Chapter 15 Education True or False 1. One major function of schooling is socializing young people into the habits, attitudes, and practices of contributing members of a community, religion, or nation. Answer: True 2. Knowing how to dress, act, present oneself at work, and being able to work well with other people are examples of "hard skills." Answer: False 3. Today, the United States leads the world in the amount of education its citizens receive and in educational achievement. Answer: False 4. The pay gap between high school and college graduates has been narrowing since the late 1970s. Answer: False 5. Sociologists offer two competing explanations as to why people with more education reap larger socioeconomic rewards: socialization theory and allocation theory. Answer: True 6. Socialization theory sees education as channelling people into positions or institutions that offer different opportunities for continuing to think, learn, and earn. Answer: False 7. Closure practices operate independently of the human capital that a person possesses. Answer: True 8. Smokers with more education are more likely to quit smoking than smokers with less education. Answer: True 9. Level of education is rarely a factor in decisions about whom we decide to marry. Answer: False 10. Education in the United States is a single, uniform system that is available to every child in the same way. Answer: False 11. By law, schools within the same district must spend the same amount of money per pupil to educate students. Answer: False 12. Average per-pupil spending on elementary and secondary pupils in the United States, based on 2007 census data, is just under $10,000. Answer: True 13. U.S. students spend much more time working at jobs and socializing compared to Indian and Chinese students. Answer: True 14. Girls are more likely to graduate from high school and attend college in the United States than boys, especially among students of colour. Answer: True 15. The gender gap in education Favors boys compared to girls with respect to achievement and attainment but Favors females compared to males with respect to attending selective colleges and choosing majors that lead to higher paying careers. Answer: False 16. One factor that might help girls perform better in school is that they tend to spend more time on homework and are less likely to have disciplinary problems. Answer: True 17. In the science fields, the proportion of women receiving bachelor's degrees is higher in chemistry than in computer science. Answer: True 18. In France, the funding of schools, the curriculum, and the standards for student and teacher achievement are controlled by local government authorities at the provincial level. Answer: False 19. Approximately 1.5 million children are home-schooled in the United States today. Answer: True 20. According to the U.S. Constitution, the power to educate is reserved to the states. Answer: True 21. An unintended consequence of high-stakes testing is the response by schools to shed students with low scores by encouraging them to drop out. Answer: True 22. Teachers of high-track students spend more time on discipline than teachers of low-track students. Answer: False 23. Web 3.0 technologies are expected, among other things, to add intelligence to Internet search functionality by being able to understand the meanings of words in context, analyze data searchers have given it, learn about searchers' preferences, and even predict searchers' needs and behavior. Answer: True 24. Highly selective colleges and universities appear to be relying more on total online instruction than less selective universities. Answer: False 25. The digital divide refers to the social, economic, and cultural gap between those with effective access to information technology and those without such access. Answer: True Multiple Choice 1. What do sociologists mean when they refer to the hidden curriculum of schools? A. changing intellectual skills and content B. unstated standards of behavior or teachers' expectations C. socialization of students into the habits and practices of contributing members of society D. prevention of crime and the teaching of religion Answer: B 2. Unstated standards of behavior or teachers' expectations comprise all the following EXCEPT __________. A. gender roles B. respect for authority C. loyal citizenship D. intellectual skills and content Answer: D 3. Besides learning skills and knowledge, schools serve three other major purposes. What are they? A. economic, future preparation, and socialization functions B. economic, citizenship, and gender role functions C. future preparation, socialization, and self-worth functions D. socialization, self-worth, and online learning functions Answer: A 4. Among the following, which plays a role in the sorting function of students into particular jobs? A. accreditation B. credentialism C. criticism D. socialization Answer: B 5. Knowing how to dress, act, and present oneself at work, and being able to work well with other people are examples of __________. A. citizenship skills B. "higher-order skills" C. "soft skills" D. technical skills Answer: C 6. Among the following, who is exhibiting a soft skill? A. Aaron, who is teaching others how to fill out a new timesheet at work B. Bonita, who is solving geometric inequalities C. Charles, who is waiting for a ride home D. Denise, who is reading in the library Answer: A 7. Research on contemporary college and university students in the United States shows they study less than __________ as students in the 1950s. A. a tenth as much B. a quarter as much C. a third as much D. half as much Answer: D 8. The United States __________ the world in the amount of education its citizens receive. A. matches B. leads C. for the first time in history leads D. no longer leads Answer: D 9. After the end of World War II, how did the government choose to regulate the flow of workers into the labor market and avoid high unemployment among former soldiers? A. by reclaiming farmland in the West B. by issuing the GI Bill C. by guaranteeing private pensions D. by using a federal stimulus to create and save jobs for teachers, principals, and school nurses Answer: B 10. Which of the following life outcomes for Sylvia is more likely than the others because she failed to complete high school? A. Sylvia has a college degree. B. Sylvia has a full-time job. C. Sylvia is married. D. Sylvia is unmarried. Answer: D 11. Of the following, which is NOT a socioeconomic reward of more education? A. higher unemployment B. higher-status occupations C. higher earnings, on average D. greater representation in competitive professions and fields Answer: A 12. Sociologists offer two competing explanations as to why people with more education reap larger socioeconomic rewards. What are they? A. allocation theory and labeling theory B. allocation theory and classical economic theory C. socialization theory and allocation theory D. socialization theory and human capital theory Answer: C 13. What does socialization theory suggest about education? A. that education doesn't change people but moves them along different routes that influence how much they earn B. that education transmits knowledge, skills, and values that persist in adulthood and that employers believe increase productivity C. that people with more education are paid more because they are more intelligent D. that education changes people in ways that influences how much they earn Answer: B 14. What does human capital theory suggest about education? A. that schools seek to maximize educational outcomes of students B. that people with less education can close the pay gap by acquiring mentors C. that people with more education are paid more because they are more productive D. that schools with the best-performing teachers produce more students who earn doctorate degrees Answer: C 15. What does allocation theory suggest about education? A. that schools seek to maximize educational outcomes of students B. that people with less education can close the pay gap by acquiring mentors C. that people with more education are paid more because they are more productive D. that education moves people along different routes that influence how much they earn Answer: D 16. Which of the following statements is false? A. on average, women with bachelor's degrees earn more than men with high school diplomas B. on average, women with bachelor's degrees earn more than men with associate's degrees C. on average, men with bachelor's degrees earn more than women with master's degrees D. on average, men with bachelor's degrees earn less than men with master's degrees Answer: B 17. What do sociologists mean when they say that education serves a credentialing function? A. that schools seek to maximize educational outcomes of students B. that education doesn't change people but moves them along different routes that influence how much they earn C. that education limits entry into some occupations and thus raises the rewards for people in them D. that schools with the best-performing teachers produce more students who earn multiple degrees Answer: C 18. Social closure practices, which __________, include licensing. A. limit entry into some occupations B. lower entry pay for some occupations C. produce unemployment among some occupational classes D. affect eligibility for unemployment benefits Answer: A 19. Which of the following practices is NOT directly associated with social closure? A. certification B. educational credentialing C. supervision D. unionization Answer: C 20. Which of the following statements about less educated workers is true? A. They are more likely to perform mental work. B. They have more control over the pace of their work. C. They are more likely to have wider and bigger social networks. D. They are more likely to do manual labor. Answer: D 21. For lower-class white males, educational attainment is __________ to occupation and income. A. strongly related B. moderately related C. slightly related D. largely negatively related Answer: B 22. For upper-class white males, social origin is __________ to occupation and income. A. strongly related B. moderately related C. slightly related D. largely negatively related Answer: A 23. The fact that people with comparable occupations and incomes participate more in the civic and political life of their communities when they have more education is consistent the __________ view of education. A. allocation B. classical economic C. labeling D. socialization Answer: D 24. People with more education tend to live longer. This is true of __________. A. men but not women B. white women but not black women C. women but not men D. men and women, whether white or black Answer: D 25. Evidence suggests that one of the following statements about the relationship of education to health and life expectancy is false. Which is it? A. More highly educated people are able to take their medicines on a prescribed schedule. B. More highly educated people use seat belts. C. More highly educated people who smoke are less likely to quit. D. More highly educated people have better access to health information. Answer: C 26. __________ refers to the practice of marrying individuals whose educational levels are similar to one's own. A. Educational homogamy B. Marriage homogamy C. Marriage determinism D. Pair symmetry Answer: A 27. How has marriage changed in recent decades? A. Educated Americans are marrying at an older age, having fewer children, but having them somewhat sooner. B. Educated American women, in particular, are waiting longer to marry. C. Educated Americans are marrying at an older age but having similar numbers of children as their parents. D. Educated American women are having fewer children at a somewhat sooner age than their mothers. Answer: B 28. The educational experiences of American children, regardless of social class differences, __________. A. are likely to be quite different B. are likely to be quite similar C. are likely to be constrained by equal opportunity D. are not likely to be the focus of sociological study Answer: A 29. Over the last 50 years, family income __________ in explaining the educational achievement gap. A. has become less important than race B. has become more important than race C. has become as important as race D. has become as inconsequential as race Answer: B 30. What is the national average, based on 2007 census data, spent per pupil in the United States to educate elementary and secondary students? A. under $9,000 B. slightly more than $9,500 C. slightly more than $10,000 D. over $12,000 Answer: B 31. Based on 2007 census data, __________ spent the most and __________ spent the least per pupil to educate elementary and secondary students A. Massachusetts; Mississippi B. Massachusetts; Arkansas C. New Jersey; Mississippi D. New York; Utah Answer: D 32. How did U.S. students rank in comparison with other students of the world on the International Student Assessment tests in 2009? A. better than average in reading, better than average in science, and better than average in math B. better than average in reading, better than average in science, and worse than average in math C. better than average in reading, worse than average in science, and worse than average in math D. worse than average in reading, worse than average in science, and worse than average in math Answer: B 33. The disparity in educational achievement between whites and Asian Americans, who tend to fare better, on average, than African American, Latino/a, and Native American students __________. A. is a fairly recent phenomenon B. has persisted over 30 years C. has been steadily declining since 1980 D. has been all but eliminated Answer: B 34. Sociologists commonly assess educational attainment using all the following measurements EXCEPT __________. A. standardized test scores and grade point averages B. college attendance and graduation rates C. hours spent working at jobs D. rates of placement in gifted or special education programs Answer: C 35. In a sociological context, SES is an abbreviation for __________ A. socioeconomic sanctions B. socioeconomic stability C. socioeconomic statistics D. socioeconomic status Answer: D 36. On the SAT reasoning test, why is the male sample of test-takers NOT readily comparable to the female sample? A. Fewer males than females take the SAT reasoning test. B. Fewer males than females score above the average on the SAT reasoning test. C. Fewer females than males take the SAT reasoning test. D. Fewer females than males score above the average on the SAT reasoning test. Answer: A 37. Women have higher college completion rates in __________. A. Japan B. Korea C. Switzerland D. the United States Answer: D 38. Women and men in the United States are about equally likely to earn all the following degrees EXCEPT __________. A. bachelor's degrees B. law degrees C. MDs D. PhDs Answer: A 39. The gender gap in education Favors girls over boys with respect to __________. A. earning economics degrees B. attending selective colleges C. achievement and attainment D. choosing majors that lead to higher-paying careers Answer: C 40. Men with some high school education earn __________ than their female counterparts, while men with master's degrees earn __________ with similar educations. A. 53 percent more; 20 percent more than women B. 10 percent less; 30 percent more than women C. 30 percent more; approximately the same as women D. 62 percent more; 41 percent more than women Answer: D 41. In the science fields, women earn larger percentages of bachelor's degrees in which two disciplines? A. biology and chemistry B. chemistry and computer science C. electrical engineering and biology D. physics and chemistry Answer: A 42. In the social and behavioral fields, women earn the smallest share of degrees in which discipline? A. accounting B. economics C. history D. physical education Answer: B 43. Educational systems around the world differ in three important ways: __________. A. access, control and funding, and student-teacher ratio B. access, control and funding, and private versus public education C. control and funding, private versus public education, and segregation by gender D. private versus public education, segregation by gender, and competency of teachers Answer: B 44. What percentage of U.S. college students attends public nonprofit colleges and universities? A. 85 percent B. 75 percent C. 65 percent D. 55 percent Answer: B 45. Who is more likely to be home-schooled? A. black school-age children B. white school-age children C. lower-income school-age children D. lower-come school-age children living in two-parent households Answer: B 46. What is the most common reason that parents choose to home-school their children? A. to circumvent peer pressure B. to provide moral and religious instruction C. to shore up family finances D. to provide for a child's special needs Answer: B 47. In the United States how much funding for schools comes from the federal government? A. less than 10 percent B. 15 percent C. 18 percent D. 22 percent Answer: A 48. Which of the following statements about the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act is false? A. Annual tests of third to eighth graders in reading and math are required. B. An intended goal is to reduce the achievement gap between low-income or minority children and higher-income or white children. C. Reports of school-level data on students' test scores for various student subgroups are required. D. NCLB rewards or punishes school districts, schools, and teachers for the tested achievement of their students and prescribes consequences for students. Answer: D 49. Tracking is __________. A. assigning students to different ability or curriculum groups B. another word for teaching to the test C. providing students with more personal attention and tutoring D. reporting school-level data on students' test scores Answer: A 50. Where is tracking a particularly widespread practice? A. in large, diverse school systems and in schools serving primarily lower-class students B. in religiously affiliated schools with sizable immigrant populations C. in upper-middle-class suburban schools, whether private or public D. in new parochial schools with relatively inexperienced faculties Answer: A 51. Differences in achievement test scores can be explained, in part, by the differences in the courses that students take, especially in which three subjects? A. science, math, and economics B. science, math, and English C. math, English, and foreign language D. math, science, and foreign language Answer: D 52. Of the following statements about the learning experience of high-track students, which is false? A. High-track students spend less time away from the classroom on field trips. B. High-track students are taught more vocabulary words. C. High-track students receive better teachers and learning materials. D. High-track students receive less direction and criticism. Answer: A 53. Why does tracking persist, even though it clearly segregates students by social class and ethnicity? A. Privileged parents feel that tracking gives their children educational benefits. B. Tracking by ability group increases teachers' perceptions of what grades are appropriate for students in different tracks. C. Movement toward detracking has never gained much support. D. Many teachers prefer to manage classrooms with a range of student abilities. Answer: A 54. Prosperous and white children are __________ as poor or minority children to attend private schools. A. just as likely B. two times as likely C. three times as likely D. four times as likely Answer: B 55. What type of activity is possible with Web 1.0 technologies? A. gaming and remixing B. publishing and gaming C. searching and publishing D. searching and reading Answer: D 56. What are advances in web technologies dubbed Web 3.0 expected to do? A. make video sharing possible B. make tagging content possible C. make finding nearby restaurants possible D. make interactions with the web more useful and meaningful Answer: C 57. What cartoon caption best characterizes the early Internet? A. "On the internet, everybody knows what kind of dog you are." B. "On the internet, no one knows you are a dog." C. "On the internet, everybody knows the last time you had fleas." D. "On the internet, everybody knows the date you were neutered." Answer: B 58. Highly selective colleges and universities appear to be __________ total online instruction than less selective universities. A. relying less on B. relying more on C. ignoring D. fully awash in Answer: A 59. Research shows that __________ students complete online classes compared to face-to-face courses. A. more B. fewer C. the same number of D. almost all Answer: B 60. There is __________ systematic research showing students learn better from digital systems than from teachers. A. no B. very little C. some D. much Answer: A 61. Of the following skills, which type may be harder to learn online than the others? A. a skill to accomplish a specific task B. the skill to solve quadratic equations C. the skill to upload a video to YouTube D. the skill to think critically Answer: D 62. The __________ is the term popularly used to describe the social, economic, and cultural gap between those with effective access to information technology and those without such access. A. developmental disparity B. developmental divide C. digital quotient D. digital divide Answer: D 63. The growing use of digital technologies outside of school will ___________ in education and society. A. likely have no impact on existing inequalities B. likely eliminate existing inequalities C. likely narrow existing inequalities D. likely magnify existing inequalities Answer: D 64. The chapter discusses three implications associated with the use of digital technologies in education, including all EXCEPT __________. A. the gap between those with effective access to information technology and those without such access B. the difficulty of controlling information students find with digital technologies C. the use of digital technologies around the world D. the demand digital technologies make on students' time Answer: C 65. Common competencies that sociologists have identified as necessary for successful functioning in the twentieth-first century include agility and adaptability. Of the following skills and capabilities, which is less likely to be associated with agility and adaptability than the others? A. to listen effectively to discern meaning, knowledge, values, attitudes, and intentions B. to work in ambiguous situations with changing priorities C. to accept feedback on their work D. to deal positively with criticism and setbacks Answer: A Scenario Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the long-lasting effects of the hidden curriculum in schools? A. Joey's elementary music teacher taught him a song that names each U.S. state in alphabetical order. Now that he's an adult, Joey can still rattle off the name of each state, as long as he sings the tune. B. Kelly and her twin brother Brent had very different experiences in school. While Brent's teachers encouraged him to focus on math and science, Kelly was directed toward home economics. Brent received more support from his coaches than did his sister. Kelly's interest in and talent for math and sports surpassed Brent's, but she never pursued those areas and abandoned them altogether when she got to college. She had learned her place as a female. C. An elementary school teacher was caught stealing from the PTA fund. Her students were shocked and confused. Ms. Kenrick had always demanded honesty and integrity from her students. As they entered high school, Ms. Kenrick's former students continued to have trouble trusting their teachers. D. A high school principal, on retirement, wanted to leave a legacy. As a former band member, he had a great love for music and knew well the benefits that strong music and art programs bring to schools. He anonymously donated $10,000 to the music department, which had a long-term positive impact on the quality of the school's music program. Answer: B 2. Theo went to a prestigious private high school and, afterward, attended a well-respected university, where he earned a degree in finance. After working at a reputable firm for a few years, Theo branched out on his own. As a financial planner in private practice, Theo was sure he knew exactly what each of his new clients needed but had trouble making them understand his precise instructions. Every client eventually left him, saying that he was brilliant with figures but not so bright with people. Which of the following concepts would Theo's clients likely emphasize when describing their dealings with him? A. the connection between elite schooling and financial success B. his lack of "soft skills" C. the keys to the economic development of a society D. his lack of credentialism Answer: B 3. Jeff wants to start his own business and he's eager to make it successful. He remembers his sociology professor talking about socialization theory, human capital, and allocation theory. Armed with this knowledge, what should be Jeff's strategy in building up his business? A. Avoid hiring too many college graduates. They demand higher salaries, which drains money from profit margins. B. Hire more workers than you think you'll need. Not all of them will stay with the company for long. C. Hire mostly college graduates. They'll have the needed skills and productivity levels. D. Outsource as many positions as possible to keep personnel costs low. Answer: C 4. Liz and Rachel were inseparable childhood friends but drifted apart after high school. Liz took a couple of community college classes, and Rachel earned a bachelor's degree. Considering only the extent of their postsecondary educational attainment, which of the following future outcomes seems most plausible for Liz and Rachel? A. Liz has one child. Rachel has three children. B. Liz regularly volunteers to build houses for Habitat for Humanity. Rachel's job and family leave her little time for volunteering. C. Liz suffers from more illnesses throughout her life than does Rachel. D. Rachel and Liz both marry college graduates. Answer: C 5. Which of the following actions would, according to sociological research, have the greatest impact on racial and ethnic gaps in educational achievement? A. altering the criteria used to evaluate educational achievement levels, accounting for factors such as differing neighbourhoods, families, and peers B. the election of politicians and school board members who vow to focus on equal education for all C. the hiring of veteran teachers with advanced degrees into schools that are socioeconomically disadvantaged D. increasing the amount of money being channelled into inner-city schools, especially to update textbooks and computers Answer: A 6. Given what you know about gender differences in educational attainment, which of the following scenarios is most likely? A. Jane is more likely than Bob to earn her bachelor's degree. B. Bob is more likely than Jane to earn his PhD. C. Jane is more likely than Bob to earn her PhD. D. Bob is more likely to attend a two-year college than Jane. Answer: A 7. Which of the following methods is more likely than the others to improve overall student achievement? A. mandatory national achievement tests that set high standards for learning and making teachers accountable for student achievement levels B. mandatory national tests for teachers that measure their competency in the subjects and levels that they teach C. removal of all testing from schools and reduction in teacher accountability assessments D. instruction in creative problem solving and in critical thinking and analysis Answer: D 8. A group of teachers and administrators are meeting to discuss effective alternatives, or modifications, to tracking. Their goal is to provide an equitable learning and achievement environment for all students. Which of the following proposals has the greatest chance of fulfilling their goal? A. immediately eliminating all specialized groups of students with differing abilities, ensuring equal opportunities for all students B. maintaining all specialized ability groups but clearly explaining their existence and purpose to students and parents C. offering students clearly explained specialized assistance for their differing abilities, while involving parents in the process of phasing out most of the existing specialized groups D. training teachers to group students according to their abilities, without offering any one group more privileges than the others Answer: C 9. Mr. Pearson has the largest class of second graders he has ever had and is struggling to meet the wide variety of needs represented by a diverse group of students. How might he make the best use of technology in his classroom? A. distribute digital pens to each student so that he can precisely identify every step of each student's work B. distribute laptops or iPads to every student so that he can let high-achieving students work independently at their own pace while he focuses on low achievers' specific needs C. have a computer specialist speak to the class, via a video chat, to explain how students can best utilize their computers D. have two or three students work at the same computer so that they can learn from each other, thus freeing up more of Mr. Pearson's time Answer: A 10. Which of the following problems has been identified as one of the more serious negative outcomes of the increasing use of digital technology in the classroom? A. the gap between students' and parents' working knowledge of digital technology will increase B. the gap between student learning and achievement across cultural and economic lines will increase C. the requirement that teachers keep current with technological advances will increase D. the use of fewer textbooks in the classroom will increase Answer: B Short Answer 1. Describe what is meant by the hidden curriculum and why it is important. Answer: The hidden curriculum refers to the often unstated how-to-behave-in-school expectations of teachers, including how to line up, be quiet on demand, be neat, fit in with a social system, follow rules, respect authority, obey, compete, and achieve success within the boundaries of the system. The hidden curriculum of schools also includes the gender roles that teachers encourage or enforce, loyal citizenship, and obedience to authority. The way children conform to the hidden curriculum of a school may affect how their teachers assess them and interact with them. 2. How does the credentialing function of education limit the entry into some professions? Answer: Educational credentialism means that more and more education is required for all jobs, especially professional and managerial occupations. As the required amount of education lengthens, the hurdles may be more difficult to overcome. At one time, to work in finance, you needed to be able to read, write, and do arithmetic. You could start as a "runner" on Wall Street, carrying orders or messages around to different people or firms. Now, you need at least a college degree, plus increasingly a master's of business administration (MBA) from one of the top universities in the country, and you may need to take a test to become licensed as a financial advisor. 3. What is the connection between civic engagement and participation in politics that makes them important for job seekers? Answer: In general, wider and bigger social networks help increase one's chances of job referrals. Those with more education are more likely to participate in social, voluntary, civic, arts, and political events and activities than those with less education, a finding consistent across cultures. Because more educated people have a wider array of social ties and involvement, they also have more soft skills that are helpful in finding and keeping jobs. 4. Why does the tendency of more educated workers to marry later in life add to the divorce divide that has opened up between those with and without college degrees? Answer: People who marry somewhat older are less likely to get divorced than people who marry younger. People who marry older and have more education have met a greater variety of people, they know more about what is important to them, and they may be less likely to see marriage as their only alternative in life. These factors, plus the possibility of more financial security, affect marital happiness and divorce rates. 5. What do sociologists mean when they theorize that education reproduces social inequality? Answer: Education in the United States is not a single, uniform system that is available to every child in the same way. Children of different social classes are likely to attend different types of schools, to receive different kinds of instruction, to study different curricula, and to leave school at different rates and times. As a result, when children end their schooling, they differ more than when they entered, and these differences may be used by other social institutions such as employers to select or reject them. When this happens, social reproduction rather than equal opportunity is occurring. 6. List some of the things that school districts with more money to spend do with their expenditures. Answer: Schools and districts that spend more can hire more educated and experienced teachers. They can provide resources that foster education like good libraries, laboratories, field trips, and current textbooks. They can also offer more extracurricular activities such as athletics, drama, and music. Research suggests that for some students such activities make the difference between schools being tolerable or intolerable. 7. What is the relationship between social inequality and test scores on international educational achievement tests? Answer: At the national level, countries with higher levels of social-class inequality tend to do worse on international tests of educational achievement than countries with lower inequality. In the United States, while the most privileged do well on standardized assessments, those from disadvantaged backgrounds do poorly, and overall U.S. results are mediocre, especially when compared with the scores of countries having considerably less social-class inequality than the United States, such as Sweden and the Netherlands. 8. Itemize some of the reasons that may partially explain girls' superior performance in high school and their higher rates of college graduation. Answer: It is possible that girls' higher aspirations to attend college may partially explain their superior performance in high school and their higher rates of college graduation. The fact that girls spend more time on homework and are less likely to have disciplinary problems may also help them perform better. The stronger performance of girls might also reflect their desire to narrow the gender pay gap through education, as men with similar educations continue to earn more than women. Perhaps as young women realize they are likely to spend a good part of their adult lives working, they decide to put more effort into schooling in an effort to obtain better job. 9. Discuss the rising trend of home-schooling and its implications on standardized test scores. Answer: In the United States, about 1.5 million children are home-schooled, an increase from 1.7 percent in 1999 to 2.9 percent in 2007. Whites from higher income and two-parent families constitute the majority of home-schooled students. Surveys indicate that home-schooled people outperform those who attended schools on standardized tests, are more involved in their communities, and are more likely to vote. This is not surprising given the social class background of the parents responsible for home-schooling. 10. Why is the education system in the United States considered a notable exception to the way schools are usually controlled? Answer: Most affluent countries have national public elementary and secondary education systems with uniform curricula, testing, and financing. The United States is a notable exception. The U.S. Constitution states that powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved by the states. As a consequence, states have their own departments of education, which may set curriculum and standards for public schools. There are also locally elected school boards that approve school budgets and help shape educational policy. 11. How is the funding for schools in the United States apportioned across the three levels of government? Answer: In the United States, 44 percent of school funding comes from local sources (primarily real estate taxes), 48 percent comes from state tax monies, and 8 percent comes from the federal government if a school district is qualified to receive one or more form of federal aid. 12. In the United States, what proportion of students attend private, rather than public, schools? Answer: In the United States, about 11 percent of students attend private schools, although the numbers vary widely by state. In New York, for example, about 25 percent of students attend such schools, compared to about 1 percent in Wyoming. 13. Describe the elements that contribute to the high-stakes atmosphere surrounding testing in U.S. schools. Answer: In the United States, an increasing emphasis has been put on large-scale high-stakes achievement tests. The stakes are high because a single test may determine whether students move to the next grade or even if they can graduate from high school. Such tests may also be used to hold educators, schools, and school districts accountable. 14. How do schools use digital technologies to enhance learning? Answer: Student answers may vary, given that most students should be able to generate endless examples of the use of digital technologies in the classroom from their own experience. They may mention GPS systems, e-books, iPads, learning management systems, student-response clicker systems, and any of a number of different technologies and devices. The examples cited in the textbook centre on Web 3.0 data systems for monitoring student learning in real time and digital pens. Web 3.0 data systems assess student work as students complete assignments electronically. Digital pens not only write but also have a small recording device in them that can record sounds. If a student is being asked to do something—say, solve a math problem—while the teacher is explaining the process, the recording in the pen can indicate exactly where the student got confused and what the teacher was saying at the time. This has the potential to help teachers pinpoint exactly where students need help, and maybe even improve their teaching. Schools use digital technologies to enhance learning through interactive learning platforms, online resources for research and collaboration, virtual simulations for practical subjects, personalized learning experiences tailored to student needs, and real-time feedback mechanisms to track progress and adjust teaching strategies. 15. Name three implications associated with growing use of digital technologies in the classroom. Answer: One of the most important implications of using technology for education, is the potential for a growing digital divide—the social, economic, and cultural gap between those with effective access to information technology and those without such access. A second major implication of digital technologies is that schools will find it increasingly difficult to control the ideas and information students find online. A third implication of digital technologies is the formidable demand they make on students' time and attention. Essay 1. Does the case of the late Steve Jobs, founder of Apple Computer, support or contradict the assertion that it is harder to be considered for employment without various credentials. How so? Answer: The case of Steve Jobs contracts the assertion, but geniuses and the extremely gifted often violate norms. Jobs attended Reed College in Oregon for less than a year before he dropped out, but he was a voracious learner without formal credentials. At Reed, he was not doing well taking required courses that held little interest for him. However, there was much he wanted to learn, so he asked professors if he could audit the courses that interested him, and they agreed. He also lacked many of soft skills usually considered necessary for employment. In his first job at Atari, his body Odor was so offensive that people refused to work near him. Lacking degrees and soft skills, Jobs would have been hard pressed to get a full-time job in any major organization. The one route open to him was starting his own corporation, where the knowledge, skills, and talents he had could be used productively. 2. Why do people with more education reap larger socioeconomic rewards? Answer: More educated citizens are more likely to find jobs in higher-status occupations than those with less education. This is not surprising because occupational status and working conditions are highly related to the skills and education demanded in the most competitive professions and fields, where salaries are higher. A person cannot become a surgeon or a lawyer (both high-status and high-paying occupations), for example, without an advanced degree and highly specialized training. Education transmits knowledge, skills, and values that employers believe increase productivity. Employers, therefore, pay educated workers more than less educated workers because they are more productive and generate more value for the business or organization. Education also signals to employers that people have the desired abilities and attitudes to do a job well, regardless of whether they actually acquired those traits in their formal schooling or elsewhere. 3. Describe some of the ways in which the work performed by more educated workers differs from that of less educated workers. Answer: Schooling clearly influences the types of tasks you do at work, the amount of control you have over your work, and how much you supervise the work of others. Research demonstrates that employers use educational credentials to bolster the authority of managers in the workplace. Other employers simply assume that education provides workers with the necessary knowledge and skills needed for direction, supervision, and planning. More educated workers do less manual and routine work and more mental work. They are also more likely to supervise the work of others and have more control over the nature and pace of their jobs. Moreover, larger national and international firms with more assets are more likely to require higher levels of education and pay higher salaries, so workers who desire employment in these types of firms would be wise to pursue more, not less, education to increase their chances of being hired. 4. Analyse the significant differences in the educational experiences of lower-class versus upper-class students. Answer: Lower-class students tend to encounter less-prepared teachers, are often exposed to less-valued curricula, are taught less, and are expected to do less work in the classroom and outside. Hence, they learn less and are less well-prepared for the next level of education. This happens because social class is related to the neighbourhoods where people live, neighbourhoods are related to the funding available to schools, and funding is related to school quality. School experiences are related to educational expenditures, which vary widely by state (See Figure 15.5), and even within districts some schools may spend more per pupil than others. Schools and districts that spend more can hire more educated and experienced teachers. They can provide resources that foster education like good libraries, laboratories, field trips, and current textbooks. They can also offer more extracurricular activities such as athletics, drama, and music. Research suggests that for some students such activities make the difference between schools being tolerable or intolerable. 5. How do sociologists explain why the achievement gap between black and white children who are similarly matched in terms of age, birth weight, education and occupation of their parents reappears in the third grades? Answer: Racial differences in educational achievement can be explained by historical and current systems of racial inequality, including neighbourhoods, families, schools, and peers, who become important for older children. Racial differences in achievement are due to social inequalities rather than genetic differences. This is shown in research that takes into account grandparental resources, neighbourhood characteristics, and peers as well as information on parents, students, and schools (Yeung, Persell, and Reilly 2010). White children in the third generation are much more likely than black children to live in neighbourhoods with little poverty, attend schools with many more children of average or high SES, and have more friends who stay out of trouble. When grandparental resources and neighbourhoods are considered together with parental resources, neighbourhoods, parenting practices, school SES, and peers, these factors together reduce the racial gap to insignificance. 6. Is schooling equally available to all children around the world? Answer: No, schooling is not equally available to all children around the world. In some countries, K–12 education is free and access to education is provided by governments. But other countries use markets to distribute access by charging school fees that limit access for the poor. Some countries require children to attend school and enforce this requirement, while others forbid certain children (for example, girls in Afghanistan) to attend for cultural reasons. In the United States and other affluent countries, free public schooling is available to all and children are required to attend school, usually until they are 15 or older, unless they are home-schooled, privately tutored, or otherwise educated. However, in some less wealthy countries, governments have chosen to spend some of their education money on developing universities instead of providing universal primary education. Some countries may have schools but no books or laboratories, and not all teachers may be trained.Consequently, around the world, access to education varies widely, with sometimes large differences by gender, class, and race. 7. Describe the extent of the variation in school funding across states and discuss the consequence of state and local funding of schools. Answer: One of the consequences of state and local control and funding is vastly unequal expenditures on K–12 education in the United States. At the aggregate state level, but also within most states, there are also very large variations in per-pupil expenditures. Even within particular school districts, there are variations in how much money different schools receive. Systemic differences in the funding of schools are related to other issues such as teacher quality, curriculum, and student achievement, and to unequal educational opportunities by social class and race. To receive full marks, students' responses should refer to Figure 15.5 on page 424 (per pupil spending amounts by state), and be able to identify that the difference in per pupil spending of New York, which spends slightly under $16,000 per pupil on average, and Utah, which spends just under $5,700 per pupil, is over $10,000. 8. Briefly summarize the arguments for and against high-stakes achievement testing? Answer: The intended goal of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) is to reduce the achievement gap between low-income or minority children and higher-income or white children by holding educators accountable. According to proponents of achievement testing, the purpose of using such tests is to set higher standards for student learning and raise student achievement. However, when some students do poorly on a test, schools and teachers can respond in several different ways. They can work harder with the students obtaining low scores, providing them with more personal attention, tutoring, and additional learning experiences, but such responses usually require additional resources, which many schools lack, especially ones that are already underfunded. Another possible response is that schools try to shed students with lower scores by encouraging them to drop out or transfer. This is clearly an unintended consequence of high-stakes testing and one that hurts the most educationally needy and vulnerable students. Research has found that, when schools define a good teacher as one with high pass rates, teachers became competitors rather than partners with their colleagues. The singular focus on increasing aggregate test scores thus renders school-wide discussions of the best interests of children obsolete. 9. What are the social implications of tracking? Should society ignore the social consequences of tracking? Answer: Socially, tracks create settings that shape students' self-esteem and expectations about academic performance. Being assigned to particular tracks immediately ranks students in a status hierarchy, formally stating that some students are better than others. Higher-track students receive more empathy, praise, and use of their ideas, as well as less direction and criticism, than do lower-track students. Teachers spend more time in low-track classes on discipline, and students in those classes perceive their teachers as more punitive than do students in high track classes. Students at the top are taught critical thinking, creativity, and independence, while students at the bottom are denied access to these educationally and socially important experiences. Since it is clear that tracking segregates children by social class and ethnicity, most students are likely to argue that the social consequences of tracking should not be ignored. 10. Identify several specific ways that students who don't have readily home access to the internet are disadvantaged. Answer: If education depends increasingly on home access and use of the Internet, students with multiple devices and users in their social networks will find it easier to complete school assignments successfully. Those without such access will depend on libraries or school labs (often with limited hours and help) to do their work. The growing use of digital technologies outside of school will likely magnify existing inequalities in education and society unless serious efforts are made to counteract such tendencies. Being on the wrong side of the digital divide also compromises students' ability to communicate effectively. Communication is not just about grammar, punctuation, or spelling but the ability to think clearly and write with focus, energy, and passion (a real voice). It also entails using multiple media and technologies, being able to judge their effectiveness and weigh their impact. Effective collaboration involves working well and respectfully with diverse teams, which, at the very least, requires access to technologies that enable communication and collaboration. Test Bank for The Sociology Project : Introducing the Sociological Imagination Jeff Manza, Richard Arum, Lynne Haney 9780205949601, 9780205093823, 9780133792249
Download
Close
Close
