Figure 17-4, “Power Elite Models” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 17-2, 17-3 Classroom Discussion Topics: 17-5, 17-6 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Japanese Power Elite Video Resources: Moyers on America: Capitol Crimes; The Power Game 6. What are the sociological insights regarding war, peace, and terrorism? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: war, peace, terrorism Visual Support: Photo of summit in Paris; Photo of Michael J. Fox; Figure 17-5, “U.S. Public Opinion On the Necessity of War, 1971-2007”; Photo of Red Crescent worker in Iraq; Figure 17-6, “Global Peace Index”; Photo of global terrorism in Moscow; Photo of Tibetan monks IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Video Resources: Global Conflict; In Time of War LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction I. Power and Authority • The struggle for power and authority inevitably involves politics. “Who gets what, when, and how.” A. Power • Max Weber defined power as the ability to exercise one’s will over others. • Three basic sources of power within a political system: force (actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one’s will over another), influence (power through persuasion), and authority (institutionalized power recognized by the people over whom it is exercised). B. Types of Authority • Three ideal types of authority developed by Weber. 1. Traditional Authority • Legitimate power conferred by custom and accepted practice. Example: A king or queen. • Authority rests in custom, not personal characteristics. 2. Legal-Rational Authority • Authority derived from written rules and regulations of political systems. Example: The Constitution. 3. Charismatic Authority • Refers to power made legitimate by a leader’s exceptional personal or emotional appeal. Example: Joan of Arc or Martin Luther King, Jr. • Authority is derived more from belief than actual qualities of leaders. • Carl Couch indicates the media has facilitated the development of charismatic authority (interactionist perspective). II. Types of Government A. Monarchy • Single member of a royal family holds power. B. Oligarchy • A few individuals hold all power. C. Dictatorship and Totalitarianism • A single person has near total power in a dictatorship. • In a totalitarian state, control over people’s lives is overwhelming. D. Democracy • Rule by the people. III. Political Behavior in the United States A. Participation and Apathy • About 8 percent of the people in the U.S. belong to a political club or organization. Only about one in five has ever contacted an official of national, state, or local government about a political issue. • Voters of all ages appear less enthusiastic than ever about elections. Example: Only 62 percent of eligible voters voted in 2008 presidential election, well below the levels of the 1960s. • Apathy is increasingly common in other nations. • Lower voter turnout is evident among racial and ethnic minorities and the poor. B. Race and Gender in Politics • Political strength is lacking in marginalized groups, such as women and racial and ethnic minorities. Examples: Women did not get the vote until 1920; African Americans were disenfranchised until 1965. • As of mid-2009, only 17 of 100 U.S. senators were women; one was African American, two were Latino, and two were Asian Americans, leaving 78 non- Hispanic males. • However, today record-high numbers of Blacks and Latinos hold elective office. • “Fiesta politics”: White power brokers tend to visit racial and ethnic minority communities only when they need electoral support and want photo ops. • Media are more likely to report on a female candidate’s personal life, appearance, and personality than a male candidate’s. • Women do not account for half the members of the national legislature in any country except Rwanda. The U.S. ranks 84th out of 188 nations. IV. Models of Power Structure in the United States A. Power Elite Models • Marx believed that small numbers of capitalists dominate society. • Government officials and military leaders are servants of the capitalist class. 1. Mills’s Model • The power elite are leaders of military, industry, and governmental agencies that collectively control the fate of the U.S. • Mills suggested that the economically powerful coordinate their maneuvers with military and political establishments to serve their common interests. • Mills failed to clarify when the elite opposes protests and when it tolerates them. He also failed to provide detailed case studies. 2. Domhoff’s Model • Agrees that the power elite runs the U.S. Mainly white, male, and upper class. • Corporate conservative coalition has played a large role in political parties. Liberal labor coalition based in unions, environmental organizations, and minority groups. • Domhoff’s model reflects the influence of interest groups. 3. Pluralist Model • No single group is dominant. Several conflicting groups have access to government. • Dahl suggested that community power is diffuse. V. War and Peace A. War • War is conflict between organizations that possess trained combat forces equipped with deadly weapons. B. Peace • Peace is considered both the absence of war and a proactive effort to develop cooperative relations among nations. C. Terrorism • Terrorism is the use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in pursuit of political aims. VI. Political Activism on the Internet • Increasingly, surfing the net is the way people “watch” television news shows and “read” the news. • Information is not limited to traditional parties. Example: Falun Gong, Koha Ditore, and Zapatista movement. • Conflict theorists suggest the Internet could level the playing field for opposition groups. • Importance of growing borderless organizations such as Greenpeace. • Legitimate authority figures are responding with the creation of e-government sites. VII. Social Policy and the Government: Campaign Financing A. The Issue • Regulation of campaign financing. B. The Setting • Remedying the shortcomings of the Federal Campaign Act of 1974 which placed restrictions on hard money. Limited to $2000 per individual or $10,000 per organization. • Passing of the Bipartisan Campaign Act of 2002 was aimed at closing some loopholes and placed limitations on soft money. • Issue advocacy money has now become an important resource to support an individual candidate. • Candidates who refuse public campaign financing have great latitude in receiving private funds. C. Sociological Insights • Functionalists suggest political contributions keep the public involved in politics. Issue advocacy is a method of expression. • Conflict theorists contend material wealth influences government policymakers. • Interactionists point out the symbolic significance of big money driving politics and the effects on voter apathy. D. Policy Initiatives • Most people support campaign finance reform; they are just unsure how to achieve it. • States have suggested posting names of donors. • Traditional reform groups call for tighter limits, but interest groups maintain regulations limit involvement, which some see as being unfair. KEY TERMS Authority Institutionalized power that is recognized by the people over whom it is exercised. Charismatic authority Power made legitimate by a leader’s exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers. Democracy In a literal sense, government by the people. Dictatorship A government in which one person has nearly total power to make and enforce laws. Elite model A view of society as being ruled by a small group of individuals who share a common set of political and economic interests. Force The actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one’s will on others. Influence The exercise of power through a process of persuasion. Monarchy A form of government headed by a single member of a royal family, usually a king, queen, or some other hereditary ruler. Oligarchy A form of government in which a few individuals rule. Peace The absence of war, or more broadly, a proactive effort to develop cooperative relations among nations. Pluralist model A view of society in which many competing groups within the community have access to government, so that no single group is dominant. Political system The social institution that is founded on a recognized set of procedures for implementing and achieving society’s goals. Politics In Harold D. Lasswell’s words, “who gets what, when, and how.” Power The ability to exercise one’s will over others. Power elite A small group of military, industrial, and government leaders who control the fate of the United States. Rational-legal authority Power made legitimate by law. Representative democracy A form of government in which certain individuals are selected to speak for the people. Terrorism The use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in pursuit of political aims. Totalitarianism Virtually complete government control and surveillance over all aspects of a society’s social and political life. Traditional authority Legitimate power conferred by custom and accepted practice. War Conflict between organizations that possess trained combat forces equipped with deadly weapons. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 17-1: Marx and Marxism Analyzed Despite extensive criticism, Karl Marx’s theory of rebellion has not been analyzed directly in cross-national research. The failure of proletarian revolutions to occur in the world’s most developed countries has discredited some of Marx’s important predictions. With this in mind, sociologist Terry Boswell and political scientist William J. Dixon (1993) contend that recent cross-national studies of rebellion and political violence reveal a perplexing positive effect of economic development on rebellion (controlling for income inequality and political democracy in these nations). Boswell and Dixon argue that a proper understanding of Marx’s theory can explain this finding. According to these researchers, economic development leads to class conflict by creating, expanding, and organizing the proletariat. Under capitalism, production is centralized and concentrated on facilitating workers’ organization and joint action. The result, according to Marx, is a more polarized class structure with the proletariat growing in size and power. At the same time, class exploitation accelerates. Consequently, there are two contradictory trends: growing wealth in the capitalist class and growing exploitation of the working class. Why, then, have revolts not typically occurred in the capitalist societies? Boswell and Dixon suggest that the conventional explanation is “class compromise.” Overall growth in a country’s economy can allow the proletariat to achieve relative prosperity (nothing, of course, like the wealth of the bourgeoisie). Marx talks about secondary exploitation through mortgages, loans, and land rents, which can lead the self-employed (i.e., the peasantry) to form alliances among themselves and with artisans and small merchants (the petty bourgeoisie). Although not fully developed by Marx, this view of secondary exploitation does offer insight into peasant rebellions. With a Marxist interpretation of rebellion research in mind, Boswell and Dixon developed a novel measure of class exploitation in a cross-national regression analysis of violent rebellion in 61 countries. The dependent variable used as a measure of revolution was the number of deaths from violent rebellions against the state from 1973 to 1977. To measure class exploitation, Boswell and Dixon used the total value of goods in manufacturing in excess of a nation’s wages and salaries. In addition, they drew upon income inequality as measured by the richest 20 percent of a country’s population. After statistical analysis, the researchers found (as Marx might have expected) that the effect of class exploitation on revolt is conditioned by market crises, or what we refer to as economic recessions. In such times, as Marx speculated, class conflict intensifies. Most of this tension is manifested in day-to-day struggles on the job. However, in a time of market crisis or national recession, these conflicts can become nationwide and can be directed at the state. “Class compromise” is typically lacking because capitalists tend to be opportunistic in order to secure their positions. In summary, Karl Marx’s theory helps to explain the frequent but perplexing finding that economic development can instigate violent rebellion. Development creates the industrial proletariat and the conditions for its organization (class consciousness). As Marx anticipated, revolt in industrial countries was offset by the relative affluence of the working classes. Yet, as the researchers’ cross-national comparison shows, market crises coupled with class exploitation can facilitate rebellion (as Marx himself might have expected). Source: Terry Boswell and William Jo Dixon, “Marx’s Theory of Rebellions: A Cross-National Analysis of Class Exploitation, Economic Development, and Violent Rape,” American Sociological Review 58 (October 1993): 681–702. 17-2: Military-Industrial Complex With the possible exception of George Washington and Ulysses S. Grant, no president has been so readily identified with his military exploits in wartime as Dwight D. Eisenhower. It is ironic, then, that Eisenhower chose in 1961 to warn the nation against the danger of an alliance between the military and industry: In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist. From remarks made by Eisenhower during his retirement from public service, we know that he was not overly concerned about the military industrial complex. However, for advocates of the power elite model, Eisenhower’s remarks were an unusually honest warning from someone who should know. 17-3: Who Rules? The text presents two models of power structure, pluralist and elite. What methodology is used in researching the distribution of power in a community? Three research designs have been developed for the study of community power: the reputational approach, the positional approach, and the issues approach. The reputational approach attempts to identify people who have a reputation for being influential in community decision making; this is typically done by asking knowledgeable people who they consider the most influential. The positional approach is more direct; it simply assumes that people who fill the formal positions of a community (mayor, councilors, etc.) exercise power. Finally, the issues approach attempts to analyze the actual process of decision making with respect to specific issues that are significant for a community. In some ways, the methodology selected often directs a researcher to either the “pluralist” or the “elitist” camp. For example, trying to determine “who rules” by virtue of reputations or positions tends to lead to a small, finite number of people, if not an elite. On the other hand, the issues approach (especially if several diverse issues are analyzed) tends to lead to a more pluralist conclusion. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 17-1. Stimulating Classroom Discussions about Is Voting for Older People?: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Is Voting for Older People? include these: Is there a generation gap in politics? What actions might we take in order to close this gap? How does youth apathy in the U.S. compare to apathy in other countries? Is politics relevant to young people? How? 17-2. Power in Interpersonal Relationships: In this exercise students observe and discuss power dynamics in dyadic groups. It involves a short field exercise, followed by a class discussion of findings. See William A. Gamson (ed.). Learning Group Exercises for Political Sociology. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1989, pp. 53-58. 17-3. Gender and Politics: See Janet Lee, “Teaching Gender Politics,” Teaching Sociology 21 (January 1993): 26–32. Also see Jeff Manza and Clem Brooks, “The Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections: When? Why? Implications?” American Journal of Sociology 103 (March 1998): 1235–1266. 17-4. Class Voting Behavior: The first year that 18-year-olds could vote was 1972. Fifty-five percent of them voted. By the 2000 presidential election only 32 percent of young people cast a vote. Youth voting increased in 2004 to about 49 percent. In 2008 that percentage increased by one to six percentage points (49.3 to 54.5 percent) according to CIRCLE, a Tufts University nonpartisan research center. Conduct an anonymous survey of the class to find out how many of those who were eligible to vote actually did vote in the 2008 election. Encourage student feedback on the issue of apathy among young people. Why didn’t they vote? Were youth more likely to vote in 2004 because our country had experienced a recent terrorist attack? And in 2008? Ask them to explain. 17-5. Gender Assumptions in Politics: A discussion in which students brainstorm the ideal characteristics for a political leader leads to insights about gender assumptions in politics. See Marybeth C. Stalp and Julie Childers (eds.). Teaching Sociological Concepts and the Sociology of Gender. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 2000, p. 31. 17-6. Corporate Power: Examine one or more large corporations to determine the many spheres of life over which its power extends. 17-7. Using Humor: Joseph E. Faulkner has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated into lectures associated with Chapter 17. See Chapter 10 in Faulkner, Sociology Through Humor. New York: West, 1987. This book is out of print, but used copies are readily available. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to identify various business enterprises that attempt to monopolize products or services, and discuss why government is often hesitant to interfere. 2. Ask students to identify the common ideologies of conservative and liberal politics and compare both views with capitalism and socialism. Discuss the relationship of politics to economy. 3. Ask students to identify various charismatic leaders who have intentionally or unintentionally corrupted members of a social group or even caused their deaths, and discuss the issues relevant to Weber’s views on charismatic authority. 4. Ask students to identify elements of the current Iraq war that might support the elite model of power structure in the United States, and discuss the concepts and elements of Marx’s and Mills’s power elite models. 5. Ask students to identify political advertising that could be considered as issue advocacy, and discuss the consequences of campaign reform. CHAPTER 18 THE ECONOMY AND WORK CHAPTER OUTLINE ECONOMIC SYSTEMS Capitalism Socialism The Informal Economy CASE STUDY: CAPITALISM IN CHINA The Road to Capitalism The Chinese Economy Today Chinese Workers in the New Economy WORK AND ALIENATION Marx’s View Worker Satisfaction THE CHANGING U.S. ECONOMY The Changing Face of the Workforce Deindustrialization Offshoring SOCIAL POLICY AND THE ECONOMY: Microfinancing Boxes Trend Spotting: Occupational Growth and Decline Sociology in the Global Community: Working Women in Nepal Taking Sociology to Work: Amy Wang, Product Manager, Norman International Company Research Today: Affirmative Action LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 18 1. Describe the various types of economic systems. 2. Discuss the effects of capitalism in China. 3. Discuss the Marxist view of worker alienation. 4. Identify and describe current trends in the U.S. economy. 5. Discuss the nature and extent of deindustrialization and downsizing in the United States. 6. Discuss the trend of global off-shoring. • Chapter-opening excerpt from The Fair Trade Revolution, edited by John Bowes, with key term treatment of fair trade • Trend Spotting Box, “Occupational Growth and Decline” • Expanded coverage of the informal economy, including a cross-national comparison • Dedicated section on the U.S. economy, with subsection on offshoring • Social Policy section, “Microfinancing,” including a) research on the sophisticated use of financial tools by poor families in developing nations and b) criticisms of microfinancing CHAPTER SUMMARY As the industrial revolution proceeded, a new form of social structure emerged: the industrial society, a society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. The term economic system refers to the social institution through which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed. Two basic types of economic system distinguish contemporary industrial societies: capitalism and socialism. Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profit. In practice, capitalist systems vary in the degree to which the government regulates private ownership and economic activity. Contemporary capitalism features government regulation of economic relations and tolerance of monopolistic practices. Socialist theory was refined in the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Under socialism, the means of production and distribution in a society are collectively owned. The basic objective of the economic system is to meet people’s needs, such as providing healthcare, housing, education, and other key services. Marx believed that socialism would eventually evolve into communism, as an ideal type. An economy that defies description as either capitalist or socialist is referred to as the informal economy, in which transfers of money, goods, or services are not reported to the government. China’s transition from an economy dominated by state-owned companies to one in which private firms can flourish has been surprisingly rapid. The loosening of state control has allowed an increase in Chinese worker mobility. However, many middle-aged urban workers have lost their jobs to rural migrants seeking higher wages, and wages in private companies are low. Women have also been slower to advance in the workplace than men. Émile Durkheim argued that as labor becomes more and more differentiated that individuals will experience anomie. Karl Marx suggested workers experience alienation, which refers to a condition of being estranged or disassociated from the surrounding society. Repetitive work can be particularly unsatisfying for both men and women. The factors of wages and length of workweek are associated with job satisfaction. In general, people with greater responsibility for a finished product experience more satisfaction than those with less responsibility. The labor market of the United States is constantly changing. The term deindustrialization refers to the systematic, widespread withdrawal of investment in basic aspects of productivity such as factories and industry. Companies may relocate from northern regions to southern regions or outside the United States to benefit from lower wage rates. Downsizing refers to reductions in a company’s workforce. The social costs of deindustrialization and downsizing include loss of spending power, family cohesion, and community protection. Offshoring refers to the transfer of certain types of work to foreign contractors. Microfinancing involves loaning small sums of money to the poor so they can work their way out of poverty. Borrowers use the money to start small businesses in the informal economy. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources 1. What are the key types of economic systems in contemporary societies? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: fair trade, cultural relativism, economic system, industrial society, capitalism, laissez-faire, monopoly, socialism, communism, informal economy Box: Trend Spotting, “Occupational Growth and Decline” Box: Sociology in the Global Community: “Working Women in Nepal” Visual Support: Photo of Monopoly game board; photo of miner; Table 18-1, “Characteristics of the Three Major Economic Systems” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 18-1 Classroom Discussion Topics: 18-1, 18-2, 18-3 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Afrocentric View of Marxism; Economic Transfer from the USSR to Russia; Economy and Society Video Resources: The Global Banquet; Jobs: Not What They Used to Be REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Economic Systems 2. What is the history of capitalism in China? IN THE TEXT Box: Case Study, “Capitalism in China” Visual Support: Figure 18-1, “World’s Largest Economies” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Topics and Sources for Student Research: China’s Changing Economy 3. What are the major issues in worker alienation and job satisfaction? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: alienation Box: Taking Sociology to Work, “Amy Wang, Product Manager, Norman International Company” Visual Support: Photo of textile worker; Photo of checkout clerks IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 18-2, 18-3 Classroom Discussion Topics: 18-4, 18-6 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Workplace Democracy and Employee Involvement; The New American Worker Video Resources: Jobs: Not What They Used to Be; Legacy of Shame; Making Diversity Work 4. In what ways is the American economy changing? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: deindustrialization, downsizing, offshoring, microfinancing Box: Research Today, “Affirmative Action” Visual Support: Photos of gutted factory in Boston compared to new Google headquarters; Photo of Muhammad Yunus IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 18-4 Classroom Discussion Topics: Debating Affirmative Action Topics and Sources for Student Research: The New American Worker Video Resources: Borderless; Diverted to Delhi; The Global Banquet; Jobs: Not What They Used to Be; LinkTV: The Outsourcing Report; Sweating for a T-Shirt REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Deindustrialization LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction I. Economic Systems • Two basic types of economic systems distinguish contemporary industrial societies: capitalism and socialism. A. Capitalism • Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits. • Contemporary capitalism tolerates monopolistic practices. • Monopolies violate the idea of free enterprise as purported by laissez-faire economics. • Anti-trust legislation is aimed at monopolies in the U.S. • Exceptions are allowed in utility and transportation industries. • Conflict theorists point out that competition in the U.S. is restricted. B. Socialism • Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels viewed capitalism as forcing people to exchange their labor for low wages, allowing owners of industry to profit. • Socialism as an ideal type seeks to eliminate economic exploitation. The means of production and distribution are collectively owned to meet the needs of people, rather than maximize profits. • Socialism rejects laissez-faire notions and suggests the central government should make basic economic decisions. • Socialist economic systems vary. Example: Great Britain. • Communism results from the withering of socialism, according to Marx. C. The Informal Economy • In an informal economy transfers of money, goods, or services are not reported to the government. Typically found in developing nations. Example: Trading services, unreported tips, or illegal transactions. II. Capitalism in China: A Case Study • Communist party officials opened up China’s economy to capitalism. A. The Road to Capitalism • In the 1980s, the government relaxed restrictions on private enterprise to allow them to compete with state-owned businesses. • By the mid 1990s, party officials handed over ailing state-controlled businesses to private enterprise. B. The Chinese Economy Today • The growing free-market economy has brought significant inequality to Chinese workers. • By 2006, General Motors’ Chinese operation was producing 6 million automobiles a year, at a profit much higher than in the United States. C. Chinese Workers in the New Economy • Studies reveal government party members still have an advantage over other workers in the public sector. Male and well-educated workers have an advantage in the private sector. III. Work and Alienation A. Marx’s View • Durkheim suggested industrialization would differentiate labor and individuals would experience anomie. • Marx believed industrialization robbed workers of meaningful relationships with work. • Alienation refers to a condition of estrangement and disassociation from the surrounding society. • Marx suggested workers needed greater control. • Conflict view suggests we have masked the plight of lower and working classes. B. Worker Satisfaction • Repetitive work is unsatisfying to both men and women. 1. Factors in Job Satisfaction • Higher wages and a shorter work week reduce dissatisfaction. • Number of work hours for Americans increased in 1990s. • Coworkers can make boring jobs tolerable. Example: “banana time” study. • George Ritzer suggests positive impressions from workers are misleading. 2. Job Satisfaction in Japan • During the 1980s, Japanese took pride in their products. • Collectivist orientation of Japan instilled an ideal of “lifetime” employment. • By 1990s, a recession hit Japan with record unemployment. • Worker isolation is more prevalent today. IV. Changing Economies • Emergence of multinational corporations. A. The Face of the Workforce • The number of Black, Latino, and Asian-American workers continues to increase at a faster rate than the number of White workers. • Interactionists note that people will find themselves supervising and being supervised by people very different from themselves. B. Deindustrialization • Refers to systematic widespread withdrawal of investment in basic aspects of productivity. • Need for labor decreases due to technology, relocation of plants to lower the prevailing wage. Example: From U.S. to foreign nation. • Conflict view holds that only when downsizing began to affect white-collar workers was there any great concern. • Social costs of deindustrialization include unemployment, loss of family cohesion, and marital happiness. C. Offshoring • U.S. firms have been outsourcing certain types of work for generations. The trend toward offshoring involves the transferal of certain types of work to foreign contractors. • Offshoring is one of the most recent efforts used by corporations to increase profits by reducing costs. D. Microfinancing • Microfinancing is the practice of lending small sums of money to the poor so that they can work their way out of poverty. • Microfinancing works well in countries that have experienced severe economic devastation, like Afghanistan. • Most recipients of microfinancing are women. V. Social Policy and the Economy: Microfinancing A. The Issue • Sometimes referred to as “banking the unbanked,” microfinancing is the practice of lending small sums of money to the poor so that they can work their way out of poverty. B. The Setting • Microfinancing works well in countries that have experienced severe economic devastation, like Afghanistan. • Microfinancing was the idea of Bangladeshi economist Muhammad Yunus, who founded the Grameen Bank, which he headed until 2011. C. Sociological Insights • Interactionists have found that even with modest levels of support, the poor can substantially improve their circumstances. • Feminist theorists are particularly interested in the long-term consequences of microfinancing, since most recipients are women. • Critics charge that microfinancing amounts to exploitation of the poor. Multinational corporations based in core countries take advantage of the low wages and natural resources in periphery countries. D. Policy Initiatives • Some government leaders have charged lenders with profiteering at the expense of the poor and have taken measures to protect the poor from further exploitation. • In 2010, officials of one state in India required all loans to be approved by the government and their eventual repayment to be made in person before a public official. KEY TERMS Affirmative action Positive efforts to recruit minority group members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities. Alienation A condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society. Capitalism An economic system in which the means of production are largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits. Color-blind racism The use of the principle of race neutrality to defend a racially unequal status quo. Communism As an ideal type, an economic system under which all property is communally owned and no social distinctions are made based on people’s ability to produce. Cultural relativism The viewing of people’s behavior from the perspective of their own culture. Deindustrialization The systematic, widespread withdrawal of investment in basic aspects of productivity, such as factories and plants. Downsizing Reductions taken in a company’s workforce as part of deindustrialization. Economic system The social institution through which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed. Industrial society A society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. Informal economy Transfers of money, goods, or service that are not reported to the government. Laissez-faire A form of capitalism under which people compete freely, with minimal government intervention in the economy. Microfinancing Lending small sums of money to the poor so they can work their way out of poverty. Monopoly Control of a market by a single business firm. Off-shoring The transfer of work to foreign contractors. Socialism An economic system under which the means of production and distribution are collectively owned. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 18-1: In Defense of Socialist Planning As communism collapsed in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, there was rejoicing not only within these countries but in the democracies of the West. Some observers viewed this collapse as a clear validation of unfettered “free market” policies that would prohibit governmental intervention in and regulation of national economies. However, economist Robert Pollin and political columnist Alexander Cockburn insist that socialist planning remains an essential tool for broadening democracy and making the world’s economies better serve people’s needs. As part of their defense of socialist planning, Pollin and Cockburn identify and challenge what they see as three pervasive myths regarding socialist and free market economies. Myth 1: Socialist Central Planning Has Been a Disaster: Pollin and Cockburn acknowledge that central planning under socialist governments had significant failures because the lack of democracy in these nations led to the creation of stifling, all-powerful bureaucracies. Nevertheless, socialist planning was responsible for some substantial achievements. While Western democracies suffered through an intense depression in the period from 1929 to 1937, Soviet industrial growth averaged more than 12 percent. When the Communist party came to power in China in 1949, life expectancy was approximately 40 years; by 1988, it had reached 70 years. Over the period from 1952 to 1978, industrial growth in China averaged 11.2 percent, thereby establishing the foundation for economic modernization in a previously agricultural nation. Finally, in terms of such health and social indicators as life expectancy, infant mortality, and rate of literacy, Cuba comes out far better than any other Latin American country. Myth 2: Government Intervention under Capitalism Has Also Been a Failure. In countering this myth, Pollin and Cockburn point to the example of Latin America. During the 1930s, most Latin American governments instituted interventionist policies intended primarily to encourage domestic manufacturing. These policies were fairly successful over a number of decades. Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil all began producing consumer goods, developed machine-building capacity in the 1960s, and began to export on the world market in the 1970s. Per capita income in the region was generally high during the 1950s and 1960s. Although these interventionist policies eventually led to failure, it was primarily because the Latin American economies were never able to break their dependence on foreign capital from the United States and Europe. Pollin and Cockburn observe that, contrary to this myth, in Japan and South Korea, the great “miracles” in the region are not and never have been free market economies. In both nations, the state is dominant in planning and strategic financing; it provides business firms with export subsidies, protection, and cheap money. Moreover, the alleged “free market” was restricted, since both Japan and South Korea limited intervention by foreign corporations, especially during periods of rapid economic growth. Source: Robert Pollin and Alexander Cockburn, “The World, the Free Market and the Left,” The Nation 252 (February 25, 1991): 224–232, 234–236. 18-2: Work and Alienation: Marx’s View For millions of men and women, work is a central part of day-to-day life. Work may be satisfying or deadening, and the workplace may be relatively democratic or totally authoritarian. Although the conditions and demands of people’s work lives vary, there can be little doubt of the importance of work and workplace interactions in our society and others. All the pioneers of sociological thought were concerned that changes in the workplace resulting from the industrial revolution would have a negative impact on workers. Émile Durkheim argued that as labor becomes more and more differentiated, individual workers will experience anomie, or a loss of direction. Workers cannot feel the same fulfillment from performing one specialized task in a factory as they did when they were totally responsible for creating a product. As was noted in Chapter 6, Max Weber suggested that impersonality is a fundamental characteristic of bureaucratic organizations. One result is the cold and uncaring feeling often associated with contemporary bureaucracies. But Karl Marx offered the most penetrating analysis of the dehumanizing aspects of industrialization. Marx believed that as the process of industrialization advanced within capitalist societies, people’s lives became increasingly devoid of meaning. While Marx expressed concern about the damaging effects of many social institutions, he focused his attention on what he saw as a person’s most important activity: labor. For Marx, the emphasis of the industrial revolution on specialization of factory tasks contributed to a growing sense of alienation among industrial workers. The term alienation refers to the situation of being estranged or disassociated from the surrounding society. The division of labor increased alienation because workers were channeled into monotonous, meaningless repetition of the same tasks. However, in Marx’s view, an even deeper cause of alienation is the powerlessness of workers in a capitalist economic system. Workers have no control over their occupational duties, the products of their labor, or the distribution of profits. The very existence of private property within capitalism accelerates and intensifies the alienation of members of the working class, since they are constantly producing property that is owned by others (members of the capitalist class). The solution to the problem of workers’ alienation, according to Marx, is to give workers greater control over the workplace and the products of their labor. Of course, Marx did not focus on limited reforms of factory life within the general framework of capitalist economic systems. Rather, he envisioned a revolutionary overthrow of capitalist oppression and a transition to collective ownership of production (socialism) and eventually to the ideal of communism. See Émile Durkheim. Division of Labor in Society. Translated by Georg Simmel. New York: Free Press, 1933 (originally published in 1893). Also see Kai Erickson, “On Work and Alienation,” American Sociological Review 51(February 1986):1–8. 18-3: The Worldwide Jobs-Skills Mismatch The want ads go on forever, but even in the best of times, millions are seeking work and even more want a better job. Rich countries still have millions of people living in poverty. What is wrong with these pictures? We are seeing a mismatch between the skills that people have and the jobs that are available. The growth of the service and high-tech, information-based economy at the expense of manufacturing, translates directly into shifts in employment. Economist Jeremy Rifkin has written of the emergence of a knowledge class that is responsible for keeping the worldwide high-tech economy going. This kind of expertise calls for workers with high skills, skills that are difficult to come by among the ranks of the unemployed, whether in Massachusetts or Madagascar. At the same time, many unemployed, especially those who have been downsized, are overqualified for low-paying, service economy jobs, which call for few skills. The most visible illustration of this mismatch between jobs available and skills needed can be seen among those who emigrate from developing nations to the cities of industrial countries, where the abilities of the knowledge class are most valued. These new arrivals are attracted by higher standards of living, but their lack of technological skills relegates them to poor-paying service sector jobs, such as food service, custodial work, and support services in hotels and retail establishments. Foreign labor plays a significant role in many industrial countries—constituting 10 percent or more of the total labor force in the United States, Germany, and Austria, and more than 20 percent in Canada, Australia, and Switzerland. Because they send money back home to their families, these foreign workers are an important source of revenue for their homeland, but their generally unskilled jobs make them more vulnerable to unemployment in economic downturns than native-born workers. The mismatch of jobs and skills is spreading to the developing nations. For example, the pattern of deindustrialization associated with northern industrial cities in the United States is now beginning to take root in Mexico. The relatively new factories were considered state-of-the-art at the time they were built in the early 1990s to serve multinational corporations. However, they are already downsizing as they become even more automated. Machines are replacing workers in every developing country, and, increasingly, the remaining jobs require the skills associated with the knowledge class. Economic planners in high-tech-oriented Singapore worry that many older workers there will soon face unemployment because of their outdated skills. In the United States, 84 percent of the population has attained at least a high school degree, but a high school education is now considered insufficient for most highly skilled jobs. Outside Europe, North America, and a few Asian countries, 40 to 60 percent at most have attained that level of education. At the same time that the level of education required for skilled workers worldwide is increasing, there has been little progress to match those needs. Shifting skill requirements, and ineffective educational systems have combined to marginalize many immigrant groups around the world as well as native-born peoples left behind by the information and technology boom and the escalation of skills required. 18-4: The Efficacy of Affirmative Action Affirmative action in university admissions is an emotional issue for many Americans—including the many college students who believe that affirmative action (or lack thereof) has a direct bearing on their own educational and professional opportunities. One common argument voiced against affirmative action is that it lowers the standard of competence in various professional fields. The assumption is that students targeted by affirmative action are less able to perform well in their academic programs, and that, therefore, the future will see minority doctors, professors, lawyers, and other professionals who perform at a sub-par level when compared to their White peers. Are students admitted under affirmative action programs less qualified than other students, and, if so, does this lead to life-long differences in competence across white and minority professionals? Fortunately, two recent large-scale studies have dealt with these questions in a scientific, rather than emotional, manner. The issue of affirmative action is especially salient for gatekeepers at U.S. medical schools, some of whom argue that the medical profession has an ethical obligation to ensure that minority populations have adequate access to quality medical care, and that affirmative action programs are a key means of doing so (Cohen 2003). In order to assess the long-term implications of affirmative action, two physicians, Robert C. Davidson and Ernest L. Lewis, undertook a longitudinal study of student performance at the University of California-Davis Medical School. The authors gathered data on students admitted to the UC-Davis Medical School between 1968 and 1987. They compared various measures of pre- and post-M.D. performance across two categories of students: those who were admitted under regular admissions procedures, and “special consideration students” who were admitted despite a GPA or MCAT score that failed to meet the normal admissions minimum. These special admission students were disproportionately comprised of African-American, Native-American, and Hispanic students. Such minorities comprised 42.7 percent of special consideration students, but only 4 percent of regular admission students. By definition, special admissions students started their medical studies with college GPA and MCAT scores that were lower, on average, than for regular admission students. In addition, while in medical school, special admissions students were more likely to fail a segment of their NBME (“Boards”) qualifying exam, and had lower average grades in their core classes. In nearly all other areas of comparison, however, Davidson and Lewis found that performance across these two groups was remarkably similar. The two groups of students graduated at similar rates (more than 90 percent of students in both categories) and graduated in the same length of time. After graduating from medical school, doctors from both groups entered into the same types of residency programs, and doctors from the special consideration category were no different from regular admissions doctors in their residency performance. Post-residency, both categories of graduates entered into similar types of medical practices (Davidson and Lewis 1997). William G. Bowen and Derek Bok undertook an equally ambitious study of the long-term implications of affirmative action in undergraduate admissions. They analyzed data on 80,000 students who attended 28 highly selective universities between 1951 and 1989, and compared the performance of White and African-American students at those universities. Like Davidson and Lewis, they found that Blacks admitted to these universities had lower average standardized test scores and grade-point averages than Whites, and that Blacks continued to have lower average grades while in college. However, the Black graduates were more likely to go on to receive law and medical degrees than the White students, and a higher percentage of Blacks went on to graduate or professional school overall. Another key finding is that Black graduates—especially those who went on to graduate school—were more highly involved in community leadership roles (Bowen and Bok 1998, Bronner 1998, Gose 1998). One the whole, findings from both studies supply strong evidence against the idea that standardized admissions criteria like standardized test scores and grade-point averages are the best predictors of long-term professional performance. Instead, long-term historical discrimination against minority groups leads to exam and grade discrepancies among equally promising social groups. Outcomes reported by Davidson and Lewis are especially interesting given the legal history of the UC-Davis medical program. In the 1978 Bakke case, the Supreme Court declared unconstitutional the UC-Davis policy of setting aside a specific number of places in its incoming class for minority students. Sources used for this essay include: William G. Bowen and Derek Bok. The Shape of the River. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998; Jordan J. Cohen, “The Consequences of Premature Abandonment of Affirmative Action in Medical School Admissions,” Journal of the American Medical Association 289 (2003): 1143-1149; Robert C. Davidson and Ernest L. Lewis, “Affirmative Action and Other Special Consideration Admissions at the University of California, Davis, School of Medicine,” Journal of the American Medical Association 278 (1997): 1153-1158; Ben Gose, “A Sweeping New Defense of Affirmative Action,” The Chronicle of Higher Education 45 (September 18, 1998). For long-term effects of affirmative action in employment, see Barbara Reskin. The Realities of Affirmative Action in Employment. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1998. For a counterargument to studies presented here, see Stephan and Abigail Thernstrom. America in Black and White. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 18-1. Stimulating Classroom Discussions about Where Am I Wearing: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Kelsey Timmerman’s Where Am I Wearing? include the following: Do you agree with Timmerman’s view that the way we live is responsible for the way workers in other countries live? What evidence do you see in your society or in other societies that supports your point of view? How much more would you be willing to pay for clothing made in factories that met U.S. safety standards? Would you be willing to pay more for consumer goods that were made in the USA? Ask to students to check the labels of their shoes, purses, backpacks, shirts. List the countries and ask students to speculate on the wages and standard of living afforded to the workers who made the items. 18-2. Sweating for a T Shirt: Show the video Sweating for a T Shirt. Have students compare the images in the video to Kelsey Timmerman’s description of a Honduran textile factory. Discuss the aspects of the video related to student efforts to improve worker conditions. Discuss worker alienation in the context of sweatshops. Sweating for a T Shirt, 1998, 23 minutes, $15.00, available from Global Exchange (800)497-1994 or at [email protected]. 18-3. Monopoly: Use this board game, first introduced by Parker Brothers in 1935, as an exercise in examining capitalism. Reviewing the “Chance” and “Community Chest” cards offers excellent insights into American economic values. 18-4. Alienation among Workers: This activity was developed by Bob Leighninger at Western Michigan University to create a pool of concrete work experiences that exemplify Marx’s conception of alienation and the social organization that produces it. See Technique No. 80 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas, (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1993. 18-5. Debating Affirmative Action—A Class Activity: Arrange to have class members debate the pros and cons of affirmative action. You could offer extra credit to those students who volunteer to participate in the debate. 18-6. Division of Labor: This classroom exercise forces students to confront their assumptions about the way that labor should be distributed and compensated within a work organization. Marissa Corrado et al., “Playing at Work: The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender with Power Structures of Work and Production,” Teaching Sociology 28 (January 2000): 56-66. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to identify various business enterprises that attempt to monopolize products or services, and discuss why government is often hesitant to interfere. 2. Ask students to identify various socialistic practices in other nations and analyze the effects compared to capitalistic practices, and discuss the nature of capitalism versus socialism. 3. Ask students to identify the common ideologies of conservative and liberal politics and compare both views with capitalism and socialism. Discuss the relationship of politics to economy. 4. Ask students to develop items for a scale to measure worker satisfaction or interview various workers regarding satisfaction, and discuss factors in job satisfaction. 5. Ask students to identify recent United States government decisions that have changed the face of the American workforce, and discuss the changing nature of work in the U.S. Instructor Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669
Download
Close
Close
