CH-16 Psychological and Biological Treatments – Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding : Exam Guide

Chapter 16: Psychological and Biological Treatments Multiple Choice Questions 1. The kind of therapy that involves talking things out with a professional is called A. interpersonal therapy. B. physical therapy. C. biomedical therapy. D. psychotherapy. Answer: D 2. Psychotherapy is an intervention designed to help people deal with and manage A. interpersonal problems. B. emotional problems. C. behavioural problems. D. all of the above. Answer: D 3. What predicts whether a particular ethnic group has a positive attitude toward psychotherapy and would be more likely to seek help? A. Higher intelligence B. Prior positive therapy experiences C. Culturally sensitive therapists D. Perceived access Answer: D 4. Females benefit _______________ males when receiving psychotherapy for their emotional or mental difficulties. A. equally as much as B. more than C. less than D. substantially more than Answer: A 5. Which of the following persons is most likely to seek help for his or her mental health difficulty? A. Marie, a 45-year-old Caucasian female B. Byron, a recently naturalized U.S. citizen from South Africa C. Julia, who entered the United States illegally from Venezuela D. Ralph, a 65-year-old postal worker Answer: A 6. One study showed that therapists used to prefer treating particular clients, namely under the category of YAVIS. What does the “I” stand for in this model? A. Intelligent B. Independent C. Irate D. Institutionalized Answer: A 7. One study showed that therapists used to prefer treating particular clients, namely under the category of YAVIS. What does the “S” stand for in this model? A. Successful B. Sexy C. Sensationalistic D. Serious Answer: A 8. One study showed that therapists used to prefer treating particular clients, namely under the category of YAVIS. What does the “V” stand for in this model? A. Verbal B. Visual C. Venerable D. Visceral Answer: A 9. One study showed that therapists used to prefer treating particular clients, namely under the category of YAVIS. What does the “A” stand for in this model? A. Attractive B. Affluent C. Agreeable D. Amicable Answer: A 10. Which of the following professionals is trained as a medical doctor and may be found working in either private practice or in a hospital setting? A. Psychiatrist B. Clinical social worker C. Mental health counsellor D. Clinical psychologist Answer: A 11. Which of the following professionals works at university clinics and mental health centres; they often treat people with less severe psychological problems. A. Counselling psychologist B. Clinical social worker C. Mental health counsellor D. Clinical psychologist Answer: A 12. Which of the following professionals works in hospitals, community health centres, primary care facilities, and outpatient mental health clinics; they often have an associate’s degree, and can manage medications? A. Psychiatric nurse B. Clinical social worker C. Mental health counsellor D. Clinical psychologist Answer: A 13. _______________ are persons who work in the helping field and provide mental health services, but have no formal professional training. A. School psychologists B. Paraprofessionals C. Mental health counsellors D. Mental health counselors Answer: B 14. Which of the following professionals offers counselling and support in spiritual context (mainly through wellness programs) to groups, families, and couples? A. Pastoral counsellor B. Clinical social worker C. Mental health counsellor D. Clinical psychologist Answer: A 15. When it comes to the success of psychotherapy, the choice of _______________ may often matter more than the choice of _______________. A. therapy; therapist B. treatment; duration C. therapist; therapy D. duration; treatment Answer: C 16. A therapist is more likely to be effective when they have all of the following characteristics except A. they are warm and direct. B. they establish a positive working relationship with patients. C. they contradict patients to challenge their thought patterns. D. they match their approach to the needs of the patient. Answer: C 17. Which of the following statements indicates that a therapist should be in a good position to help you? A. My therapist encourages me to confront challenges and solve problems. B. My therapist has a “one size fits all” approach to all problems. C. My therapist tells me exactly what to do, and often shares personal anecdotes. D. My therapist does not discuss the scientific support for what he or she is doing. Answer: A 18. What is one advantage to consulting a professional, rather than a less experienced therapist? A. They are likely to select treatments with demonstrated scientific effectiveness. B. They are likely to be more defensive to provide challenges to the client to meet. C. Therapy with professionals is more likely to be effective in treating problems. D. They are more likely to be warm, caring, empathic, and provide learning opportunities. Answer: A 19. The major goal of insight therapies is to give people A. feedback from their biologically controlled responses. B. clearer understanding of their feelings, motivations, and actions. C. basic training in observational learning and practice. D. help in understanding perceptual processes. Answer: B 20. A therapist is interested in helping her client get a clearer understanding and awareness of his motives and actions. This therapist is most likely to be a(n) A. behavioural therapist. B. insight therapist. C. action therapist. D. cognitive therapist. Answer: B 21. What category of therapy is most concerned with improving a client's awareness of the underlying causes of his or her difficulties? A. Behavioural B. Insight C. Cognitive D. Biological Answer: B 22. Therapies aimed mainly at understanding one’s motives and actions are referred to as A. behavioural. B. insight. C. cognitive. D. biological. Answer: B 23. In what brand of psychotherapy would a clinical psychologist attempt to uncover the underlying unconscious conflicts and impulses that are the cause of one's psychological difficulties? A. Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic B. Humanistic-existential C. Cognitive-behavioural D. Behavioural Answer: A 24. Dr. Shedrika uses a form of therapy that emphasizes revealing his clients’ unconscious conflicts, urges, and desires, which he believes are the cause of his clients’ disordered emotions and behaviour. This therapist is most likely using A. psychoanalytic/psychodynamic therapy. B. humanistic-existential therapy. C. cognitive-behavioural therapy. D. behavioural therapy. Answer: A 25. A client lies on a couch with the therapist sitting out of sight behind her. The therapist gets to know the client’s problems through free association and positive and negative transference. This is an example of _______________ therapy. A. psychoanalytic/psychodynamic B. humanistic-existential C. cognitive-behavioural D. behavioural Answer: A 26. _______________ formed a large part of Freud’s psychoanalytic method. A. Dream interpretation B. Empathy C. Reflection D. Unconditional positive regard Answer: A 27. Which of the following is a key component of Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis? A. Dream interpretation B. Cognitive analysis C. Empathy D. Behavioural analysis Answer: A 28. In Freudian psychoanalysis, what person was responsible for obtaining the insight into the client's psychological problem? A. The therapist B. The client C. A member of the client's family D. The client's closest friend Answer: A 29. Carlita has just come from her first therapy session. To better understand Carlita's generalized anxiety, the therapist asked her to talk about her childhood experiences and interactions with her parents and has asked her to keep a dream journal for the next several weeks. With which orientation is this therapy most consistent? A. Humanistic-existential B. Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic C. Behavioural D. Eclectic Answer: B 30. Which of the following approaches is not used by psychoanalytic therapists? A. Dream analysis B. Phenomenology C. Resistance D. Transference Answer: B 31. Meagan has been undergoing psychoanalysis for a few months. At a session several weeks ago, her therapist confronted her about her underlying need for attention and love that is unfulfilled and suggested this as the reason for her sexual promiscuity. This made her uncomfortable to talk about and she tried to redirect the topic on to other issues in her life. Since that session, she has cancelled three more sessions with her therapist. What process would the therapist say is occurring? A. Transference B. Working through C. Conditions of worth D. Resistance Answer: D 32. Jung is to _______________ as Freud is to _______________. A. collective unconscious; amplification B. individuation; transference C. latent content; prognostic dreams D. resistance; archetypes Answer: B 33. Bart is asked by his psychotherapist to close his eyes. After a few minutes of relaxing, the therapist asks Bart to discuss whatever comes to mind and to continue without censoring any of the ideas or thoughts he experiences. Bart is experiencing the therapeutic technique of A. systematic desensitization. B. active confrontation. C. free association. D. empathy. Answer: C 34. According to Sigmund Freud, when you awaken in the morning and remember a dream, you recall the dream’s A. deep content. B. surface content. C. manifest content. D. latent content. Answer: C 35. According to Freud, the _______________ of the dream refers to the client’s memory of the observable things, people, and events in the dream. A. deep content B. surface content C. manifest content D. latent content Answer: C 36. In interpreting a dream, a psychoanalyst would attempt to discover the dream’s A. deep content. B. surface content. C. manifest content. D. latent content. Answer: D 37. George begins to project his anxieties and unresolved feelings about his mother onto his therapist. This is what Sigmund Freud would have called A. free association. B. transference. C. working through. D. resistance. Answer: B 38. Steve is 21 years old and has never gone on a date. His parents are concerned and take him to see a therapist. The therapist tells Steve to lie down on the couch and relax. The therapist sits behind Steve and asks him to say whatever comes into his head. Steve eventually talks about his fear of women, which leads him to think about his early experiences with women: his mother, her friends, his teachers, and so on. Steve is using A. free association. B. transference. C. working through. D. resistance. Answer: A 39. As Celine begins to reveal more and more of her innermost thoughts and feelings to her therapist, she begins to feel good about him as well as accepted by him. She develops a sense of trust, particularly because he does not criticize her. What process is occurring? A. Free association B. Transference C. Working through D. Resistance Answer: B 40. During free association, a patient may become unwilling to talk about certain topics. What term would a psychoanalyst use to describe this change in the patient’s willingness to verbalize? A. Free association B. Transference C. Working through D. Resistance Answer: D 41. Joe has been undergoing psychoanalysis for several months. Over the past few weeks, he has become unwilling to talk about his relationship with his father and becomes uncomfortable when thoughts of him enter his mind during therapy. What process would the therapist say is occurring? A. Free association B. Transference C. Working through D. Resistance Answer: D 42. The Freudian idea of working through was most important _______________ insight had been achieved. A. exactly as B. immediately before C. long before D. after Answer: D 43. The neo-Freudians would have been least likely to emphasize the importance of conscious _______________ impulses and needs in a therapeutic setting. A. sexual B. social C. dependence D. status Answer: A 44. The neo-Freudians differ from traditional Freudian psychoanalysts in that they focus on the _______________ as a motivating force of behaviour, and they favour _______________ their patients. A. ego; face-to-face discussions with B. id; face-to-face discussions with C. ego; sitting behind and passively listening to D. id; sitting behind and passively listening to Answer: A 45. According to interpersonal therapy, the analyst should assume the role of A. the problem. B. the teacher. C. the participant observer. D. the observer. Answer: C 46. What did Jung believe was the goal of psychotherapy? A. Amplification B. Uncovering unconscious impulses C. Dealing with the inferiority complex D. Individuation Answer: D 47. Research suggests that _______________ is more important than insight in psychotherapeutic change and improvement. A. individuation B. working through C. amplification D. free association Answer: B 48. Carmelo is giving a report to his graduate seminar on research on the effectiveness of psychodynamic therapies. Which point would you be most likely to hear him make if you were in that seminar? A. Practising new, adaptive behaviours is more important than gaining insight into one's unconscious conflicts. B. Active confrontation of irrational thinking and the display of empathy are two important psychodynamic therapeutic techniques. C. Unconscious motives clearly impact our daily behaviour in many different and important ways. D. Claims of repressed traumatic memories are a growing problem and there is strong research to support the validity of such claims. Answer: A 49. Dr. Johnson tells her students not to think of a white rabbit during the lecture. Within a few seconds, many students report that they have already thought of a white rabbit. Along with research from cognitive and clinical psychology, this casts doubt on A. all claims made by the psychoanalytic or psychodynamic therapies. B. the usefulness of active listening as a therapeutic technique. C. the importance of insight as a therapeutic goal. D. the existence of repressed memories from traumatic events. Answer: D 50. Which claim concerning psychodynamic therapy is accurate? A. Brief psychodynamic therapy is better than receiving no treatment. B. Current difficulties often stem from repression of traumatic childhood events. C. Psychodynamic concepts are well supported by empirical studies. D. Psychodynamic therapies promote insight better than any other approach. Answer: A 51. What type of therapy would be least effective for psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia? A. Cognitive-behavioural therapy B. Biological treatments C. Psychodynamic therapy D. Electroconvulsive shock therapy Answer: C 52. Humanistic-existential psychotherapists would be most likely to work with their clients to focus their attention to the _______________ rather than to the _______________. A. present; past B. present; future C. past; present D. future; past Answer: A 53. Person-centred therapy is a type of _______________ therapy. A. insight B. behavioural C. cognitive D. reality Answer: A 54. The main difference between the humanistic-existentialist and other therapies is the A. importance of gaining insight into one's difficulties. B. importance of the present over the past. C. importance of positive self-fulfillment in guiding one's behaviour and thoughts. D. importance of the client-therapist relationship. Answer: C 55. Lionel has been in therapy for four weeks now. At the first meeting with his therapist, the therapist waited for Lionel to begin discussing why he was there and what he hoped to gain from the session. The therapist also reminds Lionel that he is responsible for solving his own problems. Lionel's therapist is making use of A. Frankl's logotherapy. B. Jung's analytic therapy. C. Beck's cognitive therapy. D. Rogers's person-centred therapy. Answer: D 56. Carl Rogers asserts that an effective psychotherapist will A. provide unconditional positive regard and display empathy toward his or her client. B. interpret important transference and resistance behaviours for his or her client. C. actively confront and challenge his or her client's erroneous beliefs. D. seek to identify how negative reinforcement is promoting maladaptive behaviours, feelings, and/or thoughts for an individual. Answer: A 57. What is the primary goal of the therapist in person-centred therapy? A. To provide unconditional positive regard B. To facilitate transference C. To eliminate undesirable behaviours D. To help the client become more aware of his or her own feelings Answer: A 58. Dr. Graham listens to Maria’s statements and then restates what he feels is Maria’s message and describes her emotions. What type of therapy is Dr. Graham practising? A. Person-centred B. Cognitive C. Behavioural D. Psychoanalytic Answer: A 59. The person-centred therapist has to be able to acknowledge and understand what the client is feeling and experiencing. This process is referred to as A. empathy. B. unconditional positive regard. C. conditions of worth. D. reflection. Answer: A 60. Judy’s therapist listens to her without interruption and judgment. She provides Judy with warmth and respect, without any conditions attached. Her therapist is demonstrating A. unconditional positive regard. B. genuineness. C. reflection. D. nondirective counter-transference. Answer: A 61. The therapist’s feeling of respect and affection for the client that exists without any strings attached, no matter what the client may say or do, is called A. unconditional positive regard. B. genuineness. C. reflection. D. conditions of worth. Answer: A 62. Positive outcomes are attained in person-centred therapy when the therapist satisfied each of the following conditions except A. the therapist must be willing to utilize directive listening to guide the patient’s interpretations. B. the therapist must be an authentic, genuine person who reveals their own reactions. C. the therapist must express unconditional positive regard for the feelings of the patient. D. the therapist must relate to the patients with empathic understanding. Answer: A 63. Person-centred therapists often use a technique called _______________ to mirror back the client’s feelings and communicate with them. A. free association B. dream analysis C. reflection D. transference Answer: C 64. The ultimate goal of humanistic psychotherapy is for a person to A. uncover the hidden motivations that impact their conscious thoughts and behaviours. B. gain insight and move forward in their seeking of their ultimate potential. C. change their maladaptive behaviours and reactions to challenging situations. D. change their maladaptive thoughts about themselves and their life circumstances. Answer: B 65. Kennedy meets with a therapist who is trying to merge her "quiet expert" with her "risk taker" so that she'll become a complete "risky expert." This would be an example of A. Gestalt therapy. B. person-centred therapy. C. logotherapy. D. rational emotive behaviour therapy. Answer: A 66. Gestalt therapy is an outgrowth of the work of _______________. A. Fritz Perls B. Carl Rogers C. Victor Frankl D. Albert Ellis Answer: A 67. What is a major goal of the Gestalt therapist? A. To facilitate transference B. To eliminate undesirable behaviours C. To provide unconditional positive regard D. To help clients become more aware of their own feelings Answer: D 68. Gestalt therapy’s _______________ technique aims to integrate opposing aspects of the client’s personality, such as the “good boy” and the “spoiled brat.” A. two-chair B. role-playing C. logical analysis D. dream analysis Answer: A 69. The two-chair technique is to _______________ as individuation is to _______________. A. Gestalt therapy; Jungian analytic therapy B. person-centred therapy; implosive therapy C. logotherapy; the phenomenological approach D. behavioural therapy; psychodynamic therapy Answer: A 70. The ideas of authentic and self-actualization suffer from not being easily A. falsified. B. correlated. C. parsimonious. D. replicated. Answer: A 71. Which person might benefit the most from a group therapy environment? A. Suzanne, who has schizophrenia B. Richard, who is withdrawn C. Jasmine, who is uncomfortable in social settings D. Elena, who is very sociable Answer: D 72. According to relapse prevention (RP) treatment, when an alcoholic experiences a lapse, it may become a relapse (resumed drinking) if they feel ashamed, guilty, or discouraged. This is known as the _______________. A. third step in the twelve step program B. abstinence violation effect C. thought suppression and rebound effect D. dialectical behaviour effect Answer: B 73. Psychologists find group therapy to be an effective approach to treatment because A. it is more effective at producing lasting changes than the individual treatments. B. they can make more money. C. it allows participants to practise new skills in a safe environment. D. they interact less with each individual patient. Answer: C 74. A type of therapy in which three or more clients assemble regularly and discuss problems under the guidance of a single therapist is called _______________ therapy. A. self-help B. organic C. group D. informal Answer: C 75. Group therapy is often preferred to individual treatment methods because A. it allows patients to realize that they are not alone in their problems and troubles. B. it allow patients to receive social support from others. C. it is an efficient use of patient and therapist time. D. All of the above Answer: D 76. A concern with nearly all 12-step approaches, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, to dealing with various problems with living is that A. no research evidence exists for the effectiveness of these approaches. B. relapse is unavoidable. C. they promote feelings of helplessness to control and change one's behaviour. D. physical diseases are never cured but rather go into remission. Answer: A 77. According to the authors, the claims of Alcoholics Anonymous's success A. have largely gone unrecognized by the scientific community. B. can be applied to other problems of impulse control. C. is supported by the available data. D. is not supported by the available data. Answer: D 78. _______________ refers to a lapse in sobriety that can lead to continued drinking if people feel ashamed, guilty, or discouraged when they lapse. A. Relapse prevention B. Counterintuitive relapse C. Counterproductive relapse D. The abstinence violation effect Answer: D 79. One of the main goals of _______________ is to teach people that a lapse does not mean a relapse. A. relapse prevention B. abstinence violation C. controlled drinking D. Alcoholics Anonymous Answer: A 80. In the treatment of alcoholism, research has demonstrated that _______________ can be an effective approach for some addicts, and that the success of _______________ is not supported by empirical evidence. A. Alcoholics Anonymous; relapse prevention B. relapse prevention; controlled drinking C. relapse prevention; Alcoholic Anonymous D. controlled drinking; relapse prevention Answer: C 81. The family therapy approach designed to remove barriers to effective communication is called A. structural family therapy. B. structural family intervention. C. strategic group intervention. D. strategic family intervention. Answer: D 82. A strategic family therapist who instructs a family to have dinner together each night and discuss their everyday activities openly with each other has used a(n) _______________ as a therapeutic approach. A. paradoxical request B. directive C. immersion method D. exposure technique Answer: B 83. _______________ refers to a treatment in which therapists deeply involve themselves in everyday family activities to change how family members arrange and organize interactions. A. Structural family therapy B. Structural family intervention C. Strategic group intervention D. Strategic family intervention Answer: A 84. In family therapy, a therapist seeks to understand A. why some families seem to experience more problems than others. B. how family members can help someone with a psychological disorder live a productive life. C. how family member interactions lead to personal problems and difficulties. D. how a person's psychological disorder creates stress for those who love him or her. Answer: C 85. Family counselling is a form of _______________ therapy A. informal B. insight C. group D. organic Answer: C 86. John and his wife are having trouble communicating and getting along with one another. Which type of therapy is most likely to help them with their problems? A. Organic B. Self-help group C. Family D. Individual Answer: C 87. Saleem has been seeing a therapist because she cannot adjust to her new husband’s children from a previous marriage. Although she dearly loves her husband, she feels awkward and embarrassed in front of the children. The therapist suggests that she bring her husband and his children with her to the next session so she can see them interact. Saleem is probably seeing a A. psychoanalyst. B. behavioural specialist. C. family therapist. D. gestalt therapist. Answer: C 88. A goal of family therapy is to A. change the needs of individual family members. B. improve family communication and interaction. C. identify and treat the person in the family who is the source of the majority of the family’s problems. D. teach family members to remain neutral on sensitive issues. Answer: B 89. Someone who is conducting family therapy would be most likely to attempt to understand A. family communication patterns. B. why family history makes some people more or less vulnerable to psychological problems. C. an individual's thoughts and feelings about their family. D. parental impacts on children's adaptive or maladaptive functioning. Answer: A 90. Structural family therapy is intended to _______________ whereas strategic family interventions are designed to _______________. A. identify the scapegoat and structure all of the family’s complaints; focus all complaints around the problems of one individual. B. treat the family as a group unit that needs help; provide treatment for each family member individually. C. make changes in how the family interacts; remove barriers to effective communication within a family. D. examine how problems arise due to hierarchies in a family; help families cope specifically with addictions issues. Answer: C 91. What type of therapy is associated with the best methods of evaluating treatment effectiveness? A. In psychodynamic therapy, treatment success occurs when the patient stops displaying signs of physical symptoms that are brought on by unconscious psychological impulses. B. In behavioural therapy, success is measurable because treatment goals are defined according to changes in specific behaviours. C. In experiential therapies, success is defined as when a patient recognizes the importance of awareness, acceptance, and expression of their feelings. D. In group therapies (such as Alcoholics Anonymous), success is when participants move from step to step in the 12-step program. Answer: B 92. A behavioural therapist is most likely to focus on A. the past and specific behaviours. B. the past and broad traits. C. the present and specific behaviours. D. the present and broad traits. Answer: C 93. What is the core assumption of a functional analysis in behaviour therapy? A. The patient’s problem behaviours have arisen through observation. B. The patient’s problematic behaviours are maintained by reinforcement. C. Problem behaviours serve an adaptive function for the patient that must be uncovered. D. Patient’s need to achieve a healthy proportion of adaptive to maladaptive behaviours. Answer: B 94. Behavioural therapists use assessment techniques to pinpoint _______________ causes of a person’s problem, establish treatment goals, and then devise therapeutic procedures necessary to reach those goals. A. social B. biological C. environmental D. cultural Answer: C 95. What do behaviour therapists see as the cause of abnormal or undesirable behaviours? A. Discrepancies between real and ideal selves B. Distortions in thinking C. Learning D. Unconscious processes Answer: C 96. Techniques used in systematic desensitization are based on which of the following principles? A. Anxiety hierarchies B. Reciprocal inhibition C. Observational learning D. Flooding Answer: B 97. Phobias are to _______________ as depression is to _______________. A. psychodynamic therapy; existential therapy B. systematic desensitization; cognitive-behavioural therapy C. pharmacotherapy; structural family therapy D. object relations therapy; person-centred therapy Answer: B 98. Which method of treating phobias involves progressive relaxation and exposure to the feared object? A. Token economy B. Punishment C. Extinction D. Systematic desensitization Answer: D 99. Julie has a fear of riding in elevators. She is seeing a therapist who asks her to construct a hierarchy of her fears related to riding in elevators. In addition, her therapist is teaching her to relax while imagining each fear in the hierarchy. Julie’s therapist is using A. person-centred therapy. B. rational emotive therapy. C. cognitive consistency. D. systematic desensitization. Answer: D 100. For which of these problems would systematic desensitization most likely be used? A. Joe has been depressed for two years. B. Ben is sexually attracted to young children. C. As a result of schizophrenia, David does not interact with members of his family. D. A fear of heights restricts Alice’s enrollment to classes that meet on the first floor. Answer: D 101. Systematic desensitization is based on A. spontaneous recovery. B. classical conditioning. C. operant conditioning. D. counter conditioning. Answer: D 102. Systematic desensitization is specifically designed to help a person to deal with his or her A. psychopathic personality. B. dissociative identity disorder. C. depression. D. phobia. Answer: D 103. Svetlana is afraid of flying and has sought out therapeutic help to try to overcome her fear. The therapist gradually exposes Svetlana to flying-related stimuli in real- life, such as sitting on an airplane and conducting anxiety reduction techniques. What type of therapeutic technique is Svetlana’s therapist using? A. Assertion training B. In vivo desensitization C. Response prevention D. Implosive therapy Answer: B 104. Herman begins his systematic desensitization treatment for his claustrophobia by first A. learning how to relax. B. being exposed to tight spaces with no means of escape. C. trying to recall how he developed this fear as a child. D. constructing an anxiety hierarchy. Answer: A 105. Trina attempts to overcome her fear of clowns by learning how to shift from a feeling of tension to one of calm and relaxation. Next she is asked to imagine different situations, each more anxiety-provoking than the previous. She only proceeds to the next situation if she can maintain her feeling of relaxation. Trina's therapist is using _______________ to remove her fear. A. exposure therapy B. systematic desensitization C. person-centred therapy D. modelling Answer: B 106. Dismantling helps to _______________ the effective mechanisms of systematic desensitization and other treatments. A. demonstrate the falsifiability of B. rule out rival hypotheses about C. establish causal factors rather than correlations about D. show the replicability of Answer: B 107. In systematic desensitization, patients are exposed to the situations in their anxiety hierarchy starting from _______________ anxiety provoking to _______________ anxiety provoking. A. the least; most B. not at all; most C. the most; the least D. the least; not at all Answer: A 108. In flooding, patients are exposed to the situations in their anxiety hierarchy starting from _______________ anxiety provoking to _______________ anxiety provoking. A. the least; most B. not at all; most C. the most; the least D. the least; not at all Answer: C 109. In order for flooding to be effective, therapists must apply _______________ techniques. A. in vivo B. thought field therapy C. response prevention D. virtual reality Answer: C 110. Behaviour therapists can evaluate many therapeutic procedures by isolating the effects of each component and comparing these effects with that of the full treatment package, an approach called A. decoupling. B. dismantling. C. extraction. D. modelling. Answer: B 111. Flooding and other forms of exposure therapy are used to allow one's fear to be A. exacerbated. B. extinguished. C. challenged. D. inhibited. Answer: B 112. A technique for treating phobias and other stress disorders in which the person is suddenly exposed to the fear-provoking situation or object in an intense way and is prevented from making the usual avoidance or escape response is called A. systematic desensitization. B. flooding. C. paradoxical intent. D. aversive therapy. Answer: B 113. Iram is afraid of snakes. In an effort to help him overcome his fear, his therapist has him enter a room where there are dozens of snakes and has him hold them. Iram is not permitted to leave the room until the therapy session is completed. Iram’s therapist is using A. aversive therapy. B. flooding. C. a token economy. D. systematic desensitization. Answer: B 114. Due to new computer technology that involves having the client wear a headset that can project realistic anxiety-provoking images, therapists can now conduct _______________ through virtual reality exposure in their offices. A. aversive therapy B. flooding C. token economy D. systematic desensitization Answer: B 115. _______________ allows psychotherapists to place persons in situations to confront and eliminate their fears that would either be infeasible or difficult to do in real life. A. Virtual reality exposure therapy B. Exposure therapy C. Implosive therapy D. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing Answer: A 116. According to the authors, behavioural therapists have been diligent in making only those claims that fit with the data about the effectiveness of their therapeutic techniques. A critical thinker would recognize this as what is required by the critical thinking principle of A. extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. B. falsifiability. C. replication. D. parsimony. Answer: A 117. Because the negative reinforcement of avoidance behaviour often maintains many phobias and other anxiety-related disorders, exposure therapy often involves A. response prevention. B. social skills training. C. modelling. D. relaxation training. Answer: A 118. _______________ is a technique where a client imagines a distressing event while a therapist taps specific points on the client’s body in a predetermined order, in addition to the client humming a well-known tune such as the Canadian national anthem. A. Response prevention B. Systematic desensitization C. Reciprocal inhibition D. Thought field therapy Answer: D 119. Parker is being taught to engage in relaxation techniques whenever he is confronted with fear-inducing situations, such as being in an elevator. Pairing an incompatible relaxation response with his anxiety is based on the principle of A. response prevention. B. reciprocal inhibition. C. dismantling. D. thought field release. Answer: B 120. Which form of exposure therapy is not supported by scientific studies? A. Systematic desensitization B. Virtual reality exposure therapy C. Thought field therapy D. In vivo desensitization Answer: C 121. _______________ has been used successfully in helping children who have a fear of going to the dentist, social withdrawal, obsessive-compulsive behaviours, and phobias. A. Aversion therapy B. Modelling C. Operant conditioning D. Token economy Answer: B 122. Estella is afraid of cats. To help her overcome her fear, her mother calmly pets and strokes a cat while Estella is watching. Her mother encourages her to imitate her behaviour. Estella’s mother is using A. reinforcement. B. modelling. C. extinction. D. token economy. Answer: B 123. Hiram has watched his older brother receive attention for hitting and biting others. When Hiram imitates this inappropriate behaviour so that he also can receive attention, Hiram’s behaviour has resulted from _______________. A. reinforcement B. modelling C. extinction D. token economy Answer: B 124. Juan is so afraid of germs that he wears gloves when opening doors. He is encouraged by his therapist to imitate a person in a video who demonstrates opening a door, step–by-step, without wearing gloves. Which technique is his therapist using? A. Aversion therapy B. Participant modelling C. Operant conditioning D. Token economy Answer: B 125. The process of learning through the observation and imitation of others is called A. aversion therapy. B. modelling. C. operant conditioning. D. token economy. Answer: B 126. Someone who suffers from social anxiety would most likely benefit from what type of therapy? A. Assertion training B. Experiential therapy C. Aversion therapy D. EMDR Answer: A 127. Sonya is working in a residential group home with clients that have severe learning disabilities and difficulties with displaying appropriate social skills. When her clients complete regular tasks they are assigned (such as working with another person to bake a cake), she gives them a gold star on a calendar. After the clients have collected 7 stars in a row, Sonya gives them their favourite chocolate treat. When they achieve a month of gold stars, she takes the clients on an outing that they enjoy. What type of therapeutic technique is Sonya using with her clients? A. Exposure therapy B. Reverse aversion therapy C. Token economies D. Experiential therapy Answer: C 128. Larry has a substance dependence on alcohol, and his therapist is trying to help him eliminate his addition by giving him a medication called Antabuse that makes him sick every time he drinks alcohol. What type of therapy is Larry undergoing? A. Pharmacotherapy B. Flooding C. Systematic desensitization D. Aversion therapy Answer: D 129. The form of behavioural therapy in which an undesirable behaviour is paired with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the frequency of the behaviour is called A. aversion therapy. B. participant modelling. C. operant conditioning. D. token economy. Answer: A 130. Which of the following is a therapy based on the principles of operant conditioning? A. Aversion therapy B. Flooding C. Systematic desensitization D. Token economy Answer: D 131. Which of the following techniques would be most appropriate for treating overdrinking or smoking? A. Aversion therapy B. Participant modelling C. Operant conditioning D. Token economy Answer: A 132. Every time Jarrad opens his cigarette case or uses his lighter, he gets a painful electric shock. Jarrad’s friends and family have been asked not to give him any cigarettes or light any cigarettes for him, so he must use his own lighter if he wants to smoke. Eventually, Jarrad loses his desire to smoke, thanks to A. aversion therapy. B. participant modelling. C. operant conditioning. D. token economy. Answer: A 133. Cognitive-behavioural therapists would argue that anxiety and mood disorders are largely the result of A. conditional positive regard. B. maladaptive cognitions. C. maladaptive behaviours. D. unresolved childhood issues. Answer: B 134. Cognitive-behavioural therapies share all of the following core assumptions except A. cognitions are key players in both healthy and unhealthy psychological functioning. B. some irrational beliefs are necessarily to help us cope with stressful experiences. C. cognitions can be identified and measured. D. irrational beliefs can be replaced by more rational and adaptive cognitions. Answer: B 135. Therapies that focus on the present and assume that people observe the world and the people around them, make assumptions and inferences based on these observations, and then decide how to respond is called A. gestalt therapy. B. person-centred therapy. C. cognitive-behavioural therapy. D. behaviour therapy. Answer: C 136. A therapist challenges what she sees as her client’s irrational and self-defeating thoughts. Her goal is to help her client change these thoughts into more rational, helpful, positive thoughts. In addition, she wants to help her client develop strategies that can be used to cope with future problems. She is probably a _______________ therapist. A. gestalt B. person-centred C. cognitive-behavioural D. behavioural Answer: C 137. A key component of Ellis's rational emotive behaviour therapy is the psychotherapist's A. concern with helping a client to reach a point of self-actualization. B. use of social skills training to improve patient functioning. C. helping a client search for meaning in difficult and stressful life events. D. active disputing and challenging of the client's assumptions. Answer: D 138. Which approach assumes that disorders come from illogical, irrational cognitions, and that changing the thinking patterns to more rational, logical ones will relieve the symptoms of the disorder? A. Behaviour therapy B. Psychoanalysis C. Gestalt therapy D. Cognitive behavioural therapy Answer: D 139. Rational-emotive therapy is a type of _______________ therapy. A. insight B. cognitive-behavioural C. Gestalt D. psychoanalytic Answer: B 140. In which form of therapy does the therapist take a directive role, challenging clients when they make “my way or nothing” statements? A. Behaviour therapy B. Insight C. Person-centred D. Rational-emotive therapy Answer: D 141. Sigmund Freud arrives for a therapy session with Albert Ellis. Freud’s main complaint is depression; it seems that Freud’s writings have not received the kind of response he had hoped for and expected. What is Ellis most likely to say during the therapy session? A. “Let’s explore your dreams in search of the real reason for your depression.” B. “You are upset about the reaction that your work has been receiving.” C. “I want to do some tests to find the neurological cause of your distress.” D. “Why do you expect all your work to be well received, and what difference does it make if some people don’t like your ideas?” Answer: D 142. A therapist challenges what she sees as her client’s irrational and self-defeating beliefs. She uses persuasion, confrontation, arguments, and even homework assignments to challenge those beliefs. She is probably a _______________ therapist. A. Gestalt B. behavioural C. person-centred D. rational-emotive Answer: D 143. According to Albert Ellis, many psychological problems result from A. an unintegrated set of Gestalts. B. catastrophic thinking about oneself or one's life conditions. C. unconscious motivational conflicts. D. conditions of worth that are imposed on us by others. Answer: B 144. According to Albert Ellis, we become unhappy and depressed about events because of A. our behaviours. B. our irrational beliefs. C. the events that happen to us. D. other people’s irrational expectations. Answer: B 145. Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis were especially concerned with helping a patient A. understand his or her past shortcomings in the context of the present. B. identify and modify distorted thoughts about him- or herself, others, and/or the world. C. to discontinue maladaptive negative reinforcement that led to avoidance of certain people or situations. D. to gain better insight into the underlying cause of one's psychological difficulties. Answer: B 146. Which of the following is a basic goal of cognitive-behavioural therapy? A. To help clients complete unfinished business and become whole B. To help clients change irrational thoughts to rational thoughts C. To help clients develop a closer match between real and ideal selves D. To help clients uncover unconscious conflicts and sexual urges Answer: B 147. Which of the following components is not part of Ellis’s ABCDE scheme? A. Behavioural consequences B. Unpleasant activating event C. Active avoidance of irrational beliefs D. Belief systems determine responses Answer: C 148. According to Ellis, the differences in how we respond to events stem largely from differences in A. the unpleasant activating event. B. our belief systems. C. emotional and behavioural consequences. D. disputing irrational beliefs. Answer: B 149. Dedric is being asked to anticipate an upcoming tennis match against a highly ranked opponent. He is to imagine falling behind by one set, in a best two of three sets match, and what he would say to himself in such a scenario. This example illustrates what Meichenbaum would call A. stress inoculation training. B. person-centred therapy. C. rational-emotive behaviour therapy. D. systematic desensitization. Answer: A 150. Cognitive-behavioural therapies have been found to be especially helpful in the treatment of _______________ disorders. A. mood B. dissociative C. impulse control D. personality Answer: A 151. _______________ therapies have had considerable success in treating many types of disorders, including depression, stress disorders, anxiety disorders, and even some of the behavioural symptoms of schizophrenia. A. Psychoanalytic B. Behavioural C. Humanistic D. Cognitive and cognitive-behavioural Answer: D 152. All of the following are third wave therapies in the cognitive-behavioural tradition except A. acceptance and commitment therapy. B. dialectical behaviour therapy. C. cyclical psychodynamic therapy. D. rational emotive behaviour therapy. Answer: D 153. The most frequently endorsed label for the type of therapy one practices as a psychologist, psychiatrist, or social worker is A. psychodynamic. B. cognitive-behavioural. C. person-centred. D. eclectic/integrative. Answer: D 154. The use of eclectic forms of therapy make it difficult for a critical thinker to A. establish correlation. B. evaluate and eliminate rival hypotheses. C. replicate individual therapeutic outcomes with other patients. D. identify falsifiable theories about why a treatment works. Answer: B 155. Research has found some support for the idea that a therapist’s personality may influence their theoretical orientation or approach. Which of the following personality traits and orientations are correctly matched based on this research? A. Cognitive-behavioural therapists: assertive and confident B. Psychoanalytic therapists: insecure and serious C. Behavioural therapists: rational and logical D. Family therapists: neurotic and introverted Answer: B 156. Which new variation of cognitive behavioural therapy has been used most frequently to treat borderline personality disorder? A. Rational emotive behaviour therapy B. Dialectical behavioural therapy C. Acceptance and commitment therapy D. Behavioural activation therapy Answer: B 157. Research on the effectiveness of the different methods of psychotherapy suggests A. person-centered therapy is always a better treatment option than any other form of psychotherapy. B. psychodynamic therapy is always a better treatment option than any other form of psychotherapy. C. behavioural and cognitive therapies are always better treatment options than any other form of psychotherapy. D. behavioural, psychodynamic, and person-centred approaches are more helpful for patients than receiving no treatment. Answer: D 158. What percent of treated people have better outcomes than the average untreated person? A. 25% B. 43% C. 67% D. 80% Answer: D 159. Suppose a friend asks you for advice about entering psychotherapy for his or her anxiety disorder. Which of the following recommendations should you make? A. Behavioural or cognitive-behavioural therapies are most effective for this category of disorders. B. Avoid psychotherapy because 5–10% of patients get worse with this form of treatment. C. Psychodynamic therapies are most effective for this category of disorders. D. Humanistic-existential therapies are most effective for this category of disorders. Answer: A 160. Behavioural and cognitive-behavioural therapies consistently outperform other types of psychotherapies for what type of disorder? A. Mood disorders B. Anxiety disorders C. Schizophrenia D. Dissociative disorders Answer: B 161. Research has suggested that certain types of psychotherapies can be harmful for some individuals. Which of the following type of psychotherapy would not be considered potentially harmful? A. Grief counselling B. Scared Straight programs C. Flooding therapy D. Crisis debriefing Answer: C 162. Which therapeutic technique is associated with the potential for a heightened risk of posttraumatic stress symptoms? A. Crisis debriefing B. Recovered memory techniques C. Rage reduction therapy D. Facilitated communication Answer: A 163. What is the general message about the effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating one's behaviour or emotional problems? A. Insight therapies are superior to those which do not address the underlying cause of one's problems such as behavioural and cognitive therapies. B. Behavioural and cognitive forms of therapy are superior to those that attempt to identify the underlying causes of one's problems such as insight therapies. C. A large portion of people improve without receiving any formal type of therapy, so psychotherapy is often unnecessary. D. Most therapies discussed in the text are equally effective in reducing one's problems. Answer: D 164. A is a statistical method that helps researchers to interpret large bodies of psychological literature. A. normal distribution test B. meta-analysis C. interrater reliability D. factor analysis Answer: B 165. Which of the following is a common factor across the many forms of effective treatments? A. Therapist directives for change B. Critical thinking C. Instilling hope D. Challenging irrational thought patterns Answer: C 166. Regardless of theoretical orientation, all of the forms of therapy discussed in the text provide a client or patient with A. a resolve to uncover the causes from the past of one's current troubles. B. direct exposure to troubling events from one's past. C. a push to completely change everything about oneself. D. a clear rationale for the treatment one receives. Answer: D 167. Research suggests that there is _______________ between one's race and the outcome of therapy. A. a positive relationship B. little or no relationship C. a curvilinear relationship D. a negative relationship Answer: B 168. Most psychologists agree that _______________ are important to the outcomes of psychotherapy. A. common factors only B. neither common nor specific factors C. specific factors only D. both common and specific factors Answer: D 169. Empirically supported treatments refer to A. treatments that are effective for all psychological disorders, and this effectiveness has been established through rigorous scientific testing. B. treatments that are effective for specific disorders, and this effectiveness has been established through rigorous scientific testing. C. treatments for which only anecdotal evidence of effectiveness are available. D. a method for differentiating between effective and ineffective forms of psychotherapy treatments. Answer: B 170. Proponents of empirically supported treatments believe that A. clinicians should make treatment decisions without regard to scientific evidence. B. science should inform a clinician's decision making about the most appropriate therapeutic practices. C. too little research has been done to appropriately inform clinicians about the best treatments for specific disorders. D. only cognitive-behavioural techniques should be used to treat psychological problems. Answer: B 171. Which of the following is the correctly matched effective treatment and disorder according to the list of empirically supported treatments? A. Interpersonal therapy – phobias B. Psychodynamic therapy – depression C. Dialectical behaviour therapy – borderline personality disorder D. Systematic desensitization – schizophrenia Answer: C 172. Critics of empirically supported treatments are concerned that A. psychiatrists and psychologists will eventually be forced to only treat mental health problems via pharmacotherapy. B. insufficient data exist for appropriately distinguishing between superior and inferior forms of psychotherapeutic treatments. C. the scientific method is not the best approach to take for establishing what best treatment practices are for the various psychological disorders. D. cognitive-behavioural therapy will be used at the expense of more effective treatments because it is cheaper. Answer: B 173. Holly has recently entered therapy for her major depressive disorder at an important "down" period in her life. Her therapist suggests that she and Holly will work together to identify and change Holly's irrational thinking. After six weeks, Holly feels less depressed. Suppose, however, that the change resulted not from the therapy but rather from the normal "ups and downs" that people experience. This suggests that clinicians need to consider the impact of _______________ on therapeutic outcomes. A. self-serving biases B. spontaneous remission C. the placebo effect D. retrospective rewriting of the past Answer: B 174. What treatment for schizophrenia was once considered effective, but is no longer accepted in the therapeutic community as a viable type of psychotherapy? A. Electroconvulsive shock therapy B. Direct analysis C. Psychodynamic therapy D. Exposure therapy Answer: B 175. Bella had been very sad and fatigued, and when she first started treatment, she scored very highly on a measure of depression. A few months later, her therapist gave her the same test again and reported that the therapy must be working because Bella’s scores were lower, even though she does not feel much different. What is the best alternate explanation for this outcome? A. Retrospective rewriting B. Spontaneous remission C. Regression to the mean D. Self-serving bias Answer: C 176. One reason that nearly any type of credible treatment may produce strong beneficial effects is that people hope it will and want it to work. This idea is referred to as A. the self-serving bias. B. spontaneous remission. C. the placebo effect. D. regression to the mean. Answer: C 177. People who have gone through therapy often recall their therapy adjustment as much worse than it actually was. This often leads them to _______________ how much improvement resulted from their psychotherapy experience. A. accurately estimate B. subjectively estimate C. overestimate D. underestimate Answer: C 178. Statisticians will often describe how extreme performances, both good and bad, tend to be followed by more average levels of performance. This _______________ might be one explanation for why many psychotherapy patients improve regardless of the type of therapy received. A. placebo effect B. self-serving bias C. regression to the mean D. retrospective rewriting Answer: C 179. Sylvia has been seeing her therapist for over a year. While she still feels depressed and still feels unable to effectively establish new relationships, she justifies her continuation of therapy by persuading herself that she has gained insight into herself and was able to successfully open up to someone. Sylvia perceives her therapy as being effective due to _______________. A. the placebo effect B. the self-serving bias C. regression to the mean D. spontaneous remission Answer: B 180. The reliance on self-help books for treatment of problem behaviours or psychological concerns is referred to as _______________. A. logotherapy B. journalling C. bibliotherapy D. facilitated communication Answer: C 181. A major concern with using self-help books rather than seeking out professional guidance and assistance is that A. self-help authors are just writing them to make money rather than help people. B. few clinicians would ever recommend such materials to their clients. C. self-help books tend to challenge conventional wisdom and are more effective than seeing a psychiatrist or clinical psychologist. D. the claims made in most self-help books have never been scientifically tested. Answer: D 182. An important criticism of self-help materials is that they frequently make far-fetched promises. This is similar to the pseudoscience sin of A. psychobabble. B. overreliance on anecdotes. C. the absence of connectivity. D. exaggerated claims. Answer: D 183. Self-help materials sometimes backfire when users fail to see the kinds of changes touted by the programs. This often leads the users of self-help materials to A. be more likely to seek professional help for their problems. B. be less likely to seek professional help for their problems. C. warn their friends about the downside of anecdotal evidence. D. demand more rigorous evidence of self-help program effectiveness in the future. Answer: B 184. Approximately 10 percent of inpatients with _______________ still receive electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) or “shock therapy.” A. bipolar disorder B. major depression C. schizophrenia D. obsessive-compulsive disorder Answer: B 185. Which form of biological therapy would a psychiatrist be most likely to suggest for a client? A. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy B. Electroconvulsive therapy C. Psychosurgery D. Pharmacotherapy Answer: D 186. The most frequently encountered treatment for schizophrenia today comes from a form of A. electroconvulsive therapy. B. vagus nerve stimulation therapy. C. psychosurgery. D. pharmacotherapy. Answer: D 187. A frequently prescribed drug therapy for managing one's depression is A. Adderall. B. Lithium. C. Thorazine. D. Prozac. Answer: D 188. Thorazine, Haldol, Risperdal, and Seroquel are all examples of what class of drugs? A. Antipsychotics B. Mood stabilizers C. Antidepressants D. Psychostimulants Answer: A 189. Elavil, Parnate, Tofranil, Zoloft, and Nardil are all examples of what class of drugs? A. Antipsychotics B. Mood stabilizers C. Antidepressants D. Psychostimulants Answer: C 190. Lithium, Tegretol, Lamictal, and Depakote are all examples of what class of drugs? A. Antipsychotics B. Mood stabilizers C. Antidepressants D. Psychostimulants Answer: B 191. Many pharmacological drugs claim to restore the chemical balance in the brain by altering the levels of various neurotransmitters. However, many medications may exert their effects largely by affecting the _______________ of receptors rather than neurotransmitter levels. A. blockage B. sensitivity C. number D. structure Answer: B 192. Which of the following type of disorder and class of drug is incorrectly matched? A. Psychotic conditions – neuroleptics B. Anxiety disorders – anxiolytics C. Depression – mood stabilizers D. Attention problems – psychostimulants Answer: C 193. A frequently prescribed medication for managing one's attention problems is A. Thorazine. B. Ritalin. C. Lithium. D. Prozac. Answer: B 194. Antianxiety, antidepressant, or antipsychotic medications are most frequently prescribed by A. clinical social workers. B. clinical psychologists. C. pastoral counsellors. D. psychiatrists. Answer: D 195. What is one reason that many critics argue that psychologists should not be given the right to directly prescribe medications to their psychotherapy clients? A. Psychologists' training does not provide the knowledge for appropriately understanding the drug's potential effects. B. Psychiatrists already have that privilege and therefore to give these privileges to psychologists would be redundant. C. Drug companies will provide free samples that will get into the hands of drug addicts if we allow psychologists to prescribe directly. D. Pharmacotherapy has not proven to be as effective as the various psychotherapies. Answer: A 196. The research on psychotherapy and the brain suggests that A. both drug therapies and psychotherapies impact the same neural pathways. B. only drug therapies should be used to treat people's behavioural or emotional problems. C. both drug therapies and psychotherapies produce documentable changes in brain activity. D. only drug therapies produce documentable changes in brain activity. Answer: C 197. _______________ involves grotesque involuntary movements of the facial muscles and mouth and twitching of the neck, arms, and legs, and is a serious side effect of some antipsychotic medications. A. Parkinson’s disease B. Tardive dyskinesia C. Metabolic binding D. Neurotransmitter receptor destruction Answer: B 198. A major criticism of the use of medication for treating a child's ADHD is that A. doctors are overprescribing medications for children with ADHD rather than using effective strategies to increase the child's attention. B. parents and teachers are often allowed little input in whether a child must begin pharmacotherapy for his or her ADHD. C. pharmacotherapy leads to an increased risk for suicide in patients diagnosed with ADHD. D. there is no scientific evidence that pharmacotherapy is useful is reducing the symptoms for children with ADHD. Answer: A 199. Concerns about the use of medications to treat psychological disorders have focused on all of the following except A. increases in suicidal thoughts in children and adolescents who are prescribed SSRIs. B. overprescription of psychostimulant drugs over other forms of psychotherapy. C. problems with rates of compliance to a medication regime once immediate symptoms decrease. D. high levels of polypharmacy where many medications are prescribed at the same time. Answer: C 200. _______________ refers to the practice of prescribing multiple medications at the same time. A. Polypharmacy B. Psychopharmacology C. Meta-analysis D. Medicotherapy Answer: A 201. Electroconvulsive therapy is often A. used as a last resort for persons who suffer from severe depression or schizophrenia. B. used to treat people who are phobic, suffer from anxiety disorders, or experience sleep disorders. C. used to control people's behaviour rather than serving as any form of useful treatment for psychological disorders. D. the first step in a longer biomedical treatment management of mood and schizophrenic disorders. Answer: A 202. Electroconvulsive shock therapy is only recommended for individuals with serious A. depression. B. bipolar disorder. C. schizophrenia. D. All of the above Answer: D 203. We must be cautious about accepting patients' statements about the effectiveness of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) because they may be motivated to justify their experience or because they believed the treatment would work before starting. This reminds the critical thinker of the importance of A. falsifiable research questions. B. the principle of parsimony/Occam's razor. C. ruling out rival hypotheses. D. supporting extraordinary claims with extraordinary evidence. Answer: C 204. Trephining and lobotomies are early forms of what type of psychological treatment? A. Psychosurgery B. Electroconvulsive therapy C. Vagus nerve stimulation D. Biomedical intervention Answer: A 205. In order to protect patient interests, institutional review boards (IRBs) must approve each psychosurgical operation to ensure A. the patient has consented to the operation. B. the patient has received an appropriate preoperative and postoperative evaluation. C. there is a clear rationale for the operation. D. All of the above are concerns that the REB evaluates before approving psychosurgeries. Answer: D 206. In modern day, psychosurgery would be performed as an absolute last resort for patients that suffer severely from which of the following disorders? A. Obsessive-compulsive disorder B. Borderline personality disorder C. Dissociative identity disorder D. Somatoform disorders Answer: A 207. An important consideration before undergoing psychosurgery is that A. the costs may be greater than the actual benefits received. B. it is the least controversial of the biological forms of treatment. C. it is now illegal to perform this treatment in Canada. D. it was hailed as an important medical innovation back in the 1930s and 1940s. Answer: A Critical Thinking Questions 1. Why is the choice of a therapist who uses effective methods an important one as a person enters into psychotherapy? Answer: Answers will vary but should include the following points in the discussion to earn full credit. • Many people have been dealing with the problem for several months or years prior to seeking out professional help. • An effective therapist provides a patient with hope, empathy, advice, support, and opportunities for new learning experiences. • An effective therapist works with the patient to find the best treatment and to provide appropriate feedback about his or her progress. An ineffective therapist dictates and seeks to control a patient's behaviour through the therapist's preferred method of treatment. • An effective therapist is open, honest, and focused on improvement with a patient, while an ineffective therapist is secret, guarded, and lacking focus on the bigger issue of improving the patient's functioning. Choosing a therapist who uses effective methods is crucial because it directly impacts the success and outcomes of psychotherapy. Effective methods can lead to symptom relief, improved coping strategies, and enhanced overall well-being. Conversely, ineffective methods may prolong distress or lead to dissatisfaction with therapy, underscoring the importance of selecting a therapist who employs evidence-based practices tailored to individual needs. 2. What is the dodo bird verdict and how is it related to the effectiveness of different treatments? Answer: Answers will vary but should include the following points in the discussion to earn full credit. Psychotherapy researchers use the term dodo bird verdict to refer to the conclusion that all therapies are equivalent in their effects. Not all investigators accept this verdict. Beginning in the late 1970s, a scientific consensus emerged that psychotherapy works in alleviating human suffering (Landman & Dawes, 1982; Smith & Glass, 1977)—a consensus that holds to this day. This conclusion derived from studies using a technique called meta-analysis. Today, some researchers using meta-analysis have claimed to support the dodo bird verdict. Studies with experienced therapists who’ve practised behavioural, psychodynamic, and person-centred approaches have found that all are more successful in helping clients compared with no treatment, but no different from each other in their effects. Other researchers aren’t convinced. They contend that the dodo bird verdict, like the real dodo bird, is extinct. Although most forms of psychotherapy work well, and many are about equal in their effects, there are notable exceptions (Beutler, 2002; Hunsley & DiGuilio, 2002). For example, behavioural and cognitive-behavioural treatments are clearly more effective than other treatments for children and adolescents with behavioural problems (Garske & Anderson, 2003; Weisz et al., 1995). Moreover, behavioural and cognitive-behavioural therapies consistently outperform most other therapies for anxiety disorders, including phobias, panic disorder, and obsessive- compulsive disorder. Also calling into question the dodo bird verdict are findings that some psychotherapies can make people worse (Barlow, 2010; Dimidjian & Hollon, 2010; Lilienfeld, 2007). Although we might assume that doing something is always better than doing nothing for psychological distress, research suggests otherwise. A nontrivial proportion of clients, perhaps 5 to 10 percent, become worse following psychotherapy, and some may become worse because of psychotherapy (Castonguay et al., 2010; Rhule, 2005; Strupp, Hadley, & Gomez-Schwartz, 1978). For example, several researchers have found that crisis debriefing (see Chapter 12) can sometimes increase the risk of posttraumatic stress symptoms in people exposed to trauma. The dodo bird verdict refers to the idea that in psychotherapy, various therapeutic approaches tend to be equally effective overall, akin to how all participants in Alice's race were winners in "Alice in Wonderland." This concept suggests that different therapeutic techniques can produce similar outcomes, emphasizing the importance of therapeutic alliance and individual factors in treatment success rather than specific techniques alone. 3. Discuss how focusing on the importance of critical thinking would be helpful as one perused the bookshelves for a helpful, self-guided treatment. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain at least three of the following for full credit. • Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. A person needs to focus on the strength of the data for distinguishing between possible treatments, and also needs to remember that anecdotal, personal testimonies are not strong evidence. • Replicability. Other independent sources should have verified the efficacy of one's claims. Secret knowledge is not usually useful knowledge because it is not connected with other important areas of human behaviour. There needs to be reference citation information given to find the sources of the claims made in the book. • The author has the credentials and expertise to write on the topic. It is based on scientific/empirical evidence rather than on biased opinion. • Recognises the complexity of human behaviour. There is not just a “one-size-fits-all” approach or the focus on a single, magic bullet solution to the problem. • Serious problems require professional help, not self-help. More serious psychological disorders are not going to treated by a self-guided process. Focusing on critical thinking when seeking self-guided treatment from books helps in evaluating the credibility of information, distinguishing between evidence-based practices and pseudoscience, and understanding the limitations of self-help resources. It enables readers to make informed decisions about which techniques or approaches align with their needs and goals, promoting effective self-guided treatment and avoiding potentially harmful or ineffective methods. Essay Questions 1. The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to make the unconscious conscious. What are the six primary approaches used to accomplish this goal? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. (1) Free Association. As patients lie on the couch in a comfortable, relaxed position, therapists instruct them to say whatever thoughts come to mind, no matter how meaningless or nonsensical they might seem. This process is called free association because patients are permitted to express themselves without censorship of any sort. (2) Interpretation. From the patient’s string of free associations, analysts form hypotheses regarding the origin of the patient’s difficulties and share them with him or her as rapport develops. Therapists also formulate interpretations—that is, explanations—of the unconscious bases of a patient’s dreams, emotions, and behaviours. They point out the supposedly disguised expression of a repressed idea, impulse, or wish. If the therapist offers the interpretation before the patient is ready to accept it, psychoanalytics maintain anxiety may derail the flow of new associations. (3) Dream Analysis. According to Freud, dreams express unconscious themes that influence the patient’s conscious life. The therapist’s task is to interpret the relation of the dream to the patient’s daytime experience and the dream’s symbolic significance. In Chapter 5, we discussed the distinction between a dream’s manifest (observable) and latent (hidden) content. Thus, the therapist might interpret the appearance of an ogre in a dream—the manifest content—as representing a hated and feared parent—the latent content. (4) Resistance. As treatment progresses and people become painfully aware of previously unconscious aspects of themselves, they often experience resistance, that is, they try to avoid further confrontation. Resistance helps patients sidestep the anxiety brought about by uncovering previously repressed thoughts, emotions, and impulses. Patients express resistance in many ways, including skipping therapy sessions or drawing a blank when the therapist asks a question about painful moments in their past, but all forms of resistance stall their progress. To minimise resistance, psychoanalysts attempt to make patients aware they’re unconsciously obstructing therapeutic efforts and make it clear exactly how and what they’re resisting (Anderson & Stewart, 1983; Reich, 1949). (5) Transference. As analysis continues, patients begin to experience transference: They project intense, unrealistic feelings and expectations from their past onto the therapist. The ambiguous figure of the analyst supposedly becomes the focus of emotions once directed at significant persons from the patient’s childhood. Freud believed that transference provides a vehicle for patients to understand their irrational expectations and demands of others, including the therapist. (6) Working Through. In the final stage of psychoanalysis, therapists help patients work through, or process, their problems. The insight gained in treatment is a helpful starting point, but it’s not sufficient. As a consequence, therapists must repeatedly address conflicts and resistance to achieving healthy behaviour patterns and help patients to confront old and ineffective coping responses as they reemerge in everyday life. The six primary approaches used in psychoanalytic therapy to make the unconscious conscious are: 1. Free association: Encouraging patients to freely express thoughts and feelings without censorship. 2. Dream analysis: Interpreting the symbolic meanings of dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts. 3. Analysis of resistance: Exploring barriers or defenses that hinder the exploration of unconscious material. 4. Transference analysis: Examining the patient's feelings and reactions towards the therapist, often reflecting past relationships. 5. Interpretation: Providing insights into unconscious processes, motives, and conflicts. 6. Working through: Revisiting and exploring significant insights and conflicts repeatedly to achieve resolution and integration. 2. Compare and contrast the following forms of psychotherapy: psychoanalysis, humanistic, and behavioural. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following points, along with supportive discussion, for full credit. Areas of agreement • All three agree that past behaviour has an impact on one's present behaviour. • All are approaches that are superior to doing nothing at all, waiting for the passage of time, to reduce the severity of one's psychological symptoms. Areas of difference • How the past impacts the present and the influence of those effects differ among the approaches. (For example, the past influence of others has positive effects according to Freud but negative effects according to Rogers.) • Behavioural approach focuses the most on using scientific method to establish effective procedures. • The necessity of insight and determining the underlying cause of one's present difficulties. • Focus on the past (Psychoanalysis) versus focus on the present (Humanistic and Behavioural). • Focus on the conscious mind and/or behaviour (all others except Freud, Jung) versus focus on the unconscious mind and/or behaviour (Freud, Jung). Approach: Psychoanalysis is insight-oriented, humanistic therapy is person-centered and experiential, and behavioral therapy is action-oriented and focused on changing behavior. Techniques: Psychoanalysis uses introspection and interpretation, humanistic therapy uses empathy and reflection, and behavioral therapy uses systematic techniques and exposure. Philosophy: Psychoanalysis explores the past and unconscious, humanistic therapy focuses on the present and potential, and behavioral therapy emphasizes observable behavior and environmental influences. 3. What is person-centred therapy? What three conditions must be satisfied by the therapist to ensure a positive outcome? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit Person-Centred Therapy: Attaining Acceptance. No therapist better exemplifies the practice of humanistic-existential therapy than Carl Rogers (see Chapter 14). His therapy is nondirective because therapists don’t define or diagnose patients’ problems or try to get at the root cause of their difficulties. His approach is also called person- centred therapy because therapists don’t tell patients how to solve their problems, and patients can use the therapy hour however they choose. Therapists assume that patients will reveal important emotional patterns as the therapist–patient dialogue unfolds (Rogers, 1942). With increased awareness and heightened self-acceptance, people hopefully come to think more realistically, become more tolerant of others, and engage in more adaptive behaviours. To ensure a positive outcome, the therapist must satisfy three conditions: (1) The therapist must be an authentic, genuine person who reveals his or her own reactions to what the patient is communicating. (2) The therapist must express unconditional positive regard, that is, a nonjudgmental acceptance of all feelings the patient expresses. Rogers was convinced that unconditional positive regard elicits a more positive self-concept in patients. Over the course of therapy, he maintained, it allows patients to reclaim aspects of their “true selves” that they disowned earlier in life due to others placing conditions of worth on them. (3) The therapist must relate to patients with empathic understanding. In Rogers’s words, “To sense the patient’s world as if it were our own, but without ever losing the ‘as if ’ quality. This is empathy” (Rogers, 1957, p. 98). One way to communicate empathy is by way of reflection, that is, mirroring back the patient’s feelings—a technique for which Rogers was famous. Person-centered therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, emphasizes the importance of creating a supportive therapeutic environment where clients feel valued, understood, and accepted without judgment. The three conditions necessary for positive outcomes are: 1. Congruence (Genuineness): The therapist must be authentic and transparent in their interactions with the client. 2. Unconditional Positive Regard: The therapist must demonstrate acceptance, empathy, and respect towards the client, regardless of their behavior or emotions. 3. Empathy: The therapist must strive to understand the client's feelings and experiences from the client's perspective, communicating this understanding effectively. These conditions together foster an environment where clients can explore their thoughts, emotions, and experiences freely, leading to personal growth and self-acceptance. 4. Describe both systematic desensitisation and flooding, including how these are different with respect to a patient’s anxiety hierarchy. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Systematic desensitisation is an excellent example of how behaviour therapists apply learning principles to treatment. Psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe developed systematic desensitisation (SD) in 1958 to help patients manage phobias (see Chapter 2). Systematic desensitisation gradually exposes patients to anxiety-producing situations through the use of imagined scenes. Systematic desensitisation is based on the principle of reciprocal inhibition, which says that patients can’t experience two conflicting responses simultaneously. We can’t be anxious and relaxed at the same time because relaxation inhibits anxiety. Wolpe described his technique as a form of classical conditioning and called it counterconditioning. By pairing an incompatible relaxation response with anxiety, we condition a new and more adaptive response to anxiety-arousing stimuli. A therapist begins systematic desensitisation by teaching the patient how to relax. She might imagine pleasant scenes, focus on breathing and maintaining a slow breathing rate, and alternately tense and relax her muscles (Bernstein, Borkovec, & Hazlett-Stevens, 2000; Jacobson, 1938). Next, the therapist helps the patient to construct an anxiety hierarchy—a “ladder” of situations or scenes that climb from least to most anxiety provoking. The therapy proceeds in a stepwise manner. The therapist asks the patient to relax and imagine the first scene, and moves to the next, more anxiety-producing scene only after the patient reports feeling relaxed while imagining the first scene. Flooding therapies provide a vivid contrast to systematic desensitisation. Flooding therapists jump right to the top of the anxiety hierarchy and expose patients to images of the stimuli they fear the most for prolonged periods, ranging from 10 minutes to several hours. Flooding therapies are based on the idea that fears are maintained by avoidance. For example, because height phobics continually avoid high places, they never learn that the disastrous consequences they envision won’t occur. Ironically, their avoidance only reinforces their fears by means of negative reinforcement (see Chapter 6). The flooding therapist provokes anxiety repeatedly in the absence of actual negative consequences, so that extinction of the fear can proceed. A crucial component of flooding is response prevention, in which therapists prevent patients from performing their typical avoidance behaviours (Spiegler, 1983). A therapist may treat a person with a hand-washing compulsion by exposing her to dirt and preventing her from washing her hands. Systematic desensitization and flooding are behavioral therapies used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders: 1. Systematic Desensitization: Involves gradual exposure to feared stimuli while in a relaxed state, progressing through an anxiety hierarchy from least to most anxiety-provoking situations. 2. Flooding: Involves immediate and intense exposure to the most feared stimuli, without hierarchy or relaxation techniques, aiming for rapid extinction of anxiety responses through prolonged exposure. The key difference lies in the approach to the anxiety hierarchy: systematic desensitization progresses systematically through levels, while flooding confronts the most feared situation directly without hierarchy, relying on extinction of fear responses over time. 5. Describe the approach to therapy that Albert Ellis used, including his A-B-C-D-E’s of therapy. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Beginning in the mid-1950s, pioneering therapist Albert Ellis (Ellis, 1958, 1962) advocated rational emotive therapy (RET), more recently renamed rational emotive behavioural therapy (REBT). In many respects, REBT is a prime example of a cognitive-behavioural approach. It’s cognitive in its emphasis on changing how we think (that’s the “cognitive” part), but it also focuses on changing how we act (that’s the “behavioural” part). Ellis argued that we respond to an unpleasant activating (internal or external) event (A) with a range of emotional and behavioural consequences (C). As we all know, people often respond very differently to the same objective event; some students respond to an A– in a course by celebrating, whereas others respond by berating themselves for not getting an A. The crucial differences in how we respond to the same objective events stem largely from differences in (B)—our belief systems. The ABCs Ellis identified lie at the heart of most, if not all, cognitive-behaviour therapies. Some beliefs are rational: They’re flexible, logical, and promote self-acceptance. In contrast, irrational beliefs are associated with unrealistic demands about the self (“I must be perfect”), other people (“I must become worried about other people’s problems”), and life conditions (“I must be worried about things I can’t control”). Ellis also maintained that psychologically unhealthy people frequently “awfulize,” that is, engage in catastrophic thinking about their problems (“If I don’t get this job, it would be the worst thing that ever happened to me”). According to Ellis, our vulnerability to psychological disturbance is a product of the frequency and strength of our irrational beliefs. To his ABC scheme, Ellis added a (D) and an (E) component to describe how therapists treat patients. REBT therapists encourage patients to actively dispute (D) their irrational beliefs and adopt more effective (E) and rational beliefs to increase adaptive responses. To modify patients’ irrational beliefs, the therapist actively tries to encourage and persuade them to rethink their assumptions and personal philosophy. REBT therapists may assign “homework” designed to falsify clients’ maladaptive beliefs. Albert Ellis developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), which focuses on identifying and challenging irrational beliefs that lead to emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors. His A-B-C-D-E model outlines the following steps in therapy: A - Activating event (what triggers the emotional response) B - Beliefs (irrational beliefs about the activating event) C - Consequences (emotional and behavioral reactions to the beliefs) D - Disputing irrational beliefs (challenging and replacing irrational beliefs with rational ones) E - Effects (new emotional and behavioral responses resulting from rational beliefs) This approach helps clients develop more adaptive ways of thinking and responding to life's challenges. 6. Identify and discuss the similarities and differences between the Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and controlled drinking approaches to treating alcoholism. Answer: Answers will vary but need to contain the following points to earn full credit. • Both approaches involve others the individual can meet with who are working to help the individual. The mentor in AA is available when the individual finds him- or herself tempted to use alcohol, for example. The mentor in the controlled drinking approach focuses on helping to reinforce the patient's progress and deal with relapse when the person begins drinking. • Both encourage the individual to avoid situations and people that would tempt them to drink. • The approaches have very different goals. The AA approach focuses on total abstinence and providing a support system to reinforce sobriety via social support of individuals who understand the various temptations. The controlled drinking approach argues that controlled drinking can be learned and that teaching the individual how to deal with a lapse/relapse is as important, if not more important, than focusing on controlling the drinking. • The approaches differ in how acceptable the use of controlled drinking is. AA assumes that a single drink will reveal that an individual cannot control his or her drinking behaviour. The controlled drinking approach believes that drinking behaviour is learned like all other forms of behaviour. • Both approaches focus on the importance of control. In AA this control is internalised via external entities (higher power, social support, etc.) while in the controlled drinking approach, people focus on their own internal ability to engage in moderate, controlled drinking behaviour that is under their own control. Similarities between Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and the controlled drinking approach include their focus on addressing alcohol dependence and providing support for individuals struggling with alcohol use disorder. Both approaches emphasize behavioral change and support group participation. However, AA promotes abstinence as the primary goal, with a spiritual and twelve-step program framework. In contrast, the controlled drinking approach allows individuals to moderate their alcohol consumption, emphasizing self-control and harm reduction rather than complete abstinence. 7. Devon is entering psychotherapy and is anxious about the experience. One particular worry he has is that he might end up with a therapist who uses ineffective techniques. How would you advise him on what to look for during his first few sessions? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain at least two of the following ideas from each section with appropriate supportive discussion. Effective psychotherapists will: • establish a positive working relationship with patient/client. • select important topics to focus on during sessions. • match the treatment to the characteristics of the patient/client. • be warm, encouraging, and respectful toward the patient/client. • listen carefully and work to understand patient/client. • monitor patient/client changes. Ineffective psychotherapists will: • be defensive when questioned or challenged by a patient/client. • only use one “method” to treat all patients/clients. • lack clear focus during sessions and fail to address patient/client concerns. • not discuss evidence for effectiveness or efficacy of what he or she is doing. • not establish clear boundaries in therapeutic relationship. • break confidentiality of treatment when discussing case with other professionals or non professionals. Devon should prioritize finding a therapist who uses evidence-based practices supported by research, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), or acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). During the initial sessions, he should assess whether the therapist demonstrates empathy, understanding, and a collaborative approach tailored to his needs. It's also important to discuss treatment goals and how progress will be measured to ensure effective therapy outcomes. 8. Discuss how the critical thinker would use what he or she knows to help distinguish between effective and ineffective therapies so that he or she is not fooled into using an ineffective therapy. Answer: Answers will vary but include all of the following, including relevant supportive examples, for full credit. The critical thinker will focus on two principles of critical thinking: • Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. The critical thinker would demand evidence of the effectiveness of any treatment and would be quick, hopefully, to spot situations where anecdotal evidence and case study observations were being used as substitutes for more rigorous research designs. • Ruling out rival hypotheses. This is an important concern given that issues of spontaneous remission, the placebo effect, and regression to the mean would all represent instances where an important change is actually due to something other than the actual effectiveness of the psychotherapy. • Lastly the critical thinker would also be careful to avoid the role of hope and rewriting the past. The critical thinker would attempt to create a situation where his or her own biases and hopes would not impact his or her judgment of a proposed therapy. By insisting on actual evidence, rather than on one's thoughts and feelings that can change more than one realises, the critical thinker could avoid some of the errors that allow people to be fooled by the apparent effectiveness of ineffective therapies. A critical thinker would evaluate therapies based on empirical evidence, looking for studies demonstrating effectiveness, peer-reviewed research, and expert consensus. They would seek therapies aligned with established psychological principles and theories, while being wary of treatments lacking scientific support or promoting quick fixes without substantial evidence of efficacy. 9. There are many therapies that exist that are endorsed by some therapists, celebrities, and patients, but may be ineffective (e.g., primal scream therapy, rebirthing therapy, rage reduction therapy). What are the five reasons that can help us to understand why these therapies sometimes gain a dedicated public following? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. (1) Spontaneous remission. The patient’s recovery may have nothing at all to do with the treatment. All of us have our “ups and downs.” Similarly, many psychological problems are self-limiting or cyclical and improve without any intervention. A breakup with our latest crush may depress us for a while, but most of us will improve even without professional help. This phenomenon is known as spontaneous remission. Even with forms of cancer that are nearly always lethal, tumours occasionally disappear without further treatment, although such events are rare (Silverman, 1987). Spontaneous remission is surprisingly common in psychotherapy. Only if people who are treated improve at a rate that exceeds that of untreated people, or those on a wait list, can we rule out the effects of spontaneous remission. (2) The placebo effect. The pesky placebo effect (see Chapters 2 and 12) can lead to significant symptom relief. By instilling hope and the conviction that we can rise to life’s challenges, virtually any credible treatment can be helpful in alleviating our demoralisation. (3) Self-serving biases. Even when they don’t improve, patients who are strongly invested in psychotherapy and have shelled out a lot of money in the pursuit of well-being can convince themselves they’ve been helped. Because it would be too troubling to admit to oneself (or others) that it’s all been a waste of time, energy, and effort, there’s often a strong psychological pull to find value in a treatment (Axsom & Cooper, 1985). Patients may also overestimate their apparent successes while ignoring, downplaying, or explaining away their failures as a means of maintaining their self- esteem (Beyerstein & Hadaway, 1991). (4) Regression to the mean. It’s a statistical fact of life that extreme scores tend to become less extreme on retesting, a phenomenon known as regression to the mean. If you receive a zero on your first psychology exam, there’s a silver lining to this grey cloud: You’ll almost surely do better on your second exam! Conversely, if you receive a 100 on your first exam, odds are also high you won’t do as well the second time around. Scores on measures of psychopathology are no different. If a patient comes into treatment extremely depressed, the chances are high she’ll be less depressed in a few weeks. Regression to the mean can fool therapists and their patients into believing that a useless treatment is effective. It’s an especially tricky problem in evaluating whether psychotherapy is effective, because most patients enter psychotherapy when their symptoms are most extreme. (5) Retrospective rewriting of the past. In some cases, we may believe we’ve improved even when we haven’t because we misremember our initial (pre-treatment) level of adjustment as worse than it was. We expect to change after treatment, and may adjust our memories to fit this expectation. 1. Celebrity Endorsement: When influential figures promote a therapy, it gains public attention and credibility. 2. Anecdotal Evidence: Personal testimonials or stories of dramatic improvement can sway public opinion, despite lacking scientific validation. 3. Appeal to Emotion: Therapies that promise emotional catharsis or quick relief from distress may attract individuals seeking immediate solutions. 4. Media Coverage: Sensationalized media reports or documentaries can create a buzz around unconventional therapies, influencing public perception. 5. Desperation for Solutions: Individuals facing chronic or complex issues may be more willing to try alternative therapies out of a desire for hope or perceived personal connection to the therapy's philosophy. 10. Discuss three major areas of concern about the effectiveness of drug treatments. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Concern over suicidal thoughts. Some psychologists have raised serious questions about the effectiveness of the SSRIs, especially among children and adolescents (Kendall, Pilling, & Whittington, 2005). There also are widely publicized indications that SSRIs increase the risk of suicidal thoughts in people younger than 18 years of age, although there’s no clear evidence that they increase the risk of completed suicide. For this reason, both the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Health Canada now require drug manufacturers to include warnings of possible suicide risk on the labels of SSRIs. Scientists don’t understand why antidepressants increase suicidal thoughts in some children and adolescents. These drugs sometimes produce agitation, so some researchers have speculated that they can make already depressed people even more distressed and possibly suicidal (Brambilla, Cipriani, Hotopf, & Barbui, 2005). Yet the risk of suicide attempts and completions among people prescribed SSRIs remains very low. Physicians frequently prescribe SSRIs to treat anxiety disorders, including panic disorder and OCD. Fortunately, anxious patients without depression aren’t at especially high risk for suicide. Overprescription of medication. Another area of public concern regarding drug treatments is overprescription. Parents, teachers, and helping professionals have expressed particular alarm that psychostimulants for ADHD such as Ritalin (methylphenidate) are overprescribed and may substitute for effective coping strategies for focusing attention (LeFever, Arcona, & Antonuccio, 2003; Safer, 2000). Since the early 1990s, the number of prescriptions for ADHD has increased fourfold. Although little is known about the long-term safety of Ritalin with children under 6, the number of prescriptions for children ages 2 (!) to 4 nearly tripled between 1991 and 1995 alone (Bentley & Walsh, 2006). Critics of psychostimulants have pointed to their potential for abuse. Moreover, their adverse effects include insomnia, irritability, heart-related complications, and stunted growth. Children should be diagnosed with ADHD and placed on stimulants only after they’ve been evaluated with input from parents and teachers. Yet 70 to 80 percent of children with ADHD can be treated effectively with medications (Steele et al., 2006), which can sometimes be combined to good advantage with behavioural therapy Polypharmacy. A final major area of concern is polypharmacy: prescribing many medications—sometimes five or more—at the same time. This practice can be hazardous if not carefully monitored, because certain medications may interfere with the effects of other medications or interact with them in dangerous ways. Polypharmacy is a particular problem among elderly individuals, who tend to be especially susceptible to drug side effects Three major areas of concern about the effectiveness of drug treatments include: 1. Placebo Effect: The potential for patients to experience improvements simply due to their belief in the treatment's effectiveness, rather than the drug's actual pharmacological action. 2. Side Effects: Drugs may have adverse effects that outweigh their benefits, leading to discomfort or health risks for patients. 3. Long-Term Efficacy: Some drugs may show initial effectiveness but fail to maintain therapeutic benefits over extended periods, raising questions about sustainability and the need for ongoing treatment adjustments. Fill in the Blank Questions 1. _______________ are persons who lack formal professional training but have received agency specific training to provide psychological services. Answer: Paraprofessionals 2. The goal of _______________ therapies is to increase awareness about the underlying cause or causes of one's psychological disorder. Answer: insight 3. Unlike Freud, the Neo-Freudians focused more on the _______________ aspects of a patient's functioning. Answer: conscious 4. The most nondirective form of psychotherapy is _______________. Answer: person-centred therapy 5. Keegan has entered into rehabilitation for both an alcohol abuse problem as well as an addiction to cocaine. His therapist recognises that Keegan may not wish to change some of his long-standing behaviours that have precipitated his problems. Therefore she spends the first two sessions working with Keegan to identify the reasons for changing and not changing his life. This form of person-centred therapy is known as ___________ Answer: motivational interviewing. 6. Maureen is a vocalist who seems to have two conflicting parts to her personality. There is the "performer" side that thrives on the attention she receives and the "frightened" side that experiences great distress before and during a performance because she might mess up. A _______________ therapist would focus on merging these two incompletes into a new complete personality. Answer: Gestalt 7. Systematic desensitisation works on the principle of _______________. Answer: reciprocal inhibition 8. Wallace is forced to confront his fear of germs by cleaning the private bathroom in his psychotherapist's office. Wallace's doctor is using _______________ therapy to extinguish his fear. Answer: exposure 9. The behavioural technique of _______________ exposes the patient to the most intense anxiety- provoking stimuli for a prolonged period of time. Answer: flooding 10. By watching other group members engaged in her feared situation, going up to a stranger and engaging in conversation, LuEllen was able to see how she too could be successful in this situation. This is one example of the observational learning technique of __________ Answer: modelling. 11. Ronnie, a mentally challenged 45-year-old male, lives in a group home. He receives play money for cleaning his bedroom and other chores that he can later "spend" on group activities around the city, new clothes, or candy. Ronnie's behaviour is being directed by a _______________. Answer: token economy. 12. One could think of the cognitive-behavioural therapies as a method for falsifying irrational _______________. Answer: beliefs. 13. A main focus of cognitive therapy is to identify, challenge, and change one's ___________ Answer: negative self- statements (or negative beliefs is also correct). 14. The highest percentage of clinical psychologists and psychiatrists would label their therapeutic orientation as _____________ Answer: eclectic (or eclectic/integrative therapy). 15. Group therapy is often a preferred approach to psychotherapy over individual therapy because it is more _______________ and less costly. Answer: efficient 16. Probably the most famous form of self-help group therapy is __________ Answer: Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). 17. The _______________ perspective disagrees with the AA model of total abstinence from alcohol. Answer: controlled drinking 18. The key to understanding dysfunctional family dynamics is to study the _______________ that occur within this group. Answer: communication patterns 19. Sometimes people recover from a serious illness such as depression without receiving or seeking out any help from a psychologist or clergy member. This is known as _______________. Answer: spontaneous remission 20. An ineffective therapy may appear to be helpful, even when it really is not, because the client believes that it will be effective. This is what psychologists refer to as the _______________. Answer: placebo effect 21. _______________ is the name given to the use of medications to treat or control psychological problems. Answer: Psychopharmacotherapy (the term “drug therapy” is also correct) 22. An important criticism for many of the pharmacological forms of treatment for psychological disorders is that we are not sure _______________. Answer: how the medications work 23. Two of the more controversial forms of psychological interventions for psychological disorders are _______________ and _______________. Answer: electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), psychosurgery 24. The biological treatment _______________, once hailed as a revolutionary innovation, is today an option only considered when all others have failed because of its negative effects on emotions, memory, and personality. Answer: psychosurgery (or frontal lobotomy) FINAL EXAM 1. A psychologist is often skeptical of claims suggesting A. people are influenced by others' thoughts and behaviours. B. a particular behaviour is the result of a single causal factor. C. that a person's future behaviour is often difficult to predict accurately. D. a person's culture is a strong influence on his or her everyday thoughts and behaviours. Answer: B 2. In 2005, then Harvard president Lawrence Summers suggested, to much controversy, that fewer women may achieve in scientific fields because of a lack of innate ability in science. Which is the best evaluation of this claim, from a psychological science perspective? A. This claim is probably correct. Evolutionary psychology research has proven that to aid in hunting and war, males developed superior spatial awareness over females. B. This claim is probably incorrect. Psychological research suggests that behaviours are attributable mostly to our environments. C. This claim is probably incorrect. Psychological research suggests that behaviours are attributable to a complex interaction between our genes and environments. D. This claim is probably correct. Psychological research suggests that behaviours are attributable mostly to our genes. Answer: C 3. All types of psychology involve A. replicating what is already known via common sense. B. treating people's behavioural and emotional problems. C. interactions between patients and therapists. D. the use of scientific methods. Answer: D 4. If you were to do a presentation on “Psychology's Great Debates” you would be most likely to make which of the following points? A. Research indicates that most people possess a remarkable insight into the underlying cause(s) of their behaviour. B. Psychologists consider the “mind” to be nothing more than brain and nervous system activity. C. Evidence suggests that free will is illusory to some extent. D. Different human behaviours result from levels of nature and nurture influences. Answer: D 5. According to the authors, much of the knowledge from popular psychology sources A. is consistent with the results of psychological research. B. is of no or very little interest to psychologists. C. is contradicted by what psychological research has demonstrated. D. is not able to be studied empirically. Answer: C 6. Your friend claims that psychology is a subjective art, and not an objective science. He says that psychology researchers will “see” whatever they want to see in their participants, just to prove a hypothesis. Based upon your textbook readings, you should explain to your friend that A. he is describing the confirmation bias, but psychologists use a double-blind design or meta-analysis to alleviate this concern. B. he is describing an illusory correlation, but psychologists use a correlational design to alleviate this concern. C. he is describing the representativeness heuristic, but psychologists use a double- blind design to alleviate this concern. D. he is describing the availability heuristic, but psychologists use the case study design to alleviate this concern. Answer: A 7. If a researcher's initial findings that a particular relationship or effect exists are not reliably demonstrated by other independent researchers, how are these initial findings thought of in the discipline of psychology? A. As an error or fluke in research B. As a hoax or scam C. As a real phenomenon that exists for some gifted people but not for everyone D. As a deliberate, unethical attempt to falsify one's data Answer: A 8. Some parents of children with autism strongly believe that vaccines cause autism. They claim that the child was perfectly normal until the child received vaccines. Which is the best evaluation of these claims, from a psychological science perspective? A. Although these parents may be right, an illusory correlation could be responsible for the perceived link between vaccines and autism. B. These parents are probably right. Psychological research strongly suggests that everyday intuition is almost always correct. C. These parents are probably right. Psychological research strongly suggests that the world is exactly as we see it. D. Although these parents may be right, a greater number of parents would have to make this claim in order to validate that vaccines cause autism. Answer: A 9. Correlational research designs are NOT appropriate for purposes of A. causation. B. prediction. C. description. D. any of the above. Answer: A 10. The term statistical significance implies that the results are A. valid. B. extremely meaningful. C. important. D. not likely due to chance. Answer: D 11. The _______________ gland is known as the master gland because it controls the other glands in the body. A. pituitary B. pineal C. thyroid D. adrenal Answer: A 12. Which of the following statements is TRUE? A. Losses of small areas of certain parts of the brain can cause devastating, often permanent, losses of function. B. Every part of the brain has a function. C. All the brain areas become active on brain scans at one time or another as we think, feel, and perceive. D. All of the statements are correct. Answer: D 13. People's genetic makeup is their A. genotype. B. mRNA. C. genome. D. phenotype. Answer: A 14. Darwin hypothesized that populations of organisms, rather than individuals, change by selective breeding with other organisms possessing some apparent advantage. This is known as A. natural selection. B. brain evolution. C. behavioural adaptation. D. behavioural genetics. Answer: A 15. The organization and interpretation of olfactory information is one example of A. accommodation. B. sensation. C. perception. D. transduction. Answer: C 16. The ability to detect physical energy through our visual or touch systems is known as A. accommodation. B. perception. C. transduction. D. sensation. Answer: D 17. The central sense in human existence is A. touch. B. taste. C. sight. D. hearing. Answer: C 18. One's difficulty in attaining adequate nightly sleep would likely be diagnosed as a psychological disorder A. even if it occurs relatively infrequently. B. if it interferes with daily activities such as work, and negatively impacts a person's health. C. when it results from a deliberate choice, such as studying all night for an exam. D. only if the person feels that the lack of sleep is causing problems in other areas. Answer: B 19. Audience members at hypnosis demonstrations are often amazed by seemingly extraordinary events. They seem to have failed to realize that the persons who are on stage demonstrating the power of hypnosis were selected for their A. flexibility. B. reactivity. C. gullibility. D. suggestibility. Answer: D 20. _______________ occurs when people require larger amounts of a drug to experience the same effects experienced during their initial usage. A. Tolerance B. Physical withdrawal C. Psychological withdrawal D. Satiety Answer: A 21. In Pavlov's “salivating dogs” studies, the salivation triggered by the sound of the tone was the A. unconditioned stimulus. B. unconditioned response. C. conditioned stimulus. D. conditioned response. Answer: D 22. While on a cruiseship, Kevin became sick after eating a seafood dinner. His food poisoning coupled with sea sickness led to a terrible vacation and, consequently, Kevin shivers at the mere sight of cruiseships. Kevin's behaviour illustrates the process of A. acquisition. B. discrimination. C. scapegoating. D. generalization. Answer: D 23. Which of the following is true regarding schedules of reinforcement? A. Partial reinforcement allows for new behaviours to be learned more quickly as compared to continuous reinforcement. B. Continuous reinforcement schedules involve reinforcing behaviour based on fixed time interval schedules. C. Partial reinforcement of target behaviour leads to greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. D. Continuous reinforcement of target behaviour leads to greater resistance to extinction than does partial reinforcement. Answer: C 24. Which of the following describes the main difference between observational learning and operant conditioning? A. Observational learning uses mainly punishment to condition behaviour as compared to operant conditioning, which uses both reinforcement and punishment. B. Observational learning uses punishment and reinforcement of models to condition the behaviours of observers. C. Observational learning uses different schedules of punishment and reinforcement to condition behaviours as compared to operant conditioning. D. Observational learning uses mainly reinforcement to condition behaviour as compared to operant conditioning, which uses both reinforcement and punishment. Answer: B 25. During lecture each day, a psychology professor may explain four main points he or she wishes the class to retain. However, most students do not think about the material again until the following class period two days later. The forgetting that occurs between classes is most likely the result of A. interference. B. bias. C. decay. D. suggestibility. Answer: C 26. Schemas can help us navigate a complex world. Yet our schemas are not always correct. This best illustrates which of the following themes from your textbook? A. Our intuitions are usually correct, but can occasionally deceive us. B. Our intuitions can help protect us against scientific error. C. Adaptive processes of simplification can sometimes be maladaptive. D. Contrary to popular belief, our memories are very poor. Answer: C 27. Language is A. a symbolic system of communication. B. a communication system that requires little implicit processing. C. a communication system that includes words, but not gestures. D. rarely ambiguous. Answer: A 28. Your family dog is named “Happy.” Anytime your young child sees a dog, she calls out “Happy.” This is an example of A. overextension. B. comprehension before production. C. under extension. D. incorrect word meaning. Answer: A 29. Which of the following statements is TRUE concerning the relationship between brain size and intelligence? A. Higher brain volume causes higher intelligence test scores. B. Higher brain volume is unrelated to intelligence test scores. C. The higher the brain volume is, the lower the intelligence test scores. D. The higher the brain volume is, the higher the intelligence test scores. Answer: D 30. Concerning intelligence and memory, which statement is TRUE? A. Intelligence test scores tend to be positively correlated with scores on short- term memory tests. B. Intelligence test scores tend to be unrelated to scores on short-term memory tests. C. Intelligence test scores tend to be inversely correlated with scores on short-term memory tests. D. Intelligence test scores tend to be negatively correlated with scores on short- term memory tests. Answer: A 31. Which of the following theorists would most likely disagree with the ideals of the eugenics movement? A. Gardner B. Goddard C. Galton D. Darwin Answer: A 32. Kent is able to perform mathematical operations only if he can use physical experience and familiar examples in working up his answers. Kent is in Piaget's _______________ stage. A. preoperational B. formal operations C. sensorimotor D. concrete operations Answer: D 33. At five years old, Sammy is better able to understand his friends' feelings as compared to when he was three years old. Sammy is acquiring a A. theory of mind. B. self-concept. C. sense of self-reflection. D. sense of identity. Answer: A 34. Authoritarian parents are _______________ disciplinarians and they are _______________ with punishment. A. strict; quick B. lenient; slow C. lenient; quick D. strict; slow Answer: A 35. According to research on Erikson’s identity crisis model, which is TRUE? A. Unsuccessful resolution of a crisis decreases the likelihood that a future crisis will be successfully resolved. B. In most cases psychosocial crises go unresolved with no detrimental effects on social development. C. In most cases psychosocial crises are unsuccessfully resolved leading to detrimental effects on social development. D. Unsuccessful resolution of a crisis has no effect on whether a future crisis will be successfully resolved. Answer: A 36. Which of the following is TRUE regarding Piaget's and Erikson's theories? A. Children in Piaget's preoperational stage should also be working on issues in Erikson's trust versus mistrust stage of development. B. Children in Piaget's formal operational stage should also be working on issues in Erikson's autonomy versus shame and doubt stage of development. C. Children in Piaget's preoperational stage should also be working on issues in identity versus role confusion stage of development. D. Children in Piaget's sensorimotor stage should also be working on issues in Erikson's industry versus inferiority stage of development. Answer: C 37. The two-factor theory of emotion suggests that A. emotions and bodily reactions are simultaneously produced by stimuli. B. emotions are from our interpretations of bodily reactions to stimuli. C. emotions are produced by both autonomic arousal and cognition. D. emotions are based upon our gut feelings. Answer: C 38. In general, which of the following is the least related with happiness? A. Marriage B. Flow C. Money D. Political affiliation Answer: C 39. The tendency for our moods to adapt to external circumstances is known as A. locus of control. B. treadmill exercise. C. hedonic treadmill. D. display rules. Answer: C 40. The strategy of anticipating failure and then compensating for this expectation by mentally overpreparing for negative outcomes is known as A. pessimistic psychology. B. negative adaptation. C. positive psychology. D. defensive pessimism. Answer: D 41. The fact that we always expect rewards for performing a task can best be explained by A. approach. B. intrinsic motivation. C. contrast effect. D. positive motivation. Answer: C 42. _______________ is the tension, discomfort, or physical symptoms that arise when a situation strains the ability to cope effectively. A. Anxiety B. Fear C. Stimulator D. Stress Answer: D 43. Corticosteroids are stress hormones that A. calm the body when facing a stressful situation. B. stimulate nervous breakdowns. C. interfere with the body's ability to function during stressful events. D. activate the body and prepare it to respond to stressful circumstances. Answer: D 44. Amanda signed up with the army right after she graduated from high school. She was soon sent to Afghanistan. During her two years in Afghanistan, she witnessed many gruesome catastrophes. Upon returning home, she felt detached and estranged from her old friends, was easily startled, and had difficulties sleeping due to the vivid memories of the horrific events. Amanda displays the symptoms of A. flashbacks. B. depression. C. anxiety. D. posttraumatic stress disorder. Answer: D 45. Jayci lost her husband, daughter, and home in a widespread wildfire. To overcome this ordeal, she turns to old friends and support groups set up in the community for emotional comfort, information, companionship, advice, and financial assistance. This relationship is known as A. social support. B. camaraderie. C. coping. D. networking. Answer: A 46. Stacie is interested in researching the effects of catharsis on health. What will she likely find in the literature? A. Catharsis can be harmful when it reinforces a sense of helplessness. B. Yelling, punching pillows, and throwing balls significantly reduce long-term stress. C. Catharsis can be harmful when it involves problem solving and/or constructive means to make the stressful situation “right.” D. All of the above. Answer: A 47. Social psychology is best defined as the scientific study of A. social influence. B. sociology. C. deviant behaviour. D. groups. Answer: D 48. What is the moral or take-home message of Solomon Asch's series of experiments in which participants were asked to judge the lengths of lines? People will go to great lengths A. to please people on whom they depend. B. to fit in with others. C. to convince others of their points of view. D. to assert their independence. Answer: B 49. At a crowded park Kayla sees an old man clutching his heart and stumbling. If Kayla assumes that someone else will help the old man, she is experiencing the phenomenon known as A. evaluation apprehension. B. diffusion of responsibility. C. pluralistic ignorance. D. social loafing. Answer: B 50. The following types of people may exhibit high levels of prejudice against a wide variety of out-groups EXCEPT A. people with authoritarian personality traits. B. people with high levels of extrinsic religiosity. C. people with a high need for conformity. D. people with high levels of intrinsic religiosity. Answer: D 51. A common criticism of Adler, Freud, and Jung's theories of personality development is A. they are filled with unfalsifiable claims. B. they overestimate the importance of the conscious mind in personality development. C. they underestimate the human capacity for engaging in selfish and destructive actions. D. they place too much importance on adolescence and not enough on early childhood experiences. Answer: A 52. What perspective on personality development is most concerned with how one's learning history influences who they later become? A. Behavioural B. Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic C. Humanism-existential D. Trait Answer: A 53. The role of one's thought patterns in personality development was emphasized by A. classical conditioning theorists. B. operant conditioning theorists. C. humanistic theorists. D. social learning theorists. Answer: D 54. A concern with personal goals and increased individual self-esteem is most characteristic of those from _______________ cultures. A. collectivistic B. narcissistic C. selfish D. individualistic Answer: D 55. According to the authors, the key criteria for evaluating personality assessments are A. objectivity and validity. B. reliability and objectivity. C. objectivity and reliability. D. reliability and validity. Answer: D 56. Dikeshia is giving a presentation in her abnormal psychology class on the prevalence of psychological disorders. If you were a student in that class, what general category of disorders would you expect her to mention as one of the most prevalent psychological disorders? A. Dissociative disorders B. Personality disorders C. Schizophrenia D. Anxiety disorders Answer: D 57. Major changes in sleep patterns, weight level, and feelings about one's self-worth characterize A. social anxiety. B. schizophrenia. C. agoraphobia. D. major depressive disorder. Answer: D 58. What specific psychological disorder is marked by cycles of extreme activity and inactivity? A. Major depressive disorder B. Obsessive-compulsive disorder C. Catatonic schizophrenia D. Bipolar disorder Answer: D 59. The research data suggest that schizophrenia results from A. difficulties in learning. B. poor mother–child relationships. C. troubles in filtering information from one's social world. D. biological/genetic causes. Answer: D 60. What category of psychological disorders is characterized by inflexible and maladaptive behavioural patterns? A. Dissociative disorders B. Anxiety disorders C. Personality disorders D. Schizophrenia Answer: C 61. Carmelo is giving a report to his graduate seminar on research on the effectiveness of psychodynamic therapies. Which point would you be most likely to hear him make if you were in that seminar? A. Active confrontation of irrational thinking and the display of empathy are two important psychodynamic therapeutic techniques. B. Practising new, adaptive behaviours is more important than gaining insight into one's unconscious conflicts. C. Unconscious motives clearly impact our daily behaviour in many different and important ways. D. Claims of repressed traumatic memories is a growing problem and there is strong research to support the validity of such claims. Answer: B 62. The ultimate goal of humanistic therapy is for a person to A. gain insight and move forward in their seeking of their ultimate potential. B. change their maladaptive thoughts about themselves and their life circumstances. C. uncover the hidden motivations that impact their conscious thoughts and behaviours. D. change their maladaptive behaviours and reactions to challenging situations. Answer: A 63. Flooding and other forms of exposure therapy are used to allow one's fear to be A. inhibited. B. extinguished. C. challenged. D. exacerbated. Answer: B 64. One reason that nearly any type of credible treatment may produce strong beneficial effects is that people hope it will and want it to work. This idea is referred to as A. the self-serving bias. B. regression to the mean. C. spontaneous remission. D. the placebo effect. Answer: D 65. A major concern with using self-help books rather than seeking out professional guidance and assistance is that A. the claims made in most self-help books have never been scientifically tested. B. few clinicians would ever recommend such materials to their clients. C. self-help authors are just writing them to make money rather than help people. D. self-help books tend to challenge conventional wisdom and are more effective than seeing a psychiatrist or clinical psychologist. Answer: A 66. IQ is positively correlated with the ability to defend our beliefs but negatively correlated with the ability to consider alternative hypotheses. This tendency is most closely related to which decision-making bias? A. Hindsight bias B. Representativeness C. Availability bias D. Confirmation bias Answer: D 67. The Mozart Effect—the supposed enhancement in intelligence after listening to classical music—was based upon a study of college students who showed significant improvement on a spatial reasoning task immediately after listening to Mozart for ten minutes. Parents who immediately rushed out to buy “Mozart Effect” CDs for their babies were likely unaware of which of the following features of research methods? A. External validity B. Internal validity C. Statistical significance D. Informed consent Answer: A 68. Your Uncle Bob tells you that he has started past-life therapy in which a therapist helps him understand the trauma that occurred to him during a previous life. Should you be concerned? A. Yes, past-life therapy may result in both opportunity costs and direct harm. B. No, although it is likely that past-life therapy isn't valid, it won't cause any harm, and your uncle may benefit from the placebo effect. C. No, past-life therapy, like systematic desensitisation, has been found to be effective in treating anxiety related disorders. D. Yes, rebirthing therapy has been proven more effective than past-life therapy for anxiety related disorders. Answer: A 69. Because we are cognitive misers, we sometimes rely on stereotypes to assess others. Yet our stereotypes are not always correct. This best illustrates which of the following themes from your textbook? A. Adaptive processes of simplification can sometimes be maladaptive. B. Our intuitions can help protect us against scientific error. C. Our intuitions are usually correct, but can occasionally deceive us. D. Contrary to popular belief, our memories are very poor. Answer: A 70. Some therapists who work with children use anatomically detailed dolls to try to infer whether they've been sexually abused. If a child engages in sexualized doll play, the therapists infer that the child was sexually abused. These therapists are forgetting about A. the hindsight bias. B. the Hawthorne effect. C. Oberg's dictum. D. illusory correlations. Answer: D MID-TERM EXAM 1. According to the authors, psychology is a method for A. gaining deeper insight into how and why people think and act a certain way. B. knowing how to turn people from maladaptive to adaptive actions, feelings, and thoughts. C. determining simple answers to complex questions. D. restating common- sense findings in a more convoluted manner. Answer: A 2. A psychologist is often skeptical of claims suggesting A. that a person's future behaviour is often difficult to predict accurately. B. a particular behaviour is the result of a single causal factor. C. people are influenced by others' thoughts and behaviours. D. a person's culture is a strong influence on his or her everyday thoughts and behaviours. Answer: B 3. In 2005, then Harvard president Lawrence Summers suggested, to much controversy, that fewer women may achieve in scientific fields because of a lack of innate ability in science. Which is the best evaluation of this claim, from a psychological science perspective? A. This claim is probably correct. Psychological research suggests that behaviours are attributable mostly to our genes. B. This claim is probably incorrect. Psychological research suggests that behaviours are attributable mostly to our environments. C. This claim is probably correct. Evolutionary psychology research has proven that to aid in hunting and war, males developed superior spatial awareness over females. D. This claim is probably incorrect. Psychological research suggests that behaviours are attributable to a complex interaction between our genes and environments. Answer: D 4. All types of psychology involve A. the use of scientific methods. B. treating people's behavioural and emotional problems. C. interactions between patients and therapists. D. replicating what is already known via common sense. Answer: A 5. If you were to do a presentation on “Psychology's Great Debates” you would be most likely to make which of the following points? A. Research indicates that most people possess a remarkable insight into the underlying cause(s) of their behaviour. B. Psychologists consider the “mind” to be nothing more than brain and nervous system activity. C. Evidence suggests that free will is illusory to some extent. D. Different human behaviours result from levels of nature and nurture influences. Answer: D 6. According to the authors, much of the knowledge from popular psychology sources A. is not able to be studied empirically. B. is consistent with the results of psychological research. C. is of no or very little interest to psychologists. D. is contradicted by what psychological research has demonstrated. Answer: D 7. According to your authors, the discipline of psychology is best thought of as A. a field of self-help principles to eliminate mental problems. B. a science of human behaviour and mental processes. C. a mixture of anecdotes and personal intuition about human behaviour and mental processes. D. a process for encouraging people to reach their ultimate potential. Answer: B 8. Your friend claims that psychology is a subjective art, and not an objective science. He says that psychology researchers will “see” whatever they want to see in their participants, just to prove a hypothesis. Based upon your textbook readings, you should explain to your friend that A. he is describing the confirmation bias, but psychologists use a double-blind design or meta-analysis to alleviate this concern. B. he is describing the availability heuristic, but psychologists use the case study design to alleviate this concern. C. he is describing the representativeness heuristic, but psychologists use a double- blind design to alleviate this concern. D. he is describing an illusory correlation, but psychologists use a correlational design to alleviate this concern. Answer: A 9. In science, a scientific theory is defined as a(n) A. educated opinion about the natural world. B. testable prediction about the natural world. C. personal understanding of natural laws. D. explanatory device for scientific findings. Answer: D 10. If a researcher's initial findings that a particular relationship or effect exists are not reliably demonstrated by other independent researchers, how are these initial findings thought of in the discipline of psychology? A. As a hoax or scam B. As a real phenomenon that exists for some gifted people but not for everyone C. As a deliberate, unethical attempt to falsify one's data D. As an error or fluke in research Answer: D 11. Some parents of children with autism strongly believe that vaccines cause autism. They claim that the child was perfectly normal until the child received vaccines. Which is the best evaluation of these claims, from a psychological science perspective? A. These parents are probably right. Psychological research strongly suggests that the world is exactly as we see it. B. These parents are probably right. Psychological research strongly suggests that everyday intuition is almost always correct. C. Although these parents may be right, a greater number of parents would have to make this claim in order to validate that vaccines cause autism. D. Although these parents may be right, an illusory correlation could be responsible for the perceived link between vaccines and autism. Answer: D 12. Research has shown that serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are useful in treating people with depression. Lately Jill has been having very negative thoughts and feelings about herself and was diagnosed with depression. Which of the following could be true? A. Jill's negative thoughts and feelings are causing her serotonin levels to change. B. Jill has an inadequate level of serotonin which is causing her negative thoughts and feelings. C. Both A and B are possible. D. Neither A, B, nor C are possible. Answer: c 13. An important point from the authors' discussion on why people need to care about the dangers of pseudoscience is that A. harm rarely results from pseudoscientific beliefs or treatments. B. people are often quite accurate and unbiased in their day-to-day decision making. C. quackery and pseudoscience are especially easy to detect without exposure to critical thinking or skepticism. D. a lack of critical thinking may lead to poor decisions that affects one's personal life, community, and/or their child's schooling. Answer: D 14. When a researcher tests his or her hypothesis, he or she is often hoping to gather information that is consistent with a particular theory. What, more specifically, allows a researcher to say that he or she has “proven” a theory? A. Any time a hypothesis is confirmed, a theory is automatically “proven.” B. Any time a hypothesis confirms one theory and simultaneously disconfirms all other known theories, a theory has been “proven.” C. Any time a hypothesis confirms one theory and simultaneously disconfirms at least one other theory, a theory has been “proven.” D. A researcher is never able to say that he or she has “proven” a theory. Answer: D 15. Correlational research designs are NOT appropriate for purposes of A. prediction. B. description. C. causation. D. any of the above. Answer: C 16. The only research design that allows one to make cause-and-effect inferences is the _______________ design. A. case study B. naturalistic observation C. experimental D. correlational Answer: C 17. The most important factor to ensure that one's results apply to other people in other settings is to use A. random assignment. B. extremely large sample sizes. C. random selection. D. extremely small sample sizes. Answer: C 18. The term statistical significance implies that the results are A. extremely meaningful. B. not likely due to chance. C. valid. D. important. Answer: B 19. The _______________ gland is known as the master gland because it controls the other glands in the body. A. pituitary B. pineal C. thyroid D. adrenal Answer: A 20. Mobombi had completed about a quarter of the distance in the marathon in which he was a participant. Suddenly, he stumbled and fell. Despite feeling a sharp pain initially, he got up and continued to run until he completed the race. Upon crossing the finish line, he fell down writhing in pain. When checked out, it was discovered that Mobombi had broken his leg. He was able to run the remainder of the marathon relatively pain-free due to the release of A. endorphins. B. monoamines. C. neuropeptides. D. amino acids. Answer: A 21. Which of the following statements is TRUE? A. Every part of the brain has a function. B. All the brain areas become active on brain scans at one time or another as we think, feel, and perceive. C. Losses of small areas of certain parts of the brain can cause devastating, often permanent, losses of function. D. All of the statements are correct. Answer: D 22. People's genetic makeup is their A. genome. B. phenotype. C. genotype. D. mRNA. Answer: C 23. Darwin hypothesized that populations of organisms, rather than individuals, change by selective breeding with other organisms possessing some apparent advantage. This is known as A. brain evolution. B. natural selection. C. behavioural genetics. D. behavioural adaptation. Answer: B 24. The organisation and interpretation of olfactory information is one example of A. transduction. B. accommodation. C. perception. D. sensation. Answer: C 25. The ability to detect physical energy through our visual or touch systems is known as A. accommodation. B. transduction. C. sensation. D. perception. Answer: C 26. The central sense in human existence is A. hearing. B. taste. C. sight. D. touch. Answer: C 27. What experimental apparatus has been used to study depth perception in infants? A. Escher lithographs B. Zener cards C. The Ames Room D. The visual cliff Answer: D 28. Which of the following sensory difficulties is likely to be the most dangerous? A. Pain insensitivity B. Loss of smell C. Deafness D. Blindness Answer: A 29. One's mental perspective and personal understanding of the world are what psychologists refer to as A. perception. B. sensation. C. motivation. D. consciousness. Answer: D 30. One's difficulty in attaining adequate nightly sleep would likely be diagnosed as a psychological disorder A. if it interferes with daily activities such as work and negatively impacts a person's health. B. even if it occurs relatively infrequently. C. only if the person feels that the lack of sleep is causing problems in other areas. D. when it results from a deliberate choice, such as studying all night for an exam. Answer: A 31. Audience members at hypnosis demonstrations are often amazed by seemingly extraordinary events. They seem to have failed to realise that the persons who are on stage demonstrating the power of hypnosis were selected for their A. reactivity. B. suggestibility. C. gullibility. D. flexibility. Answer: B 32. The use of hypnosis seems to be an effective treatment option for all of the following types of conditions EXCEPT A. pain. B. serious psychological problems. C. habit disorders like smoking. D. therapies for anxiety. Answer: B 33. _______________ occurs when people require larger amounts of a drug to experience the same effects experienced during their initial usage. A. Satiety B. Physical withdrawal C. Psychological withdrawal D. Tolerance Answer: D 34. In Pavlov's “salivating dogs” studies, the salivation triggered by the sound of the tone was the A. conditioned stimulus. B. unconditioned stimulus. C. conditioned response. D. unconditioned response. Answer: C 35. While on a cruiseship, Kevin became sick after eating a seafood dinner. His food poisoning coupled with sea sickness led to a terrible vacation and consequently Kevin shivers at the mere sight of cruiseships. Kevin's behaviour illustrates the process of A. discrimination. B. scapegoating. C. acquisition. D. generalization. Answer: D 36. Regarding operant conditioning, which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement? A. A student is sent to detention for fighting. B. A student loses earned free time for playing with lab equipment. C. A student turns in neater homework when the teacher praises neatness. D. A student is exempted from a weekly quiz for exemplary homework. Answer: D 37. Which of the following is TRUE regarding schedules of reinforcement? A. Partial reinforcement allows for new behaviours to be learned more quickly as compared to continuous reinforcement. B. Continuous reinforcement schedules involve reinforcing behaviour based on fixed time interval schedules. C. Continuous reinforcement of target behaviour leads to greater resistance to extinction than does partial reinforcement. D. Partial reinforcement of target behaviour leads to greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. Answer: D 38. Which of the following describes the main difference between observational learning and operant conditioning? A. Observational learning uses punishment and reinforcement of models to condition the behaviours of observers. B. Observational learning uses mainly punishment to condition behaviour as compared to operant conditioning, which uses both reinforcement and punishment. C. Observational learning uses different schedules of punishment and reinforcement to condition behaviours as compared to operant conditioning. D. Observational learning uses mainly reinforcement to condition behaviour as compared to operant conditioning, which uses both reinforcement and punishment. Answer: A 39. Hideki and Thao are reviewing for an exam. Thao asks the following question: “What term refers to how people use information from the past in the present?” Hideki would be most correct if he answered A. elaborative rehearsal. B. suggestive memory. C. encoding. D. memory. Answer: D 40. What system of memory has the largest span and longest duration? A. Long-term memory B. Flashbulb memory C. Short-term memory D. Sensory memory Answer: A 41. During lecture each day, a psychology professor may explain four main points he or she wishes the class to retain. However, most students do not think about the material again until the following class period two days later. The forgetting that occurs between classes is most likely the result of A. bias. B. interference. C. decay. D. suggestibility. Answer: C 42. Schemas can help us navigate a complex world. Yet our schemas are not always correct. This best illustrates which of the following themes from your textbook? A. Our intuitions are usually correct, but can occasionally deceive us. B. Contrary to popular belief, our memories are very poor. C. Adaptive processes of simplification can sometimes be maladaptive. D. Our intuitions can help protect us against scientific error. Answer: C 43. In answering this, and all other questions for this exam, you are making use of A. priming. B. encoding. C. storage. D. retrieval. Answer: D 44. Eyewitness testimony has been found to be most accurate when A. a weapon is used in the commission of a crime. B. the witness is distracted or must fill in gaps in their memory with stereotyped information. C. the witness is presented a simultaneous, as opposed to a sequential, line-up. D. the witness has ample time to observe the person under good viewing conditions. Answer: D 45. Language is A. a communication system that includes words, but not gestures. B. rarely ambiguous. C. a symbolic system of communication. D. a communication system that requires little implicit processing. Answer: C 46. We often take the complexity of language for granted. This is in part because A. language acquisition requires little practice. B. language acquisition is easy. C. humans do not often consider complex phenomena. D. our use of language is generally automatic. Answer: D 47. The best predictor of whether someone will achieve fluency in a second language is A. the simplicity of the second language's structure. B. motivation. C. IQ. D. the age of acquisition. Answer: D 48. Your family dog is named “Happy.” Anytime your young child sees a dog, she calls out “Happy.” This is an example of A. incorrect word meaning. B. overextension. C. comprehension before production. D. under extension. Answer: B Test Bank for Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven J. Lynn, Laura L. Namy, Nancy J. Woolf, Kenneth M. Cramer, Rodney Schmaltz 9780205896110, 9780133793048, 9780133870282