This Document Contains Chapters 17 to 18 CHAPTER 17 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Describe the three basic sources of power in any political system. Answer: The three basic sources of power in any political system are: 1. Traditional Authority: This type of power is rooted in long-established customs, practices, and social structures. It is often hereditary and seen in monarchies and tribal systems where power is passed down through generations. Leaders hold authority because it is accepted and legitimized by tradition. 2. Charismatic Authority: This source of power comes from an individual's personal qualities, charisma, and ability to inspire and attract followers. Charismatic leaders often emerge during times of crisis or social upheaval and gain power through their persuasive appeal and vision. Examples include revolutionary leaders and influential figures like Martin Luther King Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi. 3. Rational-Legal Authority: This type of power is based on formal rules and laws. It is characteristic of modern bureaucratic states where power is vested in offices and institutions rather than individuals. Leaders are elected or appointed based on legal procedures and their authority is legitimized through a system of rules and regulations. This form of authority is seen in democratic governments and corporate structures. These sources of power often overlap and coexist within political systems, influencing how power is acquired, maintained, and exercised. 2. Briefly describe the three ideal types of authority presented by Max Weber. Answer: Max Weber identified three ideal types of authority: 1. Traditional Authority: This type of authority is based on long-standing customs, traditions, and established practices. Leaders inherit their positions of power through family lines or cultural norms, and their authority is accepted because it has always been that way. Examples include monarchies and tribal leaders. 2. Charismatic Authority: This authority arises from the personal qualities, charisma, and extraordinary leadership of an individual. Followers are drawn to the leader's vision, personality, and ability to inspire. Charismatic authority is often seen in revolutionary leaders, religious prophets, or influential political figures like Martin Luther King Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi. 3. Rational-Legal Authority: This authority is founded on a system of well-established laws and procedures. Power is vested in offices or institutions rather than individuals, and leaders are chosen based on legal frameworks, elections, or formal appointments. This type of authority is characteristic of modern bureaucratic states, democratic governments, and corporate entities. These ideal types of authority help explain how power and legitimacy are structured and maintained in different societies. 3. In what way is the interactionist perspective interested in charismatic authority? Answer: The interactionist perspective is interested in charismatic authority because it focuses on the social interactions and meanings that individuals attach to the charismatic leader. This perspective examines how the leader's personal qualities and interactions with followers create a shared belief in their extraordinary abilities. Interactionists study how followers are influenced by the leader's charisma through symbolic communication, such as speeches, gestures, and personal connections. They also explore how this dynamic reinforces the leader's authority and legitimacy, and how the charismatic relationship evolves over time within the social context. 4. Compare and contrast the five different types of government. Answer: The five different types of government can be compared and contrasted as follows: 1. Democracy: • Description: Power is vested in the hands of the people, who elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. • Characteristics: Emphasizes political equality, free and fair elections, and protection of individual rights. • Example: United States, India. 2. Monarchy: • Description: A single person, usually a king or queen, rules the country. Power is typically inherited. • Characteristics: Can be absolute (monarch has almost complete power) or constitutional (monarch's powers are limited by law or a constitution). • Example: United Kingdom (constitutional), Saudi Arabia (absolute). 3. Authoritarianism: • Description: Power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader or a small elite not constitutionally responsible to the people. • Characteristics: Limited political freedoms, strong central control, often maintained through coercion and suppression of dissent. • Example: North Korea, China. 4. Totalitarianism: • Description: An extreme form of authoritarianism where the government seeks to control all aspects of public and private life. • Characteristics: Highly centralized, uses propaganda, surveillance, and terror to maintain control, often led by a single party or leader. • Example: Nazi Germany, Stalinist Soviet Union. 5. Oligarchy: • Description: Power is held by a small group of people, typically distinguished by wealth, family ties, corporate, or military control. • Characteristics: Power dynamics can shift within the group, limited political pluralism, and often lack of accountability to the general populace. • Example: Ancient Sparta, contemporary examples can be seen in certain business-controlled governments. These types of government vary in their approach to power distribution, citizen participation, and individual freedoms, reflecting different historical and cultural contexts. 5. Define the five main types of government, giving examples of each. Answer: The five main types of government are: 1. Democracy: • Definition: A system of government where power is vested in the people, who exercise power directly or through elected representatives. • Example: The United States, where citizens vote for their leaders and laws through free and fair elections. 2. Monarchy: • Definition: A form of government with a monarch at the head, where power is typically inherited. • Example: The United Kingdom, where the monarch's powers are largely ceremonial under a constitutional framework. 3. Authoritarianism: • Definition: A political system in which a single leader or a small group holds power, with limited political freedoms. • Example: China, where the Communist Party maintains strict control over political life. 4. Totalitarianism: • Definition: An extreme form of authoritarianism where the government seeks to control all aspects of life, including the economy, education, art, science, private life, and morals. • Example: North Korea, where the state exerts total control over nearly every aspect of public and private life. 5. Oligarchy: • Definition: A government in which a small group of people, often from the same social, economic, or political class, holds power. • Example: Ancient Sparta, where power was concentrated in the hands of a few elite families. These types of government differ in how power is distributed, the role of citizens, and the level of individual freedoms permitted. 6. Explain the key difference between contemporary monarchies and monarchies of the past. Answer: The key difference between contemporary monarchies and monarchies of the past lies in the distribution and exercise of power. Contemporary Monarchies: • Definition: Modern-day monarchies are often constitutional, meaning the monarch's powers are limited by law or a constitution, and they primarily serve ceremonial roles. • Characteristics: Political decisions and governance are handled by elected officials within a parliamentary or democratic framework. • Example: The United Kingdom, where the Queen has a symbolic role, and the government is run by elected representatives. Monarchies of the Past: • Definition: Historical monarchies were typically absolute, with the monarch holding extensive or complete control over the government and its policies. • Characteristics: The monarch had significant political, military, and economic power, often justified by the belief in the divine right of kings or hereditary rule. • Example: France under Louis XIV, where the king had almost complete authority over the state. The transition from absolute to constitutional monarchy reflects broader shifts towards democratization and the separation of powers in modern governance. 7. Is the United States a democracy, a representative democracy, or an oligarchy? Explain. Answer: The United States is primarily considered a representative democracy. • Representative Democracy: In this system, citizens elect representatives who make decisions and create laws on their behalf. The U.S. operates under this model, where people vote for local, state, and federal officials, including the President, members of Congress, and state legislators, who then govern according to the principles of democracy. • Explanation: The U.S. Constitution establishes a framework for representative democracy through regular elections, checks and balances, and the separation of powers. While some critics argue that the influence of wealthy individuals and corporations can resemble characteristics of an oligarchy, the foundational structure remains democratic, as ultimate political power rests with the electorate. Thus, the U.S. is defined as a representative democracy, emphasizing elected representation and the protection of individual rights and freedoms. 8. Discuss political participation and apathy from a global perspective. Answer: Political participation and apathy vary significantly across the globe, influenced by cultural, economic, social, and political factors. Political Participation: • Definition: Involvement in activities intended to influence public policy and leadership, such as voting, protesting, campaigning, or engaging in political discussions. Global Trends: • High participation rates in established democracies like Sweden and Australia, where voting is mandatory or strongly encouraged. • Emerging democracies often see high engagement as citizens push for reforms and change, exemplified by movements in countries like Tunisia during the Arab Spring. • Digital platforms have increased participation globally, enabling activism and political engagement through social media. Political Apathy: • Definition: Lack of interest, enthusiasm, or concern for politics, leading to low participation rates. Global Trends: • In many established democracies, voter turnout has declined, reflecting disillusionment or satisfaction with the status quo, as seen in countries like the United States and the United Kingdom. • In authoritarian regimes, apathy can result from fear of retribution, lack of genuine political options, or perceived inefficacy of participation, as observed in countries like Russia and China. • Socioeconomic barriers, such as poverty and lack of education, can also contribute to apathy in both developing and developed nations. Factors Influencing Participation and Apathy: • Education: Higher levels of education often correlate with increased political engagement. • Economic Stability: Economic prosperity can either encourage participation (by providing resources and time) or apathy (if people are content). • Political Culture: Societies with a strong civic culture and democratic traditions tend to have higher participation rates. • Government Transparency: Perceptions of corruption and inefficacy can lead to apathy, whereas transparency and accountability can boost participation. Globally, political participation and apathy reflect the complex interplay of individual, societal, and systemic factors, shaping how citizens engage with their governments and influence political outcomes. 9. What roles have women traditionally played in politics? Answer: Traditionally, women's roles in politics have been limited and marginalized, often reflecting broader societal gender norms and barriers. 1. Supportive Roles: • Description: Women have frequently been involved in politics in supportive capacities, such as campaign workers, advisors, or spouses of male politicians. • Example: Political spouses like Eleanor Roosevelt, who used her position to advocate for social issues. 2. Activism and Advocacy: • Description: Women have historically played significant roles in grassroots movements and advocacy groups, pushing for social reforms and civil rights. • Example: The suffragette movement, where women campaigned for and achieved the right to vote. 3. Symbolic Participation: • Description: In many societies, women have held symbolic or token positions to demonstrate progressiveness without significant power or influence. • Example: Appointments of women to ceremonial roles or as figureheads in political organizations. 4. Barriers to Entry: • Description: Legal, social, and economic barriers have traditionally restricted women's entry into formal political roles and leadership positions. • Example: Legal restrictions on voting rights and holding office, which were prevalent until the 20th century in many countries. 5. Changing Roles: • Description: Over time, women have increasingly taken on more prominent and influential roles in politics. • Example: Leaders like Margaret Thatcher, Angela Merkel, and Kamala Harris, who have held or hold significant political offices. Despite historical limitations, women's roles in politics have evolved, with increasing representation and influence in modern political systems. 10. What are the main patterns of political participation by racial and ethnic minorities? Answer: The main patterns of political participation by racial and ethnic minorities include: 1. Voter Turnout: • Description: Racial and ethnic minorities often have lower voter turnout rates compared to the majority population. • Factors: Socioeconomic barriers, voter suppression, and historical disenfranchisement contribute to lower participation. • Example: In the United States, African American and Latino voter turnout has historically been lower than that of white Americans, though recent elections have shown increases due to targeted mobilization efforts. 2. Political Representation: • Description: Minorities are underrepresented in political offices and decision-making positions. • Factors: Structural barriers, lack of resources, and discrimination limit opportunities for minority candidates. • Example: Despite progress, racial and ethnic minorities remain underrepresented in the U.S. Congress relative to their share of the population. 3. Community and Grassroots Activism: • Description: Minorities often engage in political participation through community organizations, advocacy groups, and grassroots movements. • Factors: These platforms provide a voice and address specific issues affecting their communities. • Example: The Civil Rights Movement in the U.S., which mobilized African Americans to fight for equal rights and voting rights. 4. Policy Advocacy: • Description: Minorities participate by advocating for policies that address issues of inequality, discrimination, and social justice. • Factors: Activism and lobbying efforts are focused on reforming laws and policies that disproportionately affect minority communities. • Example: Organizations like the NAACP and MALDEF work to influence public policy in favor of African American and Latino communities, respectively. 5. Barriers to Participation: • Description: Various barriers hinder the political participation of minorities, including socioeconomic disparities, language barriers, and voter suppression tactics. • Factors: Institutional racism, gerrymandering, and restrictive voting laws can limit minority political engagement. • Example: Voter ID laws and purging of voter rolls have been criticized for disproportionately affecting minority voters in the U.S. Despite these challenges, racial and ethnic minorities continue to find ways to participate in the political process and advocate for their rights and interests. 11. Why do young people tend not to vote? Answer: Young people tend not to vote for several reasons: 1. Lack of Engagement: • Description: Young individuals may feel disconnected from the political process and believe their vote has little impact. • Factors: Lack of interest or understanding of political issues can lead to apathy. 2. Barriers to Access: • Description: Practical barriers such as difficulty in registering, lack of information on how to vote, or scheduling conflicts can deter young voters. • Factors: Complex registration processes or voting requirements may discourage participation. 3. Perceived Inefficacy: • Description: Some young people feel that their vote does not matter or that politicians do not address their concerns. • Factors: A lack of trust in the political system and dissatisfaction with candidates or political parties can contribute to low turnout. 4. Transitory Life Stages: • Description: Young people often experience changes such as moving for education or work, which can complicate their ability to vote. • Factors: Frequent relocations or unstable living conditions can disrupt voter registration and participation. 5. Limited Political Socialization: • Description: Young people may not be as engaged in political discussions or civic activities compared to older generations. • Factors: Limited exposure to political education and discussion at home or in schools can affect political involvement. Addressing these factors through improved civic education, simplified voting processes, and targeted outreach can help increase political participation among young people. 12. Distinguish between the two basic views of the power structure in the United States. Answer: The two basic views of the power structure in the United States are: 1. Pluralist View: • Description: This perspective argues that power is distributed among a wide array of interest groups and organizations. No single group dominates; instead, power is fragmented and spread across various actors who compete to influence policy and decision-making. • Characteristics: Emphasizes the role of diverse groups, democratic processes, and bargaining. It suggests that public policies emerge from the negotiation and compromise among competing interests. • Example: Lobbying by multiple interest groups, such as environmental organizations and business associations, influencing legislation. 2. Elite View: • Description: This perspective posits that a small, privileged elite holds the majority of power and influences political decisions. This elite, often composed of wealthy individuals, corporate leaders, and high-ranking officials, controls key institutions and shapes policy in their favor. • Characteristics: Suggests that real power is concentrated in the hands of a few who have significant resources and influence. It often critiques the notion of equal participation and argues that democratic processes are overshadowed by elite control. • Example: The influence of wealthy donors and large corporations in political campaigns and policy formation. These views offer different interpretations of how power is distributed and exercised in the U.S. political system, reflecting debates about democracy, representation, and influence. 13. What is the relationship between Mills’s theory of power and the views of Karl Marx? Answer: Mills's theory of power and Karl Marx's views both address the concentration of power but from different angles: 1. Mills's Theory of Power: • Description: C. Wright Mills proposed the "power elite" theory, suggesting that a small, interconnected group of elites—comprising leaders from the military, corporate, and political spheres—holds significant power and makes key decisions that affect the nation. Mills argued that this elite group controls major institutions and shapes policies, often prioritizing their own interests over those of the general populace. 2. Karl Marx's Views: • Description: Karl Marx's theory focuses on the class struggle and economic power, asserting that power is concentrated in the hands of the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) who control the means of production. Marx believed that the capitalist class exploits the proletariat (working class), and that economic power translates into political power, reinforcing class inequalities and perpetuating the capitalist system. Relationship: • Both theories emphasize the concentration of power and the influence of a small elite on societal outcomes. Mills’s power elite theory highlights the role of a specific group of elites across various institutions, while Marx’s theory focuses on the economic class structure and its impact on political power. • Mills's view can be seen as an extension or application of Marxian ideas to the broader context of elite influence in modern capitalist societies, suggesting that power dynamics are shaped by a concentrated elite across economic, military, and political domains. In essence, both theories underscore how a small, powerful group can dominate and shape political and economic systems, although they frame the sources and mechanisms of power differently. 14. What did C. Wright Mills mean by the power elite? Answer: C. Wright Mills coined the term "power elite" to describe a small, cohesive group of individuals who hold the most power in society. According to Mills, this elite consists of top leaders in government, military, and corporate sectors. They wield significant influence over major decisions and policies, effectively controlling key aspects of public life. Mills argued that this concentration of power among a few individuals undermines democracy, as it limits the political power and influence of the general populace. 15. What were C. Wright Mills’s conclusions in the Power Elite? Answer: In "The Power Elite," C. Wright Mills concluded that a small, interconnected group of elites dominate key institutions—government, military, and corporate sectors. This elite group exercises disproportionate influence over major decisions and policy directions, leading to a concentration of power that undermines democratic processes. Mills argued that this concentration results in a lack of meaningful political participation by the general public and perpetuates a system where power remains in the hands of a few, diminishing the effectiveness of democratic governance. 16. What were G. William Domhoff’s conclusions concerning a national power structure? Answer: G. William Domhoff's conclusions about the national power structure highlight that a cohesive, elite group holds substantial control over political and economic decisions in the U.S. Domhoff argued that this power elite consists of wealthy individuals and corporate leaders who influence policy through their economic resources and organizational networks. He believed that this elite group's dominance results in policies that favor their interests, perpetuating economic inequality and maintaining their position of power within the national power structure. 17. How do Domhoff’s and Mills’s views of the ruling elite differ? How are they similar? Answer: Similarities: Both G. William Domhoff and C. Wright Mills argue that a small, powerful elite controls key aspects of society, including political and economic decisions. They believe this elite influences policy in ways that benefit their own interests, reducing democratic participation and perpetuating inequality. Differences: Mills focuses on the interlocking nature of elites across government, military, and corporate sectors, emphasizing their unified control over major decisions. Domhoff, on the other hand, concentrates more on the economic elite and their influence through organized networks and wealth, highlighting the role of corporate power and its impact on policy-making. 18. How did Robert Dahl view the political system in the United States? Answer: Robert Dahl viewed the political system in the United States as a pluralistic democracy where power is distributed among various interest groups and institutions. According to Dahl, rather than being controlled by a single elite, the U.S. political system is characterized by competition and negotiation among multiple groups, each with different interests. He believed that this pluralism allows for diverse voices and interests to influence policy, making the system more representative and democratic. 19. Explain whether the elite or pluralist model best explains political power in your hometown. Answer: To determine whether the elite or pluralist model best explains political power in your hometown, consider the following: • Elite Model: If a small, cohesive group of individuals or organizations—such as wealthy families, corporate leaders, or influential local figures—dominates decision-making and policy, and if this group has significant control over key institutions, then the elite model may better explain political power in your area. • Pluralist Model: If political power is more dispersed among various interest groups, with multiple organizations and community members actively engaging in political processes and influencing decisions through competition and negotiation, then the pluralist model may be more accurate. Assess the local political landscape to identify whether power is concentrated in a few hands or if it is spread across a range of competing groups. 20. Discuss the sociological perspective on war and peace. Answer: The sociological perspective on war and peace examines how social structures, cultural values, and group dynamics influence the occurrence and resolution of conflicts. • War: Sociologists view war as a product of social, economic, and political factors. It can stem from competition for resources, power struggles, or deeply ingrained cultural and ideological differences. War is also seen as a means for societies to address internal tensions, assert dominance, or unify through a common external threat. • Peace: From a sociological standpoint, peace is not merely the absence of war but involves the presence of stable, equitable social structures and institutions. It is supported by efforts to address underlying causes of conflict, promote social justice, and foster cooperation and understanding among groups. Peace-building often requires addressing inequalities, improving communication, and developing inclusive policies. Overall, the sociological perspective emphasizes that both war and peace are shaped by complex social dynamics and require comprehensive approaches to address their root causes and sustain long-term stability. 21. Discuss political activism on the Internet—what is cyberactivism? Answer: Political activism on the Internet, or cyberactivism, involves using digital tools and platforms to promote political causes, influence public opinion, and mobilize action. Cyberactivism encompasses a range of activities, including: • Online Campaigns: Leveraging social media, blogs, and websites to raise awareness, gather support, and advocate for political or social issues. • Petitions and Advocacy: Creating and promoting online petitions to pressure policymakers or organizations. • Digital Protests: Organizing virtual demonstrations or boycotts to challenge policies or practices. Cyberactivism allows for rapid dissemination of information and broad reach, enabling activists to engage a global audience and coordinate efforts more efficiently. It has become a powerful tool for grassroots movements and social change. 22. What is terrorism and what role do the media play in terrorism? Answer: Terrorism is the use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, to achieve political, ideological, or religious goals. It aims to create fear, disrupt societies, and coerce governments into taking specific actions or making concessions. Role of the Media: The media play a significant role in terrorism by: • Amplifying Impact: Coverage of terrorist acts can spread fear and amplify the psychological impact on the public. • Shaping Perceptions: Media portrayals can influence how terrorism is understood and perceived, often shaping public opinion and policy responses. • Providing a Platform: Terrorists use media to broadcast their messages and propaganda, seeking to recruit followers and legitimize their actions. Overall, while media coverage can inform the public, it also has the potential to inadvertently support the goals of terrorists by magnifying their actions and messages. 23. Why is campaign financing a social policy issue? Answer: Campaign financing is a social policy issue because it directly impacts the fairness and integrity of the democratic process. Key concerns include: • Influence and Access: Large contributions from wealthy individuals or organizations can give them disproportionate influence over candidates and policies, potentially leading to unequal representation. • Transparency: The sources and amounts of campaign donations can affect public trust in political institutions and the perceived legitimacy of elections. • Policy Outcomes: Campaign financing can shape the priorities and actions of elected officials, potentially skewing policy decisions in favor of major donors rather than the broader public interest. Addressing campaign financing is crucial for ensuring that democratic processes remain fair, transparent, and representative of all citizens. 24. What were the provisions of the Federal Campaign Act of 1974 and what are the loopholes in this act? Answer: Provisions of the Federal Campaign Act of 1974: • Contribution Limits: Set limits on individual contributions to federal candidates and political parties to prevent excessive influence by wealthy donors. • Disclosure Requirements: Mandated detailed reporting of campaign contributions and expenditures to increase transparency. • Creation of the FEC: Established the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to oversee and enforce campaign finance laws. Loopholes in the Act: • Soft Money: Allowed unrestricted donations to political parties for "party-building" activities, which could indirectly support candidates. • Independent Expenditures: Enabled individuals and groups to make unlimited independent expenditures for political communications not directly coordinated with candidates. • Loopholes in Reporting: Ambiguities and gaps in reporting requirements sometimes led to less transparency and difficulty in tracking the true sources of campaign funds. These loopholes have often been exploited to circumvent the intended limits and disclosure requirements of the Act. 25. What are the conflicting views of functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists with respect to campaign financing? Answer: Functionalists: Functionalists view campaign financing as a necessary mechanism to ensure that candidates can effectively communicate their platforms and compete in elections. They argue that it helps maintain the stability and functioning of the political system by enabling democratic participation and representation. Conflict Theorists: Conflict theorists see campaign financing as a reflection of broader social inequalities. They argue that it allows wealthy individuals and corporations to exert disproportionate influence over political processes and policy outcomes, perpetuating economic and social disparities. Interactionists: Interactionists focus on the day-to-day interactions and meanings associated with campaign financing. They study how candidates, donors, and voters perceive and react to campaign contributions, emphasizing the role of personal relationships and symbolic interactions in shaping political behavior and decisions. 26. On the national level, major organizations have taken different stances on the issue of campaign financing. What are the positions and what are the organizations? Answer: On the national level, major organizations have varied positions on campaign financing: Support for Reform: • Common Cause: Advocates for campaign finance reform to reduce the influence of money in politics, promote transparency, and increase electoral fairness. • League of Women Voters: Supports reforms to limit the influence of large donations and enhance the integrity of the electoral process. Support for the Status Quo: • U.S. Chamber of Commerce: Opposes restrictive campaign finance regulations, arguing that they limit free speech and the ability of businesses to support political candidates. • National Rifle Association (NRA): Supports the current system, emphasizing the importance of protecting the rights of individuals and organizations to contribute to campaigns. These positions reflect differing views on how campaign financing should be regulated to balance democratic principles and free speech rights. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how multinational corporations moving into undeveloped foreign nations could be considered both beneficial and harmful to a developing nation’s political structure. Answer: Multinational Corporations in Developing Nations: Benefits and Drawbacks Multinational corporations (MNCs) entering undeveloped nations can have both positive and negative effects on the political structure of those developing nations. Benefits: 1. Economic Growth: MNCs often bring capital investment, create jobs, and boost local economies. This economic development can lead to improved infrastructure and services, which may enhance the political stability of a nation. 2. Technology and Expertise: The transfer of technology and expertise from MNCs can improve productivity and help modernize industries, contributing to a more skilled workforce and potentially more informed political decision-making. Drawbacks: 1. Economic Dependency: Developing nations may become overly dependent on MNCs, which can undermine local industries and create economic imbalances. This dependency might also lead to a lack of political autonomy, as MNCs can wield significant influence over national policies. 2. Political Corruption: The presence of MNCs can sometimes exacerbate corruption, as these corporations might use their economic power to influence local politics and gain favorable treatment. This can weaken democratic processes and lead to governance issues. In summary, while MNCs can offer significant economic and technological benefits to developing nations, they also pose risks that could undermine political stability and autonomy. Balancing these factors is crucial for fostering sustainable development. 2. Define the three types of authority as developed by Max Weber. Which type of authority do you think would be the most efficient form of power? Give examples to support your answer. Answer: Max Weber’s Three Types of Authority Max Weber identified three types of authority, each with distinct characteristics: 1. Traditional Authority: This type of authority is based on established customs and long-standing practices. Leaders in this system gain power because of their adherence to tradition and the respect for inherited positions. For example, monarchies or tribal chieftains often exemplify traditional authority. 2. Charismatic Authority: Charismatic authority is derived from the personal charm and leadership qualities of an individual who inspires devotion and loyalty among followers. This type of authority is often seen in revolutionary leaders or religious figures, such as Martin Luther King Jr. or Mahatma Gandhi, whose personal qualities drive their authority. 3. Legal-Rational Authority: This authority is grounded in formal rules, laws, and procedures. It is institutionalized and often seen in modern bureaucracies, where power is exercised based on a legal framework and official regulations. Examples include elected officials and bureaucratic organizations. Most Efficient Form of Power Legal-rational authority is often considered the most efficient form of power due to its foundation in structured rules and procedures. This type of authority provides a clear, consistent, and predictable framework for governance and decision-making, which can lead to more effective administration and fewer personal biases. Examples: Modern democratic governments and large corporations typically operate under legal-rational authority, utilizing established laws and regulations to ensure fair and systematic management. This structure helps maintain stability and accountability, which contributes to its efficiency compared to the more variable and personal-based traditional and charismatic forms of authority. 3. Discuss why men dominate political offices when women are often the greatest voting majority. Why would women seemingly not vote for their own kind? Answer: Gender Disparities in Political Representation Despite women often being the majority of voters, men continue to dominate political offices due to several factors: 1. Historical Barriers: Historically, women have faced significant barriers to entering politics, including social norms and institutional biases that favor men. These barriers have contributed to a gender imbalance in political representation. 2. Representation and Perception: Women may not always vote for female candidates due to a lack of perceived competence or alignment with their policy preferences. Additionally, political parties often nominate male candidates for high-profile positions, reinforcing the male dominance in politics. 3. Political Infrastructure: Men typically have more established networks and access to resources necessary for political campaigns. This disparity in resources and support can make it more challenging for women to compete effectively in elections. 4. Voter Behavior: Voter decisions are influenced by various factors beyond gender, such as party affiliation, candidate qualifications, and policy positions. Women voters may prioritize these factors over gender when casting their votes. In summary, while women represent a significant voting majority, structural barriers, historical biases, and varied voter priorities contribute to the continued male dominance in political offices. Addressing these issues requires efforts to improve female representation and support in the political arena. 4. Discuss how current United States foreign policy toward Iraq and foreign terrorism could be considered evidence supporting the elite model of power structure. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: United States Foreign Policy and the Elite Model of Power Structure The elite model of power structure suggests that a small, cohesive group of elites holds significant control over decision-making processes in a society. Current U.S. foreign policy towards Iraq and foreign terrorism can be viewed through this lens: 1. Decision-Making Concentration: U.S. foreign policy, especially regarding Iraq and terrorism, has often been crafted and implemented by a relatively small group of political, military, and economic elites. For instance, key decisions about the invasion of Iraq in 2003 were made by top officials in the Bush administration, such as President George W. Bush, Vice President Dick Cheney, and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld. These decisions were influenced by elite interests and strategic considerations rather than broad public opinion. 2. Influence of Military and Defense Industries: The significant role of defense contractors and military leaders in shaping U.S. foreign policy illustrates elite influence. Companies like Halliburton and Lockheed Martin have had substantial contracts related to Iraq and counter-terrorism efforts, highlighting how economic elites can impact policy decisions to serve their interests. 3. Policy Continuity: Despite changes in administration, U.S. foreign policy towards Iraq and terrorism has shown continuity, reflecting the influence of entrenched elites who prioritize certain strategic goals over fluctuating public opinion. For example, the focus on combating terrorism continued across different presidential administrations, driven by elite consensus on national security priorities. These examples illustrate how U.S. foreign policy, particularly towards Iraq and terrorism, can be seen as evidence supporting the elite model of power structure, where a small, powerful group exerts significant control over major policy decisions. 5. Discuss why certain political candidates may refuse to acknowledge that the war with Iraq was based on issues of wealth. Discuss the significance that developing a political false consciousness regarding patriotism might have on public opinion. Answer: Refusal to Acknowledge Wealth Issues in the Iraq War and Political False Consciousness Refusal to Acknowledge Wealth Issues: Certain political candidates may avoid acknowledging that the war with Iraq was influenced by issues of wealth due to: 1. Political Strategy: Admitting that economic interests, such as securing oil resources or benefiting defense contractors, influenced the war could undermine their or their party's credibility and political standing. It may also shift focus away from more acceptable justifications like national security or democracy promotion. 2. Nationalism and Patriotism: Acknowledging economic motives could be seen as unpatriotic or as undermining the perceived moral righteousness of the war. Candidates may prefer to emphasize themes of national duty and heroism to maintain support and solidarity. Significance of Political False Consciousness: Developing a political false consciousness regarding patriotism can: 1. Mask Economic Interests: By framing the war as a noble effort rather than an economically motivated one, it diverts public scrutiny away from the economic benefits received by certain elites or industries. 2. Influence Public Opinion: When patriotism is emphasized, it can foster a unifying sense of purpose among the public, which may override critical examination of the war's true motivations. This can lead to increased support for the war and the political establishment, even if economic interests play a significant role. In summary, refusing to acknowledge the economic dimensions of the Iraq war helps maintain political support by focusing on patriotic narratives, while political false consciousness can shape public opinion by masking the economic motives behind military actions. TOPICS AND SOURCES FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Political Activism among Hispanics: What is the nature of political activity among the many Hispanic groups in the United States? See F. Chris Garcia, Angelo Falcon, and Rodolfo de la Garza, “Ethnicity and Politics: Evidence From the Latino National Political Survey,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18 (May 1996): 91–103. There are several other relevant articles in the same issue. 2. Japanese Power Elite: See Albrecht Rothacher. The Japanese Power Elite. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION Global Conflict (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2009, 23 minutes). This program introduces the concepts of energy security, antiterrorism, and managing change at the global level. It also identifies the roots of violent conflict by way of specific examples. In Time of War: Striking the Balance Between Freedom and Security (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2003, 22m). This ABC News video examines expanding of FBI powers and intrusion on personal liberties in America’s development of strategies to halt terrorism. Chris Fury interviews several legal experts and scholars that weigh in on finding an acceptable balance. Is Compromising Civil Rights Justified in the War on Terrorism (Insight Media, 2002, 25m). This video examines methods used by governments to curb terrorism. It blends political issues with those of civil liberties in exploring the controversy between individual rights versus government powers. Moyers on America: Capitol Crimes (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2006, 117m). This film might be paired with your discussion of power elite models. The Power Game (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1996, 47m). This program offers a fascinating look at the complex relationships between women and institutional power. Drawing on footage from three continents, the program examines what female power means to those who exercise it and to those who are affected by it. Jackie Kennedy, Imelda Marcos, and Hillary Clinton are discussed as women who have achieved power by association through their husbands, and Geraldine Ferraro shares her reflections on women in political power. ADDITIONAL READINGS Colignon, Richard A., and Chikako Usui. 2003. Amakudari: The Hidden Fabric of Japan’s Economy. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, Cornell University Press. This text analyses the power elite that undergirds the Japanese economy. Doppelt, Jack C., and Ellen Shearer. 1999. Nonvoters: America’s No-Shows. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Two professors of journalism profile the characteristics of the nearly 100 million U.S. citizens who fail to vote in presidential elections. Enloe, Cynthia. 1990. Bananas, Beaches, and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics. Berkeley: University of California Press. Enloe studied the lives of women on military bases and of diplomatic wives as part of her examination of the male-dominated agenda of international politics. Kurtz, Lester R., ed. 1999. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. This three-volume set includes interdisciplinary articles on topics like conflict theory, colonialism, mass media, indigenous peoples, and military culture. Redish, Martin H. 2001. Money Talks: Speech, Economic Power, and the Values of Democracy. New York: New York University Press. A professor of law looks at campaign financing, government funding of the arts, and commercial advertising, arguing against government restrictions. Zweigenhaft, Richard L. and G. William Domhoff. 1998. Diversity in the Power Elite. New Haven: Yale University Press. A psychologist and a sociologist team up to consider why, although women and minorities have made inroads, the overwhelming majority of the elite of the nation continues to be White and male. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of government are the American Political Science Review (founded in 1906), Congressional Digest (1921), Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report (1943), Insurgent Sociologist (1969), Politics and Society (1973), Social Policy (1970), and Terrorism (1988). CHAPTER 18 THE ECONOMY AND WORK ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What are the features of a capitalistic economic system? Answer: A capitalistic economic system is characterized by the following features: 1. Private Ownership: Individuals or businesses own and control property and resources rather than the state. 2. Market Economy: Economic decisions and the pricing of goods and services are guided by the interactions of citizens and businesses in the marketplace. 3. Profit Motive: The primary goal of businesses is to generate profit, which drives innovation and efficiency. 4. Competition: Multiple businesses vie for consumer patronage, leading to better quality products and services. 5. Limited Government Intervention: The government’s role is minimal in economic activities, focusing instead on maintaining a legal framework and enforcing property rights. 6. Wage Labor: Individuals sell their labor in exchange for wages, which they then use to purchase goods and services. 7. Capital Accumulation: Individuals and businesses accumulate capital to reinvest in production and expansion, contributing to economic growth. 2. How do socialistic economic systems differ from capitalistic systems? Answer: Socialistic economic systems differ from capitalistic systems in several key ways: 1. Public Ownership: In socialism, the means of production and resources are owned and controlled by the state or the community, rather than by private individuals. 2. Central Planning: Economic decisions, including production and distribution, are often made by central authorities or government agencies, aiming to meet the needs of the entire population. 3. Redistribution of Wealth: Socialistic systems emphasize reducing income inequality through wealth redistribution and providing social welfare programs. 4. Profit Motive: Unlike capitalism, socialism de-emphasizes profit as the primary goal and focuses on fulfilling social needs and ensuring equitable access to resources. 5. Limited Competition: There is typically less emphasis on competition, with more focus on cooperation and meeting communal needs. 6. Economic Equality: Socialism aims to achieve a more equal distribution of wealth and opportunities among citizens, often through progressive taxation and social services. 3. As an ideal type, what form does communism take? Answer: As an ideal type, communism takes the following form: 1. Classless Society: Communism aims to eliminate class distinctions by creating a society where all individuals have equal access to resources and opportunities. 2. Common Ownership: The means of production, resources, and property are collectively owned and controlled by the community, without private ownership. 3. Statelessness: In its ideal form, communism envisions a stateless society where traditional government structures are unnecessary, as communal decision-making and cooperation replace formal institutions. 4. Distribution Based on Needs: Resources and goods are distributed according to individual needs rather than market value or profit, ensuring that everyone’s basic needs are met. 5. Absence of Market Exchange: The traditional market system and wage labor are abolished, with production and distribution organized based on communal planning and direct allocation. 4. What are the major differences among capitalism, socialism, and communism? Answer: The major differences among capitalism, socialism, and communism are as follows: 1. Ownership of Resources: • Capitalism: Private ownership of property and resources. • Socialism: Public or state ownership of the means of production. • Communism: Collective ownership by the community, with the absence of private property. 2. Economic Decision-Making: • Capitalism: Market-driven decisions based on supply and demand with minimal government intervention. • Socialism: Centralized planning and government control to manage economic activities and resource distribution. • Communism: Decisions are made collectively with the goal of meeting communal needs, often without traditional government structures. 3. Distribution of Wealth: • Capitalism: Wealth is distributed based on market success and individual achievement, leading to income inequality. • Socialism: Wealth is redistributed to reduce inequality and provide social welfare. • Communism: Wealth is distributed according to need, aiming for complete equality and the elimination of class distinctions. 4. Role of the State: • Capitalism: Limited government role in the economy, focusing on enforcing laws and property rights. • Socialism: Significant government involvement in economic planning and regulation. • Communism: Ideally, no formal government; communal decision-making replaces state functions. 5. What is the informal economy? Answer: The informal economy refers to economic activities that occur outside of formal, regulated systems and are not monitored by the government. Key characteristics include: 1. Unregistered: Businesses and workers are not officially registered or regulated. 2. Lack of Formal Contracts: Transactions often occur without formal contracts or legal documentation. 3. Tax Evasion: Activities typically avoid taxation and do not contribute to official economic statistics. 4. Flexible Work: Employment is often informal, including casual, freelance, or temporary work, with less job security and benefits. 5. Local Transactions: Often involves local markets and services that cater to immediate community needs. 6. Describe the kinds of activities that typically take place in the informal economy. Answer: In the informal economy, typical activities include: 1. Street Vending: Selling goods or services directly on the streets or at informal markets without official permits. 2. Casual Labor: Jobs such as domestic work, gardening, or construction where employees are hired without formal contracts. 3. Freelance Work: Independent work such as freelance writing, graphic design, or tutoring conducted outside of formal employment arrangements. 4. Unregistered Small Businesses: Small-scale enterprises like local repair shops or food stalls that operate without official registration. 5. Underground Services: Activities like illegal trades, unlicensed financial services, or informal loan sharking. 6. Barter and Trade: Exchanging goods or services directly without using money or official financial systems. 7. What is the role of women in the economy of Nepal? Answer: In the economy of Nepal, women play several crucial roles: 1. Agricultural Labor: Women are heavily involved in subsistence farming, contributing significantly to agricultural production. 2. Family Businesses: They often participate in or manage small family-run enterprises and local businesses. 3. Informal Sector: Many women work in the informal economy, including roles in street vending, domestic work, and seasonal labor. 4. Remittances: Women in rural areas contribute to the economy through remittances sent by family members working abroad. 5. Social and Community Roles: Women engage in community and social activities that support local economies and enhance social welfare. Despite their contributions, women often face challenges such as limited access to resources, education, and decision-making power. 8. How has China’s economy changed during the past 50 years? Answer: Over the past 50 years, China's economy has undergone significant changes: 1. Economic Reform: Transitioned from a centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented one starting in the late 1970s with Deng Xiaoping's reforms. 2. Rapid Growth: Experienced unprecedented economic growth, becoming the world's second-largest economy. 3. Industrialization: Shifted from an agrarian economy to a major global manufacturing hub, with substantial investment in infrastructure and industrial production. 4. Global Integration: Increased integration into the global economy, joining the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 and expanding international trade and investment. 5. Urbanization: Significant urbanization, with millions moving from rural areas to cities, fueling economic expansion and creating new consumer markets. 6. Technological Advancement: Developed a strong technological sector, focusing on innovation and becoming a leader in areas such as e-commerce and high-tech industries. 9. For what reasons has China’s socialist government increasingly adopted aspects of a market economy? Answer: China’s socialist government has increasingly adopted aspects of a market economy for several reasons: 1. Economic Efficiency: Market mechanisms are seen as more efficient in allocating resources and boosting productivity compared to central planning. 2. Growth and Development: Introducing market elements has driven rapid economic growth, attracting foreign investment and fostering industrialization. 3. Global Integration: Adopting market reforms has facilitated China’s integration into the global economy, enhancing trade and economic relations with other countries. 4. Innovation and Competitiveness: Market-oriented policies have spurred innovation and competition, improving the overall competitiveness of Chinese industries. 5. Living Standards: Reforms have contributed to rising living standards and increased consumer choice by expanding the range of goods and services available. 10. What social groups have benefited from China’s shift to a market economy? Answer: Several social groups have benefited from China’s shift to a market economy: 1. Urban Middle Class: Gained improved living standards, higher incomes, and access to a wider range of consumer goods and services. 2. Entrepreneurs and Business Owners: Benefited from increased opportunities to start and expand businesses in a more market-driven environment. 3. Foreign Investors: Enjoyed profitable ventures and access to China's large and growing market. 4. Skilled Workers: Experienced higher wages and better job opportunities in expanding industries and new economic sectors. 5. Rural Migrants: Found better employment prospects in cities, contributing to their increased income and improved quality of life. 11. Explain alienation from the perspectives of Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx. Answer: Émile Durkheim: • Alienation: Durkheim focused on "anomie," a form of alienation arising from a breakdown in social norms and values. He believed that industrialization and modernization led to weakened social cohesion and a sense of normlessness, where individuals felt disconnected from societal expectations and community. Karl Marx: • Alienation: Marx viewed alienation as a direct result of capitalism. He argued that workers become alienated from the products of their labor, the labor process, their own essence as creative beings, and from other people. In a capitalist system, workers are reduced to mere commodities and are estranged from their own human potential and from each other due to the exploitative nature of wage labor. 12. What is alienation and what is Karl Marx’s solution to this problem? Answer: Alienation, according to Karl Marx, refers to the estrangement of workers from the products of their labor, the process of work, their own humanity, and other workers. This occurs because workers have little control over their work and are reduced to mere cogs in the machinery of capitalism. Marx's solution to alienation is to overthrow the capitalist system and replace it with a socialist system in which the means of production are collectively owned. In this system, workers would have control over their work and its outcomes, leading to a more fulfilling and meaningful work experience. 13. What are some of the factors that help to improve job satisfaction? Answer: Factors that can improve job satisfaction include: • Work Environment: A positive, supportive, and safe work environment. • Recognition and Rewards: Regular recognition and fair rewards for contributions and achievements. • Work-Life Balance: Flexibility in work hours and opportunities for personal time. • Career Development: Opportunities for professional growth and advancement. • Job Autonomy: Having control over one's work and the ability to make decisions. • Effective Communication: Open and transparent communication between employees and management. • Good Relationships: Positive interactions with colleagues and supervisors. 14. How do structural changes in the economy impact worker satisfaction? Answer: Structural changes in the economy, such as shifts from manufacturing to service industries or the rise of gig and freelance work, can significantly impact worker satisfaction. These changes can lead to job insecurity, altered job roles, and variations in compensation and benefits. For instance, the decline in manufacturing jobs often results in a loss of long-term employment security and benefits, while the rise of gig work may offer flexibility but with less job stability and fewer benefits. Conversely, new sectors may create opportunities for more meaningful work and career growth, potentially enhancing job satisfaction. 15. Discuss the changing nature of job satisfaction in Japan. Answer: In Japan, job satisfaction has been evolving due to several factors. Traditionally, Japanese companies emphasized lifetime employment and strong loyalty between employers and employees, contributing to high job satisfaction. However, economic stagnation, globalization, and changes in labor market practices have led to job insecurity, increased part-time and contract work, and shifts in work culture. Younger generations are prioritizing work-life balance and career flexibility over traditional job security, leading to changing expectations and experiences of job satisfaction. 16. Describe the concept of microfinancing, and the situations where it might be useful. Answer: Microfinancing refers to providing small loans and financial services to individuals or small businesses in developing areas who do not have access to traditional banking services. It aims to support entrepreneurship and alleviate poverty by enabling people to start or expand small-scale businesses. Microfinancing is particularly useful in situations where individuals lack collateral or formal credit history, such as in low-income communities or developing countries, helping them to build economic stability and improve their livelihoods. 17. Discuss the diversification of the workforce in the United States and the interest that interactionists have in this change. Answer: The diversification of the workforce in the United States refers to the increasing inclusion of various demographic groups, including different races, genders, ages, and ethnic backgrounds, in the labor market. Interactionists are interested in this change as it impacts workplace dynamics and interactions. They study how diverse backgrounds influence communication, teamwork, and social relations at work, and how diversity affects individuals' identities and roles within organizations. 18. To what does deindustrialization refer? Answer: Deindustrialization refers to the process of decline in industrial activity, particularly in manufacturing, within a region or economy. It involves the reduction or closure of factories and a shift toward service-oriented industries and technology. This often results in job losses and economic changes as communities transition from an industrial base to other forms of economic activity. 19. What are the social costs of deindustrialization and downsizing? Answer: The social costs of deindustrialization and downsizing include increased unemployment, loss of job security, and economic instability for affected workers and communities. It can lead to a decline in living standards, reduced social cohesion, and increased poverty rates. Additionally, the loss of industrial jobs can result in skills mismatches and difficulties in finding new employment opportunities, contributing to long-term economic and social challenges. 20. What is meant by affirmative action? Answer: Affirmative action refers to policies and practices designed to promote equal opportunities for individuals from historically marginalized or underrepresented groups. It aims to address past discrimination and create a more equitable environment in areas such as employment, education, and contracting by actively seeking to include and support these groups. 21. How have courts ruled on affirmative action? Answer: Courts have issued various rulings on affirmative action, generally upholding its use as a means to promote diversity and address inequality, but with certain limitations. The rulings often emphasize that affirmative action must be implemented in a way that is narrowly tailored to achieve its objectives and should not lead to reverse discrimination. Specific cases, such as Grutter v. Bollinger and Fisher v. University of Texas, have affirmed that race can be considered as one factor among many in admissions and employment decisions, but with a focus on ensuring fairness and avoiding quotas. 22. What is the conflict view of affirmative action? Answer: The conflict view of affirmative action argues that these policies create new forms of inequality and tension by favoring certain groups over others. Conflict theorists believe that affirmative action can lead to resentment and division among different social groups, as it is seen as giving preferential treatment based on race or gender rather than merit. They argue that such policies may perpetuate class and racial divisions rather than resolve underlying structural inequalities. 23. What is the argument between the supporters and the opponents of affirmative action? Answer: Supporters of affirmative action argue that it is necessary to address historical and systemic discrimination, promote diversity, and create equal opportunities for marginalized groups. They believe that affirmative action helps to level the playing field and correct imbalances. Opponents, however, argue that affirmative action can lead to reverse discrimination, undermine meritocracy, and create new forms of inequality. They contend that it may unfairly disadvantage individuals who are not part of the targeted groups and could perpetuate divisions rather than solve them. 24. What is off-shoring, and why is it a growing trend? Answer: Off-shoring refers to the practice of relocating business processes, such as manufacturing or services, to other countries to take advantage of lower labor costs, tax benefits, and other economic incentives. It is a growing trend because it allows companies to reduce production costs, increase efficiency, and remain competitive in the global market. Technological advances and globalization have further facilitated off-shoring by improving communication and logistics. 25. Discuss the impact of global off-shoring from both the functionalist and conflict perspectives. Answer: From a functionalist perspective, global off-shoring can be seen as a positive development that promotes economic efficiency and growth. It allows companies to allocate resources more effectively, create new markets, and provide consumers with lower-cost goods and services. This process can lead to overall economic development and increased global interdependence. From a conflict perspective, off-shoring can exacerbate economic inequalities and contribute to job losses in higher-cost countries. It may lead to exploitation of workers in lower-cost countries, where labor standards and wages can be significantly lower. Conflict theorists argue that off-shoring reinforces global economic disparities and can lead to a race to the bottom in terms of working conditions and wages. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how multinational corporations moving into undeveloped foreign nations could be considered both beneficial and harmful to a developing nation’s economy. Answer: 1. Multinational Corporations in Developing Nations: Beneficial: • Investment and Infrastructure: Multinational corporations (MNCs) often bring significant capital investment and infrastructure development to undeveloped nations, potentially boosting economic growth. • Employment Opportunities: They can create jobs, thereby reducing unemployment rates and providing income to local populations. • Skill Transfer and Technology: MNCs can transfer skills and advanced technologies, enhancing the local workforce's capabilities and productivity. Harmful: • Exploitation of Labor: MNCs may exploit cheap labor, providing low wages and poor working conditions, which can perpetuate poverty. • Environmental Degradation: These corporations might not adhere to stringent environmental regulations, leading to pollution and resource depletion. • Cultural Erosion: MNCs can lead to cultural homogenization, undermining local traditions and practices. 2. Discuss what effects deindustrialization and downsizing have had on the economy. How have they affected communities and families? Answer: • Economic Impact: Deindustrialization leads to the decline of manufacturing jobs, shifting the economy towards service-oriented industries. This can result in economic instability and increased income inequality. • Community Impact: Communities that relied on manufacturing jobs often suffer from increased unemployment, reduced tax revenues, and deteriorating public services. • Family Impact: Downsizing can lead to financial stress, loss of health benefits, and increased familial tensions as individuals struggle to find new employment opportunities. 3. Analyze the transitioning of China from a state-owned economy to a capitalistic one, using the conflict perspective. Answer: • Economic Disparities: The shift has resulted in significant economic growth, but also widened the gap between the rich and the poor, exacerbating social inequalities. • Power Dynamics: The conflict perspective highlights the struggle between different social classes, where the elite benefit disproportionately from capitalist reforms while the working class faces exploitation and reduced job security. • Social Unrest: Increased inequality and perceived injustices can lead to social unrest and conflict, as marginalized groups demand more equitable distribution of wealth and resources. 4. Discuss how current United States foreign policy toward Iraq could be considered capitalistic exploitation by some observers. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: • Resource Control: Some observers argue that U.S. involvement in Iraq is driven by the desire to control oil resources, prioritizing economic gains over the well-being of the Iraqi population. • Economic Dependency: Policies that favor U.S. corporations can create economic dependency, where Iraq’s economy becomes reliant on foreign investment and expertise, undermining local industries. • Reconstruction Contracts: The awarding of lucrative reconstruction contracts to U.S. companies is seen as a form of economic exploitation, benefiting American businesses at the expense of Iraqi self-sufficiency. 5. Discuss the possible impact of the Internet on the U.S. economy. Answer: • E-commerce Growth: The Internet has revolutionized retail through e-commerce, allowing businesses to reach a global market and consumers to shop conveniently from home. • Job Creation and Transformation: It has created new job opportunities in tech industries while transforming traditional roles, requiring a more skilled and adaptable workforce. • Productivity and Innovation: Increased access to information and communication technologies has boosted productivity and spurred innovation across various sectors, driving economic growth. • Digital Divide: However, the digital divide remains a challenge, as unequal access to the Internet can exacerbate existing social and economic inequalities. TOPICS AND SOURCES FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Afrocentric View of Marxism: See Nah Dove, “An African-Centered Critique of Marx’s Logic,” Western Journal of Black Studies 19 (December 1995): 260–273. 2. China’s Changing Economy: See Victor Nee, “The Emergence of a Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China,” American Journal of Sociology 101 (January 1996): 908–949. 3. Economic Transfer from the U.S.S.R. to Russia: Michael Burawoy and Pavel Krotov, “The Soviet Transition from Socialism to Capitalism,” American Sociological Review 57 (February 1992): 16–38. 4. Workplace Democracy and Employee Involvement: See Vicki Smith, “Employee Involvement, Involved Employees: Participative Work Arrangements in a White-Collar Service Occupation,” Social Problems 43 (May 1996): 166–179. 5. The New American Worker: A series of articles in the March 5, 2000, edition of the New York Times Magazine that focuses on “The liberated, exploited, pampered, frazzled, uneasy, new American worker.” Articles include: “The Artist in the Gray Flannel Pajamas,” “The Idled Workaholic,” “Who Needs a Diploma,” “Come Back, Company Man,” and other intriguing and well-written articles. 6. Japanese Organizations Imported to the United States: See Richard Florida and Martin Kenney, “Transplanted Organizations: The Transfer of Japanese Industrial Organizations to the U.S.,” American Sociological Review 56 (June 1991): 381–398. 7. Economy and Society: To learn more about sociological research that addresses the connection between society and the economy, start with this recent article: Brian Uzzi and Ryon Lancaster, “Embeddedness and Price Formation in the Corporate Law Market,” American Sociological Review 69 (June 2004): 319-344. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION Borderless: The Lives of Undocumented Workers (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2006, 27m). Looks at undocumented workers both in the U.S. and in Canada. It could be paired nicely with a discussion of the Social Policy section in this chapter. Diverted to Delhi (Filmakers Library 2003, 55m). This film looks at a new trend in the global economy: the movement of customer service jobs to foreign countries—in this case, India. The Global Banquet: Politics of Food (Insight Media, 2001 2 x 25m). These videos draw comparisons between the globalization of corporate farming and exploitation of developing nations. Also examined are the threats of global food security. Jobs: Not What They Used to Be—The New Face of Work in America (McGraw-Hill, 1996, 57m). This program examines some fundamental and perhaps transforming changes occurring with jobs and work in America. As American business is going through reorganization and downsizing, many questions emerge. Where will the jobs be? Who will be working? What will the workplace be like? What skills will be needed? Program host and award-winning journalist Hodding Carter, along with economic experts Richard Florida and Jeremy Rifkin, provides the commentary as the program takes a look at companies such as Johnson Controls, Konica, BMW, Home Depot, and IDEO—all of which stress teamwork, high technology, and inventive ways of organizing their businesses. Legacy of Shame: Migrant Labor, an American Institution (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2003, 48m). This CBS News video examines the exploitation of America’s invisible laborers. Topics include health risks, uneven legal enforcement, and the advocating of equitable employment issues. LinkTV: The Outsourcing Report (2006) An original online TV series that examines the underlying policies that encourage outsourcing, the politics behind the job giveaways, and profiles the activists, business and political efforts to keep high-skilled employment in the U.S. Episodes are 10- to 15-minutes long and cover topics such as “The Trouble With Outsourcing,” “The Upside of Outsourcing?”, and “Sweatshop Warriors”: www.linktv.org/outsourcing. Making Diversity Work (1993, 32m). This program examines diversity in the workplace, encouraging viewers to reflect upon their own beliefs about other people. It presents three simple guidelines to help viewers value diversity as they strive to reach individual, group, and organizational goals. Ropa Americana (Filmakers Library, 2003, 30m). What happens to a piece of clothing once it is donated to a charity? This film follows the surprisingly long and complex journey of a donated shirt. Sweating for a T Shirt (Global Exchange, 1998, 23 minutes). Incoming UCLA freshman Arlen Benjamin notices that her college t-shirt was made in Honduras. Asking the question “Who made this t-shirt?” sends her on a journey through Honduras’ sweatshop industry. She explores what students can do to help eliminate sweatshops. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bell, Ella Edmondson, and Stella M. Nkomo. 2001. Our Separate Ways: Black and White Women and the Struggle for Professional Identity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. A sociological analysis of the different ways in which African-American and white women handle corporate pressure. Fraser, Jill Andreskey. 2001. White-Collar Sweatshop. New York: W.W. Norton. An explanation of why, amidst the tremendous corporate profits of the 1990s, American workers’ real incomes stagnated and their workweek grew longer. Manning, Marable. 2000. Capitalism Underdeveloped Black America, updated ed. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. A critical look at capitalism in the United States, with special emphasis on the role of the African-American elite. Meiksins, Peter, and Peter Whalley. 2002. Putting Work in Its Place: A Quiet Revolution. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. The authors interview people who have made conscious decisions to downscale their work obligations. Moss, Phillip, and Chris Tilly. 2001. Stories Employers Tell: Race, Skill, and Hiring in America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. A survey of employers in four cities—Atlanta, Boston, Detroit, and Los Angeles—illustrates the role of discrimination in jobs requiring few skills. Philipson, Ilene. 2002. Married to the Job: Why We Live to Work and What We Can Do About It. New York: The Free Press. Philipson studies the common phenomenon in which the working lives of Americans eclipse their personal lives. Tannock, Stuart. 2001. Youth at Work: The Unionized Fast Food and Grocery Workplace. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. A study of young North Americans who work in low-wage positions and the impact of the unionization of their jobs in Canada. JOURNALS Among the journals focusing on the economy are Industrial and Labor Relations Review (founded in 1947), Insurgent Sociologist (1969), Journal of Consumer Culture (2001), Work and Occupations (1974), and Work, Employment and Society (1987). Solution Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669
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