CHAPTER 15 Marketing Communications This chapter begins with the learning outcome summaries, followed by a set of lesson plans for you to use to deliver the content in Chapter 15. • Lecture (for large sections) on page 3 • Company Clips (video) on page 4 • Group Work (for smaller sections) on page 6 Review and Assignments begin on page 7 • Review questions • Application questions • Application exercise • Ethics exercise • Video assignment • Case assignment Great Ideas for Teaching Marketing from faculty around the country begin on page 18 LEARNING OUTCOMES 15-1 Discuss the role of promotion in the marketing mix Promotional strategy is the plan for using the elements of promotion—advertising, public relations, sales promotion, personal selling, and social media—to meet the firm’s overall objectives and marketing goals. Based on these objectives, the elements of the promotional strategy become a coordinated promotion plan. The promotion plan then becomes an integral part of the total marketing strategy for reaching the target market along with product, distribution, and price. 15-2 Describe the communication process The communication process has several steps. When an individual or organization has a message it wishes to convey to a target audience, it encodes that message using language and symbols familiar to the intended receiver and sends the message through a channel of communication. Noise in the transmission channel distorts the source’s intended message. Reception occurs if the message falls within the receiver’s frame of reference. The receiver decodes the message and usually provides feedback to the source. Normally, feedback is direct for interpersonal communication and indirect for mass communication. Social Media have increased the amount of feedback received by marketers: consumers are now able to become senders, and marketers can personalize the feedback channel by initiating direct conversations with customers. 15-3 Explain the goals and tasks of promotion The fundamental goals of promotion are to induce, modify, or reinforce behavior by informing, persuading, and reminding. Informative promotion explains a good’s or service’s purpose and benefits. Promotion that informs the consumer is typically used to increase demand for a general product category or to introduce a new good or service. Persuasive promotion is designed to stimulate a purchase or an action. Promotion that persuades the consumer to buy is essential during the growth stage of the product life cycle, when competition becomes fierce. Reminder promotion is used to keep the product and brand name in the public’s mind. Promotions that remind are generally used during the maturity stage of the product life cycle. Connection Promotion is designed to form relationships with customer and potential customers using social media. Connecting encourages customers to become brand advocates and share their experiences via social media. 15-4 Discuss the elements of the promotional mix The elements of the promotional mix include advertising, public relations, sales promotion, personal selling, and social media. Advertising is a form of impersonal, one-way mass communication paid for by the source. Public relations is the function of promotion concerned with a firm’s public image. Sales promotion is typically used to back up other components of the promotional mix by stimulating immediate demand. Personal selling typically involves direct communication, in person or by telephone; the seller tries to initiate a purchase by informing and persuading one or more potential buyers. Finally, social media are promotion tools used to facilitate conversations among people online. 15-5 Discuss the AIDA concept and its relationship to the promotional mix The AIDA model outlines the four basic stages in the purchase decision-making process, which are initiated and propelled by promotional activities: (1) attention, (2) interest, (3) desire, and (4) action. The components of the promotional mix have varying levels of influence at each stage of the AIDA model. Advertising is a good tool for increasing awareness and knowledge of a good or service. Sales promotion is effective when consumers are at the purchase stage of the decision-making process. Personal selling is most effective in developing customer interest and desire. 15-6 Discuss the concept of integrated marketing communications Integrated marketing communications is the careful coordination of all promotional messages for a product or service to ensure the consistency of messages at every contact point where a company meets the consumer—advertising, sales promotion, personal selling, public relations, and social media, as well as direct marketing, packaging, and other forms of communication. Marketing managers carefully coordinate all promotional activities to ensure that consumers see and hear one message. Integrated marketing communications has received more attention in recent years due to the proliferation of media choices, the fragmentation of mass markets into more segmented niches, and the decrease in advertising spending in favor of promotional techniques that generate an immediate sales response. 15-7 Describe the factors that affect the promotional mix Promotion managers consider many factors when creating promotional mixes. These factors include the nature of the product, product life-cycle stage, target market characteristics, the type of buying decision involved, availability of funds, and feasibility of push or pull strategies. As products move through different stages of the product life cycle, marketers will choose to use different promotional elements. Characteristics of the target market, such as geographic location of potential buyers and brand loyalty, influence the promotional mix as does whether the buying decision is complex or routine. The amount of funds a firm has to allocate to promotion may also help determine the promotional mix. Last, if a firm uses a push strategy to promote the product or service, the marketing manager might choose to use aggressive advertising and personal selling to wholesalers and retailers. If a pull strategy is chosen, then the manager often relies on aggressive mass promotion, such as advertising and sales promotion, to stimulate consumer demand. TERMS advertising integrated marketing communications (IMC) promotional mix AIDA concept promotional strategy channel interpersonal communication publicity communication mass communication public relations competitive advantage noise pull strategy decoding owned media push strategy encoding paid media receiver earned media personal selling sales promotion feedback promotion sender LESSON PLAN FOR LECTURE Brief Outline and Suggested PowerPoint Slides: Learning Outcomes and Topics PowerPoint Slides LO1 Discuss the role of promotion in the marketing mix 15-1 The Role of Promotion in the Marketing Mix 1: Marketing Communications 2: Learning Outcomes 3: Learning Outcomes 4: The Role of Promotion in the Marketing Mix 5: The Role of Promotion 6: Exhibit 15.1: Role of Promotion in the Marketing Mix 7: Competitive Advantage LO2 Describe the communication process 15-2 Marketing Communication 8: Marketing Communication 9: Communication 10: Marketing Communication 11: Marketing Communication 12: The Sender and Encoding 13: The Channel and Noise 14: The Receiver and Decoding 15: Exhibit 15.2: Communication Process 16: Communication and the Internet LO3 Explain the goal and tasks of promotion 15-3 The Goals and Tasks of Promotion 17: The Goals of Promotion 18: Goals and Tasks of Promotion 19: Goals and Tasks of Promotion 20: Goals and Tasks of Promotion 21: Goals and Tasks of Promotion 22: Goals and Tasks of Promotion 23: Goals and Tasks of Promotion LO4 Discuss the elements of the promotional mix 15-4 The Promotional Mix 24: The Promotional Mix 25: The Promotional Mix 26: Advertising 27: Advertising Media 28: Advertising 29: Public Relations 30: The Function of Public Relations 31: Sales Promotion 32: Sales Promotion 33: Personal Selling 34: Personal Selling 35: Content Marketing and Social Media 36: The Communication Process and the Promotional Mix 37: Exhibit 15.3:Digital Media Types 38: Exhibit 15.4: Characteristics of the Elements in the Promotional Mix LO5 Discuss the AIDA concept and its relationship to the promotional mix 15-5 Promotional Goals and the AIDA Concept 39: Promotional Goals and the AIDA Concept 40: The AIDA Concept 41: The AIDA Concept 42: Exhibit 15.5: The Promotional Mix and AIDA LO6 Discuss the concept of integrated marketing communications 15-6 Integrated Marketing Communications 43: Integrated Marketing Communications 44: Integrated Marketing Communications 45: IMC Popularity Growth LO7 Describe the factors that affect the promotional mix 15-7 Factors Affecting the Promotional Mix 46: Factors Affecting the Promotional Mix 47: Factors Affecting the Choice of Promotional Mix 48: Exhibit 15.6: Product Life Cycle and the Promotional Mix 49: Target Market Characteristics 50: Type of Buying Decision 51: Available Funds 52: Exhibit 15.7: Push Strategy versus Pull Strategy 53: Chapter 15 Video Suggested Homework: • The end of this chapter contains assignments for the Pepe’s Pizzeria video and for the Coors Light case. • This chapter’s online study tools include flashcards, visual summaries, practice quizzes, and other resources that can be assigned or used as the basis for longer investigations into marketing. LESSON PLAN FOR VIDEO Company Clips Segment Summary: Pepe’s Pizzeria Pepe’s Pizzeria is a popular restaurant located in Connecticut. The CEO discusses the thought process behind their marketing strategy, how promotions work for Pepe’s and the general location strategy that comes into play when opening new locations. These teaching notes combine activities that you can assign students to prepare before class, that you can do in class before watching the video, that you can do in class while watching the video, and that you can assign students to complete as assignments after watching the video in class. During the viewing portion of the teaching notes, stop the video periodically where appropriate to ask students the questions or perform the activities listed on the grid. You may even want to give the students the questions before starting the video and have them think about the answers while viewing the segment. That way, students will be engaged in active viewing rather than passive viewing. PRE-CLASS PREP FOR YOU: PRE-CLASS PREP FOR YOUR STUDENTS: • Preview the Company Clips video segment for Chapter 15. This exercise reviews concepts for LO1–LO7. • Review your lesson plan. • Make sure you have all of the equipment needed to show the video to the class, including the DVD and a way to project the video. • You can also stream the video HERE • Have students review and familiarize themselves with the following terms and concepts: competitive advantage, elements of the promotional mix, the communication process, the goals and tasks of promotion, the AIDA concept, factors that affect the marketing mix, and integrated marketing communications. • Have students bring written definitions of three of the above terms to class. • Ask students to monitor their mail (or a friends mail) for two weeks. Have them collect all the mail that pertains to restaurants in those two weeks, and bring it to class. VIDEO REVIEW EXERCISE ACTIVITY Warm Up Briefly discuss students’ findings. What types of restaurants are sending out mailers? Are they national chains, local chains, independent restaurants, delivery only, dine-in promotions? Ask students about their restaurant dining habits: how often do they dine in? Carry out/eat delivery? Have them classify the types of restaurants they eat at in an average month. Based on the results, discuss student perceptions on the mailers they brought in a why they do/don’t eat there In-class Preview • Remind students about the elements of promotion while you Exhibit 15.1 (the role of promotion in the marketing mix) onto the board. • Discuss Exhibit 15.1, Role of Promotion in the Marketing Mix. Point out that promotion does not simply refer to advertising, but the whole of an organization’s communication strategy. • Discuss Exhibit 15.2, Communication Process. Select either a mailer brought in by a student or a promotion for a well-known product to use as an example, and discuss how noise can adversely affect the desired effect of a message. Also, note that marketers are increasingly relying on individual consumer feedback to adjust their marketing mixes. • Have copies of the Company Clips questions available for students to take notes on while viewing the video segment. Viewing (Solutions below.) 1. What are the goals for Pepe’s promotions? Explain your reasoning. 2. Discuss how the factors that affect the promotional mix affect how Pepe’s promotes its various locations. Follow-up • In class, divide students into groups of three to five students and have them prepare a short report on how Pepe’s Pizzeria integrates its marketing communications. Solutions for Viewing Activities: 1. What are the goals for Pepe’s promotions? Explain your reasoning. Answer: Student answers will vary to some extent. They could address how Pepe’s integrates it atmosphere in all its stores to remind customers of the quality of pizza they received in the original location. They could discuss the use of the Pizza box promotion to inform customers of the new location. The free pizza and the good neighbor programs are persuasive tactics to persuade people to continue to patronize Pepe’s. Direct mailer and billboards can be argued for reminder promotion or persuasive promotions. Social media and the good neighbor program are also part of the connecting goal for promotion. Pepe’s promotions likely aim to increase brand awareness, boost sales, attract new customers, and retain existing ones. By creating engaging promotions, Pepe can enhance customer loyalty and encourage repeat business. Additionally, targeting specific demographics through tailored offers can help penetrate new markets and strengthen the overall brand presence. 2. Discuss how the factors that affect the promotional mix affect how Pepe’s promotes its various locations. Answer: Student answers will vary. The following are some possible answers for each of the factors affecting the promotional mix. Nature of the product: Pepe’s is a consumable, and is restricted to areas where customers can come eat in or pick up their pizza. It is viewed as a consumer product, but could also be used by businesses. The main form of promotion is advertising, rather than personal selling. Stage in PLC: Pepe’s is in the pizza industry, which is in the maturity stage. There are many many competitors and how Pepe’s differentiates itself from those competitors will be key to success. For this, Pepe’s uses billboards and mailers to remind customers that they enjoy the unique aspects of Pepe’s over national chains. The free pizza week at new Pepe’s also differentiates it from other pizza places through confidence in the product. Target Market Characteristics: Pepe’s is limited to the areas where it has a restaurant, which is specific towns primarily in Connecticut, and why local mailers and billboards work well for Pepe’s. Type of buying decision: This depends on the customer. For regular pizza eaters, this is a routine decision. For people who rarely eat out, it can require more information. Either way, reminder promotion works well, such as mailers and billboards. Funds for promotion: Pepe’s is a small organization, so maintaining lower cost promotions fits their budget better, and makes sense with the localized nature of the restaurant. Push/pull strategy: As with most restaurants, Pepe’s uses a pull strategy to some extent. Driving customers to the restaurant through mailers and other reminder promotions is how Pepe’s sells pizza. LESSON PLAN FOR GROUP WORK In most cases, group activities should be completed after some chapter content has been covered, probably in the second or third session of the chapter coverage. (See “Lesson Plan for Lecture” above.) • For “Class Activity – Promotional Mix,” provide the information and the questions asked by the class activities. • The first Application Exercise is extremely well suited to group work. Form students into teams of no more than four students. Each team must create a print advertisement for a given product without using a set of words generally used in association with the product. This is a variation on the Hasbro game Taboo. Full information on setting up the exercise can be found later in this manual. Class Activity – Promotional Mix The purpose of this exercise is to emphasize the effect of various factors on the strategy of choosing a promotional mix. The main factors that affect the promotional mix can be classified into three major categories: 1) product related, 2) market related, and 3) organization related. Product-related factors include product type, product costs and risks, product life cycle stage, and amount and complexity of product information. Market-related considerations are target market characteristics and the type of buying decision involved. Organization-related factors are the availability of funds and feasibility of a push or pull strategy. Divide the class into teams and give each team one of the following situation descriptions: Situation #1 Consumer durable product that is slightly complex Introductory stage of product life cycle Selective distribution Large firm Highly concentrated market (in large urban areas only) Situation #2 Convenience item Growth stage of product life cycle Intensive distribution Small firm Nonconcentrated, large market Situation #3 Industrial product that is large, complex, and expensive Introductory stage of product life cycle Small company (few available funds) Small market, highly dispersed Situation #4 Consumer food item Mature stage of product life cycle Intensive distribution Large company Nonconcentrated market Each team should present a plan that outlines the promotion ingredients to be used and the relative importance of each element in the promotional mix. The team should be able to explain which factors were most important and how the team arrived at its decisions. REVIEW AND ASSIGNMENTS FOR CHAPTER 15 REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is a promotional strategy? Explain the concept of a competitive advantage in relation to promotional strategy. Answer: Although students’ answers will vary, they should address some of these points: The role of promotion strategy is to convince target customers that the firm’s product offerings provide a competitive advantage over the competition. The factor that will either heighten or lessen the role of promotion is the extent to which a competitive advantage is readily apparent to the consumer. If, for example, a product is clearly the best choice because of obvious quality and features, a customer could very easily choose the product without the benefit of much promotion. But in the case of products with little differentiation, such as cola soft drinks, promotion and image become very important factors. A promotional strategy is a plan to communicate a product's benefits and persuade potential customers to make a purchase. It includes tactics like advertising, sales promotions, public relations, and social media marketing. A competitive advantage in relation to promotional strategy refers to unique strengths that distinguish a brand from its competitors. This could be achieved through innovative messaging, targeted campaigns, superior customer engagement, or exclusive offers. Effectively leveraging these advantages can attract and retain customers, driving sales and market share. 2. Why is understanding the target market a crucial aspect of the communication process? Answer: Successful communication requires a degree of a common “language” or overlapping frames of reference between the source and the receiver. Even people who speak the same language often interpret the same words in completely different ways. Perhaps the greatest challenge for promotion managers is understanding the target market and identifying the most effective means of communicating with it. To encode a promotional message in appropriate symbols and language, promoters must analyze the demographic, geographic, and psychographic characteristics of their target audience. Variables such as age, gender, income level, and ethnicity greatly influence how consumers interpret promotional messages. 3. Discuss the AIDA concept. How do these different stages of consumer involvement affect the promotional mix? Answer: The AIDA concept was developed to explain the process through which consumers reach the decision to try a product. Depending on their previous experiences with any given product, they will pass through one or more of the stages of awareness, interest, desire, and action. Advertising can be developed with the intent of moving consumers from the awareness stage to the point where they will make the purchase. 4. Explain the difference between a “pull” promotional strategy and a “push” promotional strategy. Under what conditions should each strategy be used? Answer: “Push” strategies are commonly used for new products for which consumers have little information and for complex products for which it is necessary for consumers to have the ability to try out the product or need instruction regarding its use. “Pull” strategies are used to inform and to encourage consumers to request the product from their retail outlets. Pull strategies are an integral part of JIT manufacturing at the producer level. 5. Discuss the importance of integrated marketing communications. Give some current examples of companies that are and are not practicing integrated marketing communications. Answer: Integrated marketing communications carefully coordinate all the promotional activities to produce a consistent, unified message that is customer-focused. Marketing managers work out the roles of the various promotional elements in the marketing mix and monitor results. For example, a product would use the same slogan and theme in its various types of advertising, a contest, coupons, packaging, and publicity. Everything is built around a common theme. APPLICATION QUESTIONS 1. As the promotional manager for a new line of cosmetics targeted to preteen girls, you have been assigned the task of deciding which promotional mix elements—advertising, public relations, sales promotion, and personal selling—should be used in promoting it. Your budget for promoting the preteen cosmetics line is limited. Write a promotional plan explaining your choice of promotional mix elements given the nature of the product, the stage in the product life cycle, target market characteristics, type of buying decision, available funds, and pull or push strategy. Answer: Promotional Plan for Preteen Cosmetics Line Target Market: Preteen girls (ages 9-12), influenced by peers and social media. Product Life Cycle Stage: Introduction phase, focusing on brand awareness. Promotional Mix Elements: 1. Advertising: Use social media (TikTok, Instagram) with engaging visuals and relatable influencers. 2. Public Relations: Partner with influencers for reviews and run online contests for user engagement. 3. Sales Promotion: Offer introductory discounts and loyalty rewards for repeat purchases. 4. Personal Selling: Minimal; focus on online engagement and quick responses. Budget Consideration: Prioritize social media and influencer partnerships for cost-effective reach. Strategy: Pull Strategy to generate demand and encourage retailers to stock the products. 2. Why might a marketing manager choose to promote his or her product using persuasion? Give some current examples of persuasive promotion. Answer: Persuasive promotion is typically used to build customer loyalty for a product in the growth stage of the product life cycle. At this point in a product’s development, the target market is aware of the product’s features and benefits. Therefore, the promotional focus shifts from informing to persuading. Persuasive promotion is also effective in highly competitive, mature product categories, such as detergents and vacuum cleaners. Bayer uses persuasive advertising when it tells audiences it is the brand of aspirin most recommended by doctors. Athletic-shoe makers and sporting-goods companies frequently try to persuade consumers to buy their products by employing popular athletes like Lebron James and Aaron Rogers to promote them. A marketing manager might choose persuasive promotion to influence consumer attitudes, differentiate the product, and build emotional connections. Current Examples: 1. Emotional Storytelling: Apple uses narratives to show how products enhance life. 2. Influencer Marketing: Brands like Glossier rely on influencers to share authentic reviews. 3. Cause Marketing: Patagonia promotes environmental initiatives to resonate with eco-conscious consumers. 4. Testimonials: Amazon showcases user reviews to highlight positive customer experiences. These strategies effectively drive consumer decisions and foster brand loyalty. 3. Choose a partner from the class and go together to interview the owner or manager of several small businesses in your city. Ask them what their promotional objectives are and why. For example, are they trying to inform, persuade, or remind customers to do business with them? Also determine if they believe they have an awareness problem or whether they need to persuade customers to come to them instead of competitors. Ask them to list the characteristics of their primary market, the strengths and weaknesses of their direct competitors, and how they are positioning their store to compete. Prepare a report to present in class summarizing your findings. Answer: Report on Small Business Promotional Objectives Objective: Interviewed several small business owners/managers about their promotional strategies. Findings: 1. Promotional Objectives: • Most aim to inform and persuade customers about unique offerings and promotions. • Some also focus on reminding existing customers to return. 2. Awareness vs. Competition: • Several businesses identified an awareness problem, indicating low brand recognition in the community. • Others felt the need to persuade customers to choose them over competitors by highlighting unique features or services. 3. Primary Market Characteristics: • Typical customers are local residents, often within a specific age range (e.g., 25-45). • Preferences include convenience, quality, and community involvement. 4. Competitor Analysis: • Strengths: Competitors often have larger marketing budgets and established reputations. • Weaknesses: Some competitors lack personalized customer service or community engagement. 5. Positioning Strategies: • Many businesses are positioning themselves as community-focused and emphasizing personalized service. • Unique product offerings or local sourcing are highlighted to attract customers. Conclusion Overall, small businesses prioritize building awareness and differentiating themselves through personalized service and community involvement to compete effectively. 4. How does a Web site’s ease of use affect its ability to create attention, interest, desire, and action? Visit the kitchen and bath pages of Kohler’s Web site (http://www.kohler.com) and determine how successful the company is at moving consumers through the AIDA process. Answer: A website’s ease of use significantly impacts its ability to create Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action (AIDA): 1. Attention: A user-friendly layout with appealing visuals grabs attention quickly. 2. Interest: Easy navigation and relevant content engage visitors, keeping their interest. 3. Desire: Clear product descriptions, high-quality images, and customer testimonials evoke desire. 4. Action: Simple calls-to-action and streamlined purchasing processes encourage immediate action. Kohler's Website Analysis: 1. Attention: Kohler’s kitchen and bath pages feature visually striking designs and vibrant images, effectively capturing attention. 2. Interest: The site provides comprehensive product information and inspiring design ideas, maintaining user interest. 3. Desire: Engaging visuals, lifestyle imagery, and positive user reviews create a strong desire for the products. 4. Action: Clear navigation, well-placed calls-to-action, and easy access to purchase options facilitate user actions. Overall, Kohler successfully moves consumers through the AIDA process, leveraging ease of use to enhance engagement and conversion. 5. Use Radioguide.com (http://www.radioguide.com) to find a listing of radio Web sites in your area. View several of the stations’ sites and compare the promotions featured. What conclusions can you draw about the target market of each station based on the types of promotions they are currently running? Would any of the promotions entice you to tune to a station that you normally don’t listen to? Answer: Radio Station Promotions Analysis After reviewing several radio station websites from Radioguide.com, here are the findings: 1. Promotions Overview: • Contests and Giveaways: Many stations feature contests for concert tickets, local events, or merchandise, targeting younger audiences and music fans. • Themed Shows: Stations often promote themed programming (e.g., 80s night, local artist showcases) to attract niche listeners. • Community Events: Promotions for local events indicate a focus on community engagement, appealing to listeners interested in local culture. 2. Target Market Conclusions: • Youthful Audiences: Stations running frequent contests and music events are likely targeting younger demographics (18-34). • Family and Community: Stations promoting family-friendly events or local news aim at a more diverse, community-oriented audience. 3. Personal Response: • Promotions like exclusive concert ticket giveaways or unique themed shows could entice me to tune into a station I don’t usually listen to, especially if they feature artists I enjoy or local events I'm interested in. Overall, the types of promotions reflect each station's target market and their efforts to engage specific listener demographics effectively. 6. Visit http://www.teenresearch.com. What research can this company offer about the size and growth of the teen market, buying power of teenagers, and their buying habits? Why might these statistics be important to a company targeting teenagers in terms of marketing communications and promotion strategy? Answer: While responses will vary, reference to the importance and size of the market, costs of reaching the individual members of the target market, and the strategic objectives will be important. 7. What do you think is the role of Hallmark’s Web site (http://www.hallmark.com) in the company’s integrated marketing communications plan? What seems to be the marketing function of the site? Do you think the site is effective? Answer: Role of Hallmark’s Website in Integrated Marketing Communications Marketing Function: Hallmark’s website serves as a central hub for promoting its products, enhancing brand awareness, and engaging customers. It provides information on cards, gifts, and seasonal products while also offering inspiration through articles and DIY ideas. Effectiveness: The site is effective in: 1. Brand Engagement: Engaging users with interactive content and personalized recommendations. 2. E-commerce: Facilitating online purchases, making it convenient for customers. 3. Customer Connection: Offering resources for celebrations, which aligns with Hallmark’s brand identity. Overall, the website effectively supports Hallmark’s integrated marketing communications by reinforcing brand values and driving sales. APPLICATION EXERCISES Application 1 Many people are not aware of the rationale behind certain advertising messages. “Why do Infiniti ads show rocks and trees instead of automobiles?” “If car safety is so important, why do automobile ads often show cars skidding on wet, shiny surfaces?” “Target’s ads are funky, with all the bright colors and product packaging, but what’s the message?” One way to understand the vagaries of the encoding process is to think of the popular board game Taboo by Hasbro. In this game, each team tries to get its members to guess a word without using obvious word clues. For example, to get the team to guess “apple,” you may not say such words as red, fruit, pie, cider, or core. Sometimes advertising is like Taboo in that advertisers are not allowed to use certain words or descriptions. For example, pharmaceutical companies are not permitted to make certain claims or to say what a drug treats unless the ad also mentions the potential side effects. Language choices are also limited in advertising. To appreciate this, you can apply the Taboo game rules in an advertising format. Activities 1. Select a product from the list below, and then create a print advertisement or a television storyboard for that product. As part of the exercise, give your product a brand name. Taboo words, visuals, and concepts are given for each product type. Taboo items cannot be present in your work. Product Taboo Words, Visuals, and Concepts Deodorant Odor, underarm, perspiration, smell, sweat Pain reliever Pain, aches, fever, child-proof cap, gel Soft drinks Sugar-free, refreshing, thirst, swimwear, any celebrity 2. Now create a second ad or storyboard for your product. This time, however, you must use all the words, visuals, and concepts that are listed in the right column. Product Must-Use Words, Visuals, and Concepts Deodorant A romantic couple, monster trucks Pain reliever A mother and child, oatmeal, homework Soft drinks A cup of coffee, cookies, birthday cake, wine Purpose: Many students are unclear as to the rationale behind certain advertising messages, so this exercise is designed to help students understand the artistry inherent in the encoding process. Setting It Up: This works as an individual assignment, but is an exceptional group project. This is because it blends many modalities, is an engaging activity, and provides students what may be considered a welcome change from the text-based learning that is the norm for most. If you choose to assign a group project, then it is suggested that you allot a class period for students to present their work. This exercise was inspired by the following Great Idea in Teaching Marketing: Lynn R. Goodwin University of St. Thomas TABOO OR NOT TABOO, THAT IS THE QUESTION When discussing the communication process in my advertising class, many of my students have some difficulty understanding the artistry inherent in the encoding process. More precisely, many students are unclear as to the rationale behind certain advertising messages. “Why did Infiniti ads show rocks and trees instead of automobiles?” they ask. Or, “Why did MCI show a waif with a funny accent and hat jumping around on a rock strewn beach?” Many of us, not being privy to the innermost workings of certain ad agency brains, may have no answer to this type of question. I have, however, devised an exercise that helps students understand the vagaries of the encoding process. I begin by bringing a copy of Taboo (Hasbro’s well-known game) to class. The object of the game is simple: each player must get the other members of his or her team to say a particular word. The catch is that certain other words cannot be used during this process. These words are taboo (hence the game’s name). For example, in attempting to elicit the word apple, players are prohibited from using the words red, fruit, pie, cider, and core. Following the playing of Taboo, I enter into a brief discussion of how the game relates to the communication process (specifically encoding and decoding). Subsequently I discuss the rationale behind many advertisers’ less than straightforward messages. I use ethical (prescription) pharmaceuticals as an example and point out that certain health claims are not permitted in advertisements unless accompanied by the legally mandated detailed prescribing information. This effectively limits what can be said regarding a drug’s benefits in the broadcast media. Other reasons behind either internally imposed or externally imposed limitations on advertising messages are also covered. Product deficits that might preclude a focus on certain features or aspects of the product are a frequently discussed internally mediated limitation, while ethical restrictions imposed by professional organizations on advertising are a frequently discussed externally mediated limitation. In addition, I usually remind the students that advertising may be affective in nature or have as its goal less direct objectives such as communicating a lifestyle. After this brief discussion, I draw the obvious comparison between the game of Taboo and these internally or externally imposed limitations or choices. Then it’s time for the next phase of the exercise. The final stage of the exercise is the application of the Taboo rules in an advertising format. I ask students to devise advertising messages or campaigns for specific product categories. The catch is that I also provide a list of words, visuals, or concepts that they are prohibited from using in the formulation of these messages. A few examples that I have used include: Product Taboo Words. Visuals, Concepts Deodorant Odor, Underarm, Perspiration, Smell, Sweat Toothpaste Teeth, Smile, Breath, Clean, Plaque Pain Reliever Pain, Aches, Fever, Child-Proof Cap, Gelatin-Coated Soft-Drinks Sugar-Free, Refreshing, Any Celebrity Spokesperson, Swimwear, Other Soft-Drinks Politician Other Politician(s), Honesty, Crime, Taxes, Patriotism Automobile Automobile, Driver Testimonials, Statistical Reports on Automotive Performance, Handling, Luxury I sometimes utilize a variation of this exercise in which students are forced to use certain other words, visuals, or concepts or to take a certain approach. I refer to this as my “Must-Do” exercise. A few examples are presented below: Product Must-Do Words, Visuals, Concepts Deodorant A Romantic Couple, Monster Trucks Toothpaste Lips, Tongue, Flowers Pain Reliever A Mother and Child. Oatmeal, Homework Soft-Drinks A Cup of Coffee, Cookies, Birthday Cake, Wine Politician Benjamin Franklin, A Dollar Bill, An Aircraft Carrier, Amber Waves of Grain Automobile Rocks, Trees, Wind (This one may be too easy) The construction of various Taboo or Must-Do situations is only limited by the imagination of the instructor. In fact, the students themselves may be asked to come up with challenges for their classmates. I find that this process can be used as a brief in-class exercise in a “principles” setting or can form the basis for a major project in an advertising class. As part of a major project, the necessity of excluding certain words, visuals, or concepts from the advertising message(s) challenges students to be a bit more imaginative than might ordinarily be the case. Likewise, the forced inclusion of certain Must-Do words, visuals, or concepts serves a similar function. The exercise can also be adapted to a discussion of segmentation in advertising by focusing on the inclusion or exclusion of certain words, visuals, or concepts based on the characteristics, needs, and wants of the targeted segments. It’s all in fun, but I do feel that the exercise creates a great deal of interest and comment relating to the communication process. In the end, to do Taboo or not to do Taboo is the question every instructor must face. Enjoy. Application 2 An important concept in promotion is semiotics, or the study of meaning and meaning-producing events. An understanding of semiotics can help you not only to identify objects (denotation) but also to grasp the utility of images and associations (connotation). By manipulating connotations of objects in advertising, you can create, change, or reinforce images for products. Thus, semiotics is a powerful tool for brand management and promotion. Activities 1. Make a list of ten images and associations that come to mind for each of the following items: baseball, vinyl record album, spoon, rubber band. 2. Look through magazines and see if you can find print advertisements that include each of the items (baseball, vinyl record album, spoon, rubber band) in a supporting role. What seems to be the message of each ad? How does the item help create or reinforce an image for the product being sold in the ad? 3. Think of an everyday object of your own. What are its likely connotations? For example, a dog in a car might signal a family vehicle, but a dog also connotes loyalty, “man’s best friend,” and dependability. What images and associations are likely with your item? Make a list of as many as you can. 4. Now use your object and list of associations to create an image for another product. Think of the likely connotations your object will have for a certain target market and how such connotations can support a brand image. For example, if your everyday object is a candle, you might choose lingerie for your product, based on a candle’s romantic connotations. Purpose: To introduce students to the concept of semiotics and its role in promotion. An understanding of semiotics allows students to not only identify objects, etc., (the denotative meaning), but also to grasp the utility of images and associations (the connotative meaning) in promotion. By manipulating connotations of objects in ads, for example, images for products may be created, changed, and reinforced. Semiotics thus provides a powerful tool for brand management, but a difficult concept to communicate. Setting It Up: This application requires an initial set-up before a two-part exercise. In total, the entire application should take around 75 minutes, but it can be tailored to specific course needs. Although the class does the work together, this application is an individual project. This exercise was inspired by the following Great Idea in Teaching Marketing: David M. Blanchette Rhode Island College APPLYING SEMIOTICS IN PROMOTION Communicating concepts that utilize creativity can be quite challenging due to the abstract and intuitive natures of the task. This is especially true in disciplines such as promotion, where creativity is paramount. One important creative concept in promotion is that of semiotics, the study of meaning and the analysis of meaning- producing events. An understanding of semiotics allows students to not only identify objects (the denotative meaning), but also to grasp the utility of images and associations (the connotative meaning) in promotion. By manipulating connotations of objects in ads, for example, images for products may be created, changed, and reinforced. Semiotics thus provides a powerful tool for brand management, but a difficult concept to communicate. A possible mechanism for helping students to understand the meaning and utility of semiotics for promotion is a two-part experiential exercise that encourages the creative application of these important concepts. An initial explanation of memory structures, schematic associations, neural nets, schema activation theory, and so on, may be quite useful in describing the basis for mental images and associations. An elaboration of denotation and connotation processes may then follow. (Some may prefer to forward these concepts within an information-processing framework.) Following the discussion of semiotic concepts, the two-part experiential exercise may be presented to facilitate understanding and encourage application of these concepts. In part one, objects are presented to the class. The objective is to first identify the object, then give personal images and associations elicited by the object, and finally to speculate what consumer segments would likely have richer, more meaningful images and associations. For example, a 45 rpm record may be displayed and is generally easily identified by students. Students then spontaneously volunteer images and associations (e.g., Happy Days TV show, disco, turntable, Elvis, etc.). Particularly interesting images may be called on to be elaborated, and are often quite interesting and even amusing. These spontaneous associations illustrate how individualistic such connotations can be, and that sometimes there may be several students that have shared connotations about an object. Lastly, students speculate about what the connotations of other groups may be (e.g., people in their 40s and 50s). This helps students to see objects from the perspective of others (especially if members of those groups are in the class), and leads to a discussion of connotations and segmentation (i.e., for which segments might these connotations be qualitatively and quantitatively different and richer?). The objects used for part one of the exercise may be gathered from around the house and should ideally represent a wide variety of objects. For example, ten objects for discussion might include a baseball card, a depression glass juicer, a CD/DVD, an animal statue, a boomerang, a piece of modern sculpture, a matchbook, a seashell, a horseshoe, and a tissue. As a bridge between parts one and two, an advertisement may be displayed in which objects in the ad help to create and reinforce an image for the product being sold. For example, a dog in a car ad may initially appear to support the idea that this is a family car, or even that the car is like one of the family. Yet upon further investigation of what the connotations of what a dog are, students may see that images and associations such as man’s best friend, loyalty, and so forth, are actually creating images for the brand—that is, that this car will never let you down. Students are now ready for part two of the exercise, in which they can apply semiotic concepts. The class may be split into groups, which each randomly selects an object (e.g., a chess piece, a penny, a golf ball, an egg, a rubber band, etc.). The task is to devise a way to use that object to help create an image for another product. For example, if a group selects a candle, that group needs to discern what the likely connotations of a candle will be for some target segment, and how such connotations may create and support brand images for what they consider an appropriate product. (For example, the group may select lingerie as the product and elaborate the imagery that a lingerie ad that includes a candle’s romantic connotations may have.) An interesting wrinkle in part two of the exercise is to offer a prize (such as complimentary copies of Advertising Age or candy) to the winners (as selected by the instructor and/or the class) of part two of the creative exercise. The initial presentation and two-part exercise is designed to last about 75 minutes, but can easily be tailored to varying lengths. ETHICS EXERCISE Integrated Marketing Solutions is a consumer-products marketing services firm. Currently, the firm is handling the launch of a new book for one of its publishing clients. The campaign includes advance review copies for key book reviewers, “Coming Soon” posters for booksellers, an author book-signing tour, and several television interviews. Everything has been produced and scheduled for release next week. Today, Jane Kershaw, the account executive, has learned that although the book received numerous favorable reviews, the review quoted on all of the promotional materials is fabricated. 1. What should Jane do? Answer: First, Jane should alert the publishing company, her client, that the quote is fabricated and recommend that the promotional materials be reprinted with an accurate quote pulled from one of the numerous favorable reviews. Replacement mailings to booksellers could simply indicate that previous mailings contained inaccurate information, and the new print run should be used instead. The situation can be further complicated by the publisher’s knowledge of the fabrication. If the publisher is aware of the fabrication and wants to proceed anyway, then Jane is in an even stickier situation. That is because her ethical reputation will be negatively affected by her client’s unethical behavior. In this case, Jane may wish to conclude her involvement with the project in order to maintain her ethical standards. 2. What does the AMA Code of Ethics say about accuracy in promotional materials? Go to http://www.marketingpower.com and review the code. Then write a brief paragraph on what the AMA Code of Ethics contains that relates to this issue. Answer: The AMA Code of Ethics is very clear on this issue. One of the responsibilities of the marketer as relates to promotions is “avoidance of false and misleading advertising.” In this case, the advertising is false but not necessarily misleading since there are numerous favorable reviews in support of the book. Nonetheless, knowingly promoting the book using the fabricated quote is unethical. VIDEO ASSIGNMENT: Pepe’s Pizzeria Pepe’s Pizzeria is a popular restaurant located in Connecticut. The CEO discusses the thought process behind their marketing strategy, how promotions work for Pepe’s and the general location strategy that comes into play when opening new locations. 1. Pepe’s now has seven locations and is considered a Connecticut staple. At what stage in the product life cycle is Pepe’s Pizzeria? A. Introduction Stage B. Growth Stage C. Maturity Stage D. Decline Stage Answer: C Pepe’s is in the Maturity stage. It faces competition from other pizzerias, but has established a strong presence in its target market. It may still experience growth, but at a significantly slower pace. 2. What type of media would this video be classified as for Pepe’s? A. Earned B. Owned Media C. Paid Media D. Informative Media Answer: A The Publisher asks if Pepe’s would be willing to participate in this video program, and films these clips. Pepe’s gets exposure for free, making this earned media. 3. In the communication process, what are the protesters doing to Pepe’s? A. Decoding a message B. Choosing a message channel C. Sending feedback. D. Creating noise for other’s Pepe’s customers. Answer: C The protesters are sending Pepe’s feedback that they do not approve of the company expanding and becoming a chain. 4. Telling people where the Pepe’s locations are and what the Pepe’s brand is about fulfills which goal of promotion? A. Informing B. Persuading C. Reminding D. Connecting Answer: A This type of advertising is informative: Here is our story and our pizza, and here’s our location. Pepe’s believes customers will come back once they know this information. 5. Giving away free pizza generates what kind of marketing buzz? A. Selling B. Publicity. C. Noise D. Traditional Answer: B Free pizza will generally be picked up by the media and presented as a news story, generating positive buzz for the company. 6. Social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, satisfy which goal of promotion? A. Informing B. Persuading C. Reminding D. Connecting Answer: D Social media allows companies to connect with their customers and develop relationships with them. Pepe’s uses this relationship to encourage customers to return to the restaurant. CASE ASSSIGNMENT: Coors Light Brewing companies face a changing, challenging market. Large brewers like AB InBev, MillerCoors, and Heineken still hold the majority of market share around the world, but their sales are beginning to slip due to competition from wine, hard liquor, and consumers’ rapidly growing preference for artisanal craft beers. Even in this declining market, there is one exception—MillerCoors’ Coors Light. This beer recently overtook Bud Light as the second-best selling beer in the U.S., and is the only top ten selling beer to post consistent growth in the past decade. This has contributed to sustained success for MillerCoors, which has seen revenues climb 4.3 percent in the past year to $2.2 billion. What is the secret to the success of Coors Light? It’s not a change in the product, since the beer tastes the same and has been manufactured the same way as it has for decades. The success of Coors Light can be wrapped up in one word: cold. It’s the core message of the promotional campaign surrounding Coors Light; that it is the coldest, most refreshing beer in the market. According to CEO Andrew England, “We literally said, 'Okay, we're going to do nothing but focus around cold.’” On one level, MillerCoors’ focus on cold is a bit silly, since any beer of any brand will only be as cold as the refrigerator in which it’s stored. Yet, the campaign has worked, as evidenced by the growing sales of Coors Light. According to Tom Pirko, president of the consulting firm Bevmark, the irrationality of the promotion is what makes it such a great marketing strategy. “What they have is this Pavlovian thing, where an image goes deep into your psyche," he says. "It's emotional, not intellectual.” Nicholas Kusnetz, “MillerCoors Took Taste Out Of The Equation And Made Cold Unique,” Fast Company, September 12, 2012, www.fastcompany.com/3000877/millercoors-took-taste-out-equation-and-made-cold-unique (Accessed March 26, 2013). TRUE/FALSE 1. Coors Light’s claim as the coldest beer on the market represents a competitive advantage. Answer: True 2. A Budweiser commercial placed right after a Coors Light commercial on a major television network is an example of noise that interferes with Coors’ message. Answer: True 3. Most people already know about Coors Light—the company’s “cold” campaign serves primarily to keep the brand in peoples’ minds. The primary task that the campaign performs, then, is to inform. Answer: False Reminder promotion is used to keep the product and brand name in the public’s mind. This type of promotion prevails during the maturity stage of the life cycle. It assumes that the target market has already been persuaded of the merits of the good or service. Its purpose is simply to trigger a memory. 4. Coors Light’s “cold” campaign could be described as good publicity for the company. Answer: False Organizations generally do not pay for publicity and are not identified as the source of the information. The “cold” campaign represents advertising, is any form of impersonal paid communication in which the sponsor or company is identified. 5. Because Coors Light is in the maturity stage of its life cycle, competition with other brewers is fierce and the company relies heavily on persuasive and reminder advertising. Answer: True MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Which of the following does not represent a competitive advantage for Coors? A. Coors matches the advertising budgets of its largest competitors. B. Coors Light costs, on average, 10 percent less than its competitors do. C. Coors uses the freshest hops in its products, resulting in longer shelf lives. D. Coors’ customer service centers are all located in the United States, whereas those of competitors have been offshored. E. All of these are competitive advantages. Answer: A A competitive advantage is the set of unique features of a company and its products that are perceived by the target market as significant and superior to those of the competition. 2. After seeing a Coors Light commercial, Mike turned to his friend and said, “That commercial was terrible—what does coldness have to do with how it tastes?” Which element of the communication process is best exemplified by this statement? A. Sending. B. Encoding. C. Receiving. D. Decoding. E. Feedback. Answer: E In interpersonal communication, the receiver’s response to a message is called feedback. Feedback may be verbal, as in saying “I agree,” or nonverbal, as in nodding, smiling, frowning, or gesturing. 3. Suppose that Coors wants to facilitate conversations with customers, allowing them to provide direct feedback about the “cold” campaign. Which the promotional mix elements would be the most effective and efficient way to do so? A. Advertising. B. Public relations. C. Sales promotion. D. Personal selling. E. Social media. Answer: E Social media are promotion tools used to facilitate conversations among people online. When used by marketers, these tools facilitate consumer empowerment. 4. Based on CEO Andrew England’s quote, “We literally said, ‘Okay, we're going to do nothing but focus around cold,’” one could assume that Coors is adopting: A. The integrated marketing communications model. B. A push strategy. C. A successful promotional strategy. D. The AIDA concept. E. A focus on earned media. Answer: A Integrated marketing communications is the careful coordination of all promotional messages for a product or service to assure the consistency of messages at every contact point where a company meets the consumer. 5. Which of the following factors likely affects Coors’ promotional mix for Coors Light? A. The brand’s annual marketing budget. B. Coors’ target market. C. The company’s decision to focus on a pull strategy. D. Coors Light’s status as a consumer product. E. All of these. Answer: E The particular promotional mix chosen by a firm for a product or service depends on several factors: the nature of the product, the stage in the product life cycle, target market characteristics, the type of buying decision, funds available for promotion, and whether a push or a pull strategy will be used. GREAT IDEAS FOR TEACHING CHAPTER 15 James S. Cleveland, Sage College of Albany DISCUSSION BOARD TOPICS TO ENCOURAGE PARTICIPATION Discussion board questions provided to students to encourage them to engage in thinking and writing about the content of the Principles of Marketing course usually take the form of a provocative statement to which students are asked to respond. An example of this would be “All PR is good PR.” Discussion topics such as this one are abstract and often require that the instructor provide an initial reply to show students what is expected of them in their own replies. For students with limited work experience, this approach may be quite appropriate. For adult students with extensive experience as employees and consumers, however, the abstract nature of such topics can be frustrating. I have developed, therefore, a series of discussion board questions to use with experienced, adult students. These questions are designed to encourage them to use their experiences as employees and consumers as doorways to better understand the course material, and to make their own responses more interesting to themselves and to the other students in the class who will read and comment on them. Each question has three parts: 1. First, there is a sentence or two from the students’ textbook introducing the topic. By using the text author’s own words, students are enabled to locate relevant material in the text more easily, the text content is reinforced, and confusion resulting from use of variant terms or expressions is minimized. 2. Second, there is a reference to text pages the students should review before proceeding. Since the goal of the exercise is for students to apply the course content to their own experiences, reviewing the content first is important. 3. Third, there is a request for the students to think about or remember some specific situation in their experience to which they can apply the text material, and a question or questions for them to address in their replies. Here are additional such discussion board questions developed for Chapter 15 of MKTG10. Each is written to fit the same text cited above but could easily be rewritten and revised to fit another text. Series A 1. Integrated marketing communications is the careful coordination of all promotional messages—traditional advertising, direct marketing, interactive, public relations, sales promotion, personal selling, event marketing, and other communications—for a product or service to assure the consistency of messages at every contact point where a company meets the consumer. 2. Review the information about IMC and the promotional mix from section 15-6 and 15-7 of your text. 3. Then think about a product you have considered buying lately or one you recently bought. What elements of the promotional mix were used for this product? Where they integrated? How or how not? Gary M. Donnelly, Casper College MARKETING COMMUNICATION PROCESS The following is an activity I use in my promotions class: Select one advertisement from a magazine and one advertisement from a newspaper and evaluate their effectiveness using the marketing communication process. 1. Identify the source. 2. How effectively and what methods were used in encoding the message? 3. What is the message and is it effectively stated? Is it a one sided, two sided, comparative message, etc.? 4. What is the medium and how effective do you feel the magazine or newspaper would be in getting the message across? 5. How would the audience translate the message sent by the source and would all readers get the same meaning? 6. Who is the audience (target market)? Could there be other audiences other than the intended target market? 7. What form of feedback does the source expect to get from its audience? Does the advertisement do an effective job of communicating the type of feedback they want to the audience? 8. Were there any hints of noise that might interfere with the communication process at any stage? 9. Overall, how effective or ineffective will these advertisements be, and why or why not? How would you improve the companies’ communication processes to make the advertisements more effective? Nancy M. Can, Community College of Philadelphia MARKETING IN THE NEWS: TRUTHFUL OR BIASED REPORTING? Newspapers carry many articles concerning marketing, ranging from new product introductions to product liability cases. Sometimes the reporting is factual and neutral; other times it is slanted toward the company, consumers, plaintiff, government agencies, and so forth. Early in the term, assign students the task of collecting twelve marketing-related articles from three different local, regional or national newspapers. Make and distribute forms (to be attached to each article) in which the student 1) summarizes the article, 2) checks off whether the reporting in the article is neutral, pro-company, pro-consumer, pro-plaintiff, or pro–other non-company entity (specify), 3) checks off whether the article is Associated Press (AP) or other national wire service, newspaper’s own reporting, newspaper’s own editorial, or other (specified) type of article. Then the student should look for trends in biased reporting in various newspapers. In class, have students who reviewed the same article check to see if they perceived the same slant in the article as their classmates. In closing the class session, have the class try to discover patterns of biased reporting, editorial writing and selection of wire service articles in various newspapers. Students tend to enjoy this project, as it keeps them current on marketing issues, critical and analytical in their reading of newspaper articles and interacting with their classmates. Michelle DeMoss, Stetson University ARE YOU A PROMOTIONAL MESSAGE? Promotional messages are ubiquitous, surrounding us through television, mail, computers, sporting events, paper coffee cups, restaurant menus, and even public restroom stalls. These messages have become so commonplace that many people are numb to them, no longer aware of the significant exposure to this communication. Why is there so much emphasis on promotion in today’s marketplace? Savvy marketers know that simply presenting a brand in promotional messages on a large number of occasions may make an individual’s attitude toward the brand more positive. So, repeating an advertisement or brand name could increase liking and subsequent purchase of the brand without changing a person’s knowledge of that brand. This exercise encourages students to experience the effects of promotions in their daily lives by becoming still and observing the different types of promotional activities occurring around them. Specifically, students are asked to: 1. Write down all of the possible mediums in which they are exposed to promotional messages for one week. Make sure to have a class discussion concerning the possible mediums such as promotional messages embedded in television programs, video games, and on clothing before assigning this exercise. 2. Count the number of promotional messages that they are exposed to for one day. 3. Assess whether they had the ability to choose to avoid each message. 4. Write down what, if any, impact these experiences have had on their perceptions and attitudes during this week. Discussion should center around any shift in students’ perspective concerning the impact of promotions on their own lives. One of the more intriguing discussions that takes place in my course is whether there should be limits on promotional messages in terms of their placement, frequency, and content. Students may find it interesting that other countries place restrictions on promotions concerning these issues. Solution Manual for MKTG: Principles of Marketing Charles W. Lamb, Joe F. Hair, Carl McDaniel 9781305631823, 9781285860145, 9781337116800
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