Chapter Fifteen Domestic and Economic Policy Multiple Choice 1. Public policy can be divided into what two major categories? a. regulatory policy and procedural policy b. distributive policy and redistributive policy c. procedural policy and substantive policy d. regulatory policy and social welfare policy e. regulatory policy and public policy. Answer: d. regulatory policy and social welfare policy 2. Regulatory policy involves the use of a. the ballot. b. governmental police powers. c. the military. d. the Supreme Court. e. citizen powers. Answer: b. governmental police powers. 3. Which of the following is NOT an example of social welfare policy? a. cash assistance b. stipend c. capital punishment d. grants e. entitlements Answer: c. capital punishment 4. What is the first step in the life cycle of policy making? a. Placement of the problem on the national policy agenda b. Emergence of the problem as a “public issue requiring government action” c. One or more reformulations of the proposed policy d. Enactment of part or all of the proposed policy e. Redefinition of a public or private “condition” as a public “problem” Answer: e. Redefinition of a public or private “condition” as a public “problem” 5. Several factors make public policy making a highly political process including a. the fragmentation created by a federal system of government. b. alliances (logrolling). c. policies that benefit particular states or districts (pork barrel legislation). d. All of the Above e. None of the Above. Answer: d. All of the Above 6. Which of the following is NOT a part of the life cycle of policy making? a. redefinition of a social condition as a social problem b. formulation of the problem as a public issue c. implementation of the policy d. approval by religious leaders e. pork barreling. Answer: d. approval by religious leaders 7. Public policies are a. the decisions, actions, and commitments of government. b. the specific details and daily operations of individual government agencies. c. nothing but general wishes on the part of certain top government officials. d. policies that are not kept secret because of national security concerns. e. policies that rely solely on the use of police powers for their execution. Answer: a. the decisions, actions, and commitments of government. 8. Which of the following is NOT one of the four aims of public policies enacted by the national government? a. to regulate key industries and aspects of American life b. to protect Americans from actual or potential enemies at home and abroad c. to encourage the accomplishment of important social goals d. to reduce government’s national debt e. to assist with the wide range of American citizens. Answer: d. to reduce government’s national debt 9. The second step in the life cycle of policy making is a. formulation of a public policy response, usually followed by a pledge of action. b. redefinition of a public or private “condition as a public problem.” c. evaluation of the impact of the policy. d. placement of the proposed policy on the formal agenda of government. e. emergence of the problem as a “public issue requiring government action” Answer: d. placement of the proposed policy on the formal agenda of government. 10. When did Congress create the Environmental Protection Agency? a. 1950 b. 1960 c. 1970 d. 1980 e. 1990 Answer: c. 1970 11. Policy elites include all of the following EXCEPT a. members of Congress. b. Supreme Court justices. c. leading journalists. d. teachers of social studies in secondary schools. e. President’s cabinet. Answer: d. teachers of social studies in secondary schools. 12. Policy makers are willing to live with various social conditions until a. they die. b. foreign governments intervene. c. the condition is redefined as a social problem. d. the Supreme Court orders Congress to address it. e. the condition personally effects them. Answer: c. the condition is redefined as a social problem. 13. The national government engages in ______ kinds of regulatory activity. a. two b. four c. six d. eight e. ten Answer: c. six 14. The public agenda is the a. policies scheduled for debate and potential adoption by Congress. b. items that the president will make pronouncements about on a given day. c. cases considered or requested to be considered by the Supreme Court. d. set of topics that are of concern to policy elites and/or the public. e. is policy that is constructed and put into effect by the federal government. Answer: d. set of topics that are of concern to policy elites and/or the public. 15. A critical development that converts a routine problem into a widely shared, negative public response is termed a. elite policy. b. agenda politics. c. formal policy. d. entrepreneurial policy. e. triggering mechanism. Answer: e. triggering mechanism. 16. The policies that are actually scheduled for debate and potential adoption by Congress, the president, the Supreme Court, or executive departments and agencies are called the a. public agenda. b. formal agenda. c. congressional agenda. d. procedural agenda. e. entrepreneurial policies. Answer: b. formal agenda. 17. The act of providing the organization and expertise required to put into action any policy that has become law; also refers to the actual execution of a policy is known as a(n) a. triggering mechanism. b. entrepreneurial policy. c. congressional mandate. d. procedural mandate. e. implementation. Answer: e. implementation. 18. Difficulty in implementing federal policies relates to the three Cs of implementation. Which of the following is NOT one of the three C’s? a. complexity b. cooperation c. coordination d. continuity. e. All of the above are part of the three Cs of implementation. Answer: d. continuity. 19. The required period of monitoring and analysis of federal policies following their implementation is called a. policy regulation b. policy monitoring c. policy triggering. d. policy initiation. e. policy evaluation. Answer: e. policy evaluation. 20. Regulatory policy has __________ over the past century. a. rapidly declined b. gradually declined c. remained constant d. rapidly increased e. gradually increased. Answer: e. gradually increased. 21. Americans became vitally interested in environmental issues in the a. 1880s and 1890s. b. 1930s and 1940s. c. 1960s and 1970s. d. 1980s and 1990s. e. Twenty-first century. Answer: c. 1960s and 1970s. 22. The triggering mechanism for environmental policy making at the federal level was the 1962 publication of __________ Silent Spring. a. Al Gore’s b. Bill Clinton’s c. Barack Obama’s d. George H.W. Bush’s e. Rachel Carson’s Answer: e. Rachel Carson’s 23. An individual or group who is instrumental in selling a program or policy to a policy-making body is called a(n) a. policy inventor. b. policy entrepreneur. c. issue initiator. d. campaign manager. e. policy elite. Answer: b. policy entrepreneur. 24. In 1973, the Supreme Court announced in Roe v. Wade that women have a. an absolute right to choose an abortion throughout their pregnancy. b. no absolute right to choose an abortion at any point in their pregnancy. c. an absolute right to choose an abortion in the first trimester of pregnancy. d. specific absolute rights concerning abortion which must be weighed against other rights at all stages of the pregnancy. e. abortion at any stage is protected by the right to privacy. Answer: c. an absolute right to choose an abortion in the first trimester of pregnancy. 25. When Congress enacted a national speed limit, the government denied federal funds for highway construction to states not enforcing it. Thus, the government quickly achieved full a. entitlements. b. implementation. c. regulation. d. enforcement. e. adaptation. Answer: b. implementation. 26. The Supreme Court’s decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education was a very difficult policy to implement because of a. the ages of the people involved. b. the fact that Linda Brown was a girl. c. the costs of transporting children from one school district to another. d. racial and ethnic hostilities in the American public. e. the overwhelming number of females affected. Answer: d. racial and ethnic hostilities in the American public. 27. If a policy is continued, it enters into the __________, so that information about its consequences can be re-analyzed in the formulation of new policies. a. black hole b. reiteration cycle c. disinformation network d. feedback loop e. evaluation loop. Answer: d. feedback loop 28. Characteristics that contribute to the effectiveness of public policies include a. a clearly written policy statement. b. strong presidential support for the policy. c. local cooperation in the implementation of the policy. d. all of the above. e. none of the above. Answer: d. all of the above. 29. Policies designed to create special benefits for a particular state or district are called a. pork barrel legislation. b. fragmented legislation. c. trade-off legislation. d. rollover policies. e. logrolling legislation. Answer: a. pork barrel legislation. 30. An iron triangle is comprised of key legislative committees, executive agencies supervised by those committees, and a. the news media covering those agencies and committees. b. public opinion pollsters. c. interest groups. d. federal judges. e. cabinet members. Answer: c. interest groups. 31. A policy reaches the formal agenda when it is a. funded. b. scheduled for debate. c. accepted by an interest group. d. approved by the chief administrator. e. it is the process of being evaluated. Answer: b. scheduled for debate. 32. Which of the following acts set strict limitations on pollution from utilities and automobile emissions? a. Safe Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986 b. Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 c. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 d. Clean Air Act of 1990 e. Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948. Answer: d. Clean Air Act of 1990 33. Federal policy making that involves numerous actors and levels who move in and out of the policy-making process are called a. issue networks. b. policy riders. c. program patterns. d. disciplinary deliberations. e. free riders. Answer: a. issue networks. 34. __________ policies are designed to regulate conduct and protect the health and welfare of all Americans. a. Environmental b. Public c. Social welfare d. Regulatory e. Economic Answer: d. Regulatory 35. When were the highest levels of regulation reached? a. 1920s and 1930s b. 1940s and 1950s c. 1960s and 1970s d. 1980s and 1990s e. Twenty-first century. Answer: c. 1960s and 1970s 36. When did the trend for deregulation emerge? a. mid-60s b. mid-70s c. mid-80s d. mid-90s mid-50s Answer: b. mid-70s 37. The Water Pollution Control Act was passed in a. 1963. b. 1972. c. 1990. d. 1995. e. 2008 Answer: b. 1972. 38. The first international conference on the environment was held in a. 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. b. 1910 in Dublin, Ireland. c. 1977 in Hilo, Hawaii. d. 1946 in Yonkers, New York. e. 2000 in Beijing, China Answer: a. 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 39. In 1970, Congress created what government body to combat air and water pollution? a. Environmental Protection Agency b. Department of the Environment c. Department of Natural Resources d. Department of the Interior e. Department of Homeland Security Answer: a. Environmental Protection Agency 40. The Kyoto Protocol was a commitment by 150 nations to a. collectively find a cure for AIDS. b. end the horror of genocide or ethnic cleansing. c. seriously address the problem of global warming. d. destroy all nuclear missiles. e. try to bring an end to the war in Iraq. Answer: c. seriously address the problem of global warming. 41. __________ is intended to alleviate the numerous problems associated with poverty in contemporary American society. a. Regulatory policy b. Economic policy c. Environmental policy d. Social welfare policy e. Health and safety policy. Answer: d. Social welfare policy 42. Two books, both published in 1904, were influential in elevating poverty to the status of a political issue. The two books were titled Shame of the Cities and a. Greed. b. Tale of Homelessness. c. The Downtrodden. d. Wuthering Heights. e. Poverty. Answer: e. Poverty. 43. The federally determined level of income below which the government considers the person eligible to receive assistance is called the a. entitlement level. b. poverty level. c. food stamp level. d. disadvantaged level. e. Medicare level. Answer: b. poverty level. 44. Social Security was designed as a(n) a. save-and-spend system. b. pay-for-it-at-the-end system. c. pay-as-you-go system. d. unfunded mandate. e. entitlement system. Answer: c. pay-as-you-go system. 45. An example of the complexity of environmental regulation is the increased use of __________ policies that allow companies to build facilities in one area that may pollute if they lower pollution in another area. a. environmental impact b. dynamic c. logrolling d. offset e. surcharge Answer: d. offset 46. In what year was poverty elevated to the status of a political issue as a result of works by muckraking journalists, including Robert Hunter’s Poverty? a. 1904 b. 1935 c. 1945 d. 1969 e. 1974 Answer: a. 1904 47. Government-sponsored benefits and cash payments to those who meet eligibility requirements are called a. grants-in-aid. b. kickbacks. c. entitlements. d. Federal Pell Grants. e. means test. Answer: c. entitlements. 48. The heart of social welfare policy in the United States and the largest nondefense item in the federal budget is a. Social Security. b. Aid to Families with Dependent Children. c. food stamps. d. the Job Training Partnership Act. e. Great Society program Answer: a. Social Security. 49. Congress has made several efforts to apply __________ to Social Security entitlements—that is, to link benefits to income and provide payments only to the “truly disadvantaged”—but such efforts have failed owing to successful lobbying by senior citizen groups. a. Lemmon testing b. scrutiny testing c. litmus testing d. social security testing. e. means testing Answer: e. means testing 50. Which of the following Presidents initiated the “New Frontier” policy? a. Franklin Delano Roosevelt b. Harry Truman c. Dwight D. Eisenhower d. Richard Nixon e. John F. Kennedy Answer: e. John F. Kennedy 51. The federal program Aid to Families with Dependent Children a. was created in 1915. b. was very popular. c. was terminated in 1996. d. was a Great Society program. e. never caught on in the United States Answer: c. was terminated in 1996. 52. The Family Support Act was passed in a. 1988. b. 1934. c. 1919. d. 1995. e. 2000. Answer: a. 1988. 53. __________ is the requirement that recipients of welfare programs such as AFDC work on public works unless they find employment elsewhere. a. Welfare b. Workforce c. Peace Corp d. Proaction e. Workfare Answer: e. Workfare 54. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act was signed by a. Richard Nixon. b. Jimmy Carter. c. George Bush. d. Bill Clinton. e. Lyndon Johnson Answer: d. Bill Clinton. 55. The Social Security Act was the centerpiece of whose program? a. Kennedy’s New Frontier b. Johnson’s Great Society c. Roosevelt’s New Deal d. Nixon’s New Federalism e. Reagan’s Détente Answer: c. Roosevelt’s New Deal 56. Social Security trust funds will be exhausted in a. 2015. b. 2020. c. 2028. d. 2041. e. 2060. Answer: d. 2041. 57. Congress has made several attempts to link Social Security benefits to income. This is called a. means testing. b. contributory programming. c. linkage. d. financial decoupling. e. triggering. Answer: a. means testing. 58. The Depression acted as a triggering mechanism to translate the economic condition of poverty into a a. nonpartisan matter. b. world issue. c. local issue. d. political issue. e. social issues. Answer: d. political issue. 59. Lyndon Johnson used the Economic Opportunity Act and the Medicare Act to fight poverty as part of the a. War on Poverty. b. Washington Good-Neighbor Ordinance. c. Educational Cleanup. d. Politics-by-Choice. e. New Frontier Answer: a. War on Poverty. 60. Impoundment refers to a. the president’s overturning of the previous administration’s policies. b. Congress’s refusal to appropriate money. c. the president’s refusal to spend appropriated funds. d. Congress’s insistence on specific spending requirements. e. the Senate’s refusal to approve funds already appropriated. Answer: c. the president’s refusal to spend appropriated funds. 61. The cornerstone of the 1988 Family Support Act was the idea of a. work in exchange for benefits. b. welfare payments for all family members, not just adults. c. welfare benefits tied to Social Security payroll taxes. d. cost-of-living allowances for welfare recipients. e. the elimination of all welfare benefits. Answer: a. work in exchange for benefits. 62. The dollar amount of annual earnings below which a family is considered poor is known as the a. AFDC payment. b. cash assistance level. c. poverty level. d. annual earnings measurement. e. gross domestic product. Answer: c. poverty level. 63. The federal poverty level is a figure established by the a. Congressional Budget Office. b. Office of Management and Budget. c. Pentagon. d. Census Bureau. e. Health and Human Services. Answer: d. Census Bureau. True or False 64. There are four aims to public policy enacted by the government. Answer: True 65. In contrast to regulatory policy, social welfare policy uses positive incentives to promote or encourage basic social fairness. Answer: True 66. The making of public policy is a benign process. Answer: False 67. The policy life cycle consists of eleven steps or stages. Answer: True 68. The distinction between problems and conditions is critical for understanding public policy. Answer: True 69. The killings at Columbine High School had no real effect on any debate concerning gun control. Answer: False 70. Courts formulate and reformulate public policy by adopting a policy position. Answer: True 71. Government agencies formulate policy by issuing regulations explaining how the agency will enforce and interpret a new law. Answer: True 72. Implementation is a critical development that converts a routine problem into a widely shared, negative public response. Answer: False 73. A public agenda is the set of topics that concern policy elites, the general public, or both. Answer: True 74. A very vaguely written law contributes to the effectiveness of public policy. Answer: False 75. One example of regulatory policy is the performance of safety standards. Answer: True 76. By the mid-1950s regulatory activity of the government declined. Answer: False 77. The 1976 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act regulated the disposal of hazardous waste. Answer: True 78. The Clean Air Act of 1990 set strict limitations on pollution from utilities and automobile emissions Answer: True 79. The Kyoto Protocol aims to reduce greenhouse gas emission levels to at least 5 percent below 1990 levels. Answer: True 80. In the case of the civil rights movement, policy entrepreneurs used a variety of tactics. Answer: True 81. In 1950, the Supreme Court adopted a policy position in the case of Roe v. Wade. Answer: False 82. Some policies are easy to implement. Answer: True 83. Few federal policies require a period of monitoring and analysis following implementation. Answer: False 84. The first significant regulation occurred in response to the activities of foreign governments conducting business in the United States. Answer: False 85. Beginning in the mid-1970s, regulatory activity by the federal government declined and a movement toward deregulation emerged. Answer: True 86. Environmental policy provides a good illustration of regulatory policy making. Answer: True 87. In a landmark piece of legislation, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Congress required that government agencies issue an environmental impact statement listing the effects that proposed agency regulations would have on the environment. Answer: True 88. The Clean Air Act of 1990 set very few limitations on pollution from utilities and automobile emissions. Answer: False 89. The first international conference on the environment was held in Mexico City, Mexico, in 1985. Answer: False 90. America has had poverty conditions since early colonial days. Answer: True 91. The Social Security Act was of limited importance to the New Deal program of Franklin Roosevelt. Answer: False 92. Saving Social Security is perhaps the most important issue on the minds of citizens and politicians. Answer: True 93. The Medicare Act was enacted in 1935. Answer: False 94. The Family Support Act was but the first step in welfare reform, which culminated on August 22, 1996, when President Clinton signed perhaps the most controversial legislation of his presidency—welfare reform legislation that signaled the end of cash assistance to dependent children by the federal government. Answer: True 95. Social welfare policy making, like regulatory policy making, has a long political history and faces tremendous challenges. Answer: True 96. One of the most crucial roles for modern government is regulation of the national economy. Answer: True 97. The primary goal of economic policy is to allow rapid upward mobility. Answer: False 98. The federal government’s role in making economic policy has substantially decreased since World War II. Answer: False 99. There is perhaps no better place to observe how economic policy and political factions intertwine than the case of the federal budget. Answer: True 100. Budgetary politics involves very few actors. Answer: False 101. Governments have never been able to meet public needs by relying on voluntary contributions alone. Answer: True 102. Very few U.S. citizens have had trouble swallowing taxation. Answer: False 103. In 1978, the citizens of California staged a tax revolt when they passed Proposition 13. Answer: True 104. The very famous pledge of “Read my lips. No new taxes.” is associated with Bill Clinton. Answer: False 105. Excise taxes are charges on the sale or manufacture of products such as cigarettes, alcohol, and gasoline. Answer: True 106.The national debt is the cumulative total of all budget deficits. Answer: True Essay Questions 107. What is public policy? Answer: Public policy refers to the set of decisions and actions taken by governments to address societal problems. It encompasses laws, regulations, budgets, and actions undertaken by government officials and agencies. Public policy is designed to achieve specific goals and objectives, such as improving public health, protecting the environment, promoting economic growth, and ensuring national security. It is often influenced by a variety of factors, including public opinion, political ideology, economic considerations, and the advice of experts. 108. What are the government’s aims in enacting public policy? Answer: The government enacts public policy with several aims in mind, including: 1. Addressing Public Needs: Public policy aims to address the needs and concerns of society, such as providing healthcare, education, and infrastructure. 2. Promoting Public Welfare: Policies are often designed to promote the well-being and welfare of citizens, ensuring their safety, health, and economic security. 3. Regulating Behavior: Public policy seeks to regulate individual and organizational behavior to ensure fairness, prevent harm, and maintain order in society. 4. Managing Resources: Policies aim to manage and allocate resources efficiently, including financial, natural, and human resources, to achieve societal goals. 5. Promoting Economic Growth: Public policy often aims to stimulate economic growth, create jobs, and improve living standards for citizens. 6. Protecting Rights: Policies are enacted to protect the rights and freedoms of individuals, ensuring equality, justice, and protection from discrimination. 7. Ensuring National Security: Public policy aims to ensure the safety and security of the nation and its citizens, both domestically and internationally. 8. Fostering International Relations: Policies are often designed to promote positive relations with other nations, contributing to peace, cooperation, and global stability. Overall, the primary aim of public policy is to serve the public interest and improve the quality of life for citizens. 109. Discuss the life cycle of policy making. Answer: The policy-making process typically follows a life cycle that involves several stages: 1. Agenda Setting: This stage involves identifying and prioritizing issues that require government action. This can be driven by public demand, political agendas, or expert recommendations. 2. Policy Formulation: During this stage, policymakers develop potential solutions to the identified issues. This often involves research, analysis, and consultation with stakeholders to determine the best course of action. 3. Policy Adoption: Once a policy proposal is developed, it must be formally adopted by the relevant decision-making body, such as a legislative body or executive agency. This stage often involves debate, negotiation, and compromise to secure support for the policy. 4. Policy Implementation: After a policy is adopted, it must be implemented. This involves putting the policy into action, including creating new programs, allocating resources, and enforcing regulations. 5. Policy Evaluation: Once a policy has been implemented, it is important to evaluate its effectiveness. This involves assessing whether the policy is achieving its intended goals and making adjustments as needed. 6. Policy Termination: Over time, policies may become outdated or ineffective and may need to be terminated or replaced. This stage involves ending the policy in an orderly manner and transitioning to a new approach if necessary. Throughout the policy-making process, there is often ongoing monitoring and feedback to assess the impact of the policy and make adjustments as needed. Additionally, the process is often iterative, with policies being revisited and revised based on changing circumstances or new information. 110. What is the path a policy takes from getting on the public agenda through to termination or continuation? Answer: The path a policy takes from getting on the public agenda through to termination or continuation involves several key stages: 1. Agenda Setting: The process begins with an issue being identified and placed on the public agenda. This can occur through various means, such as media attention, public outcry, expert recommendations, or political agendas. 2. Policy Formulation: Once an issue is on the agenda, policymakers begin to develop potential solutions. This stage involves research, analysis, and consultation with stakeholders to develop policy proposals. 3. Policy Adoption: Once a policy proposal is developed, it must be formally adopted by the relevant decision-making body, such as a legislative body or executive agency. This stage often involves debate, negotiation, and compromise to secure support for the policy. 4. Policy Implementation: After a policy is adopted, it must be implemented. This involves putting the policy into action, including creating new programs, allocating resources, and enforcing regulations. 5. Policy Evaluation: Once a policy has been implemented, it is important to evaluate its effectiveness. This involves assessing whether the policy is achieving its intended goals and making adjustments as needed. 6. Policy Termination or Continuation: Over time, policies may need to be terminated if they are no longer effective or relevant. This can occur through formal processes, such as legislative repeal or executive action. Alternatively, if a policy is deemed effective, it may be continued or even expanded. Throughout this process, there is often ongoing monitoring and feedback to assess the impact of the policy and make adjustments as needed. Additionally, the process is often influenced by various factors, such as changing political priorities, public opinion, and external events. 111. Distinguish between regulatory policy and social welfare policy. Answer: Regulatory Policy: • Purpose: Create and enforce rules to govern behavior. • Focus: Protect public safety, ensure fair competition. • Examples: Environmental regulations, financial regulations, health and safety standards. Social Welfare Policy: • Purpose: Provide support and improve quality of life. • Focus: Assist vulnerable populations, reduce poverty. • Examples: Social Security, Medicaid, unemployment benefits. 112. Discuss American regulatory policy. Answer: American Regulatory Policy: • Agencies and Enforcement: Various federal agencies (EPA, FDA, SEC, OSHA) create and enforce regulations, imposing penalties for violations. Key Areas of Regulation: • Environmental Protection: EPA enforces laws like the Clean Air Act. • Consumer Protection: FDA and FTC ensure product safety and prevent fraud. • Financial Regulation: SEC oversees securities markets; Dodd-Frank Act reduces financial system risks. • Workplace Safety: OSHA sets standards for safe working conditions. • Economic Impact: Regulations can increase operating costs but aim to protect public interest and ensure fair practices. Debates exist on the balance between regulation and economic growth. • Public Participation: Stakeholders can provide input on regulations through public comments and hearings. • Recent Trends: Regulatory focus shifts with administrations (e.g., deregulation under Trump, re-regulation under Biden) and adapts to new issues like cybersecurity and data privacy. 113. Discuss how the US regulates the environment. Answer: US Environmental Regulation: 1. Legislative Framework: • Clean Air Act (CAA): Regulates air pollution. • Clean Water Act (CWA): Controls water pollution. • Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA): Ensures safe drinking water. • Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA): Manages hazardous waste. • Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund): Cleans up hazardous waste sites. 2. Regulatory Agencies: • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Primary federal agency. • State and Local Agencies: Implement additional regulations and enforcement. 3. Regulatory Mechanisms: • Permitting: Controls pollutant discharges. • Monitoring and Reporting: Ensures compliance through data collection. • Inspections and Enforcement: Ensures adherence to regulations. • Public Participation: Involves public input in decision-making. 4. Recent Developments: • Climate Change Initiatives: Regulate greenhouse gases and promote renewable energy. • Environmental Justice: Focus on protecting marginalized communities. • Technological Advancements: Improve monitoring and enforcement. 114. Discuss social welfare policy. Answer: Social Welfare Policy: Social welfare policy encompasses programs and initiatives designed to support individuals and families in need, promoting well-being and economic security. These policies aim to reduce poverty, provide access to essential services, and enhance the quality of life for disadvantaged groups. Here are key aspects of social welfare policy: 1. Goals and Objectives: • Poverty Reduction: Alleviate poverty and provide financial assistance to low-income individuals and families. • Economic Security: Offer support during times of unemployment, disability, or retirement. • Health and Well-being: Ensure access to healthcare, nutrition, and housing. 2. Types of Programs: • Income Support: Programs like Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and Social Security provide financial assistance. • Healthcare: Medicaid and the Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) offer healthcare services to low-income individuals and children, while Medicare provides healthcare for seniors and disabled individuals. • Food Assistance: The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) helps low-income families purchase food. • Housing Assistance: Programs like Section 8 housing vouchers and public housing aim to provide affordable housing options. 3. Implementation and Funding: • Federal and State Roles: Social welfare programs are typically funded by the federal government and administered by state and local agencies. This ensures that programs meet national standards while addressing local needs. • Public and Private Partnerships: Nonprofit organizations and private entities often collaborate with government agencies to deliver social services and support. 4. Eligibility and Benefits: • Means-tested Programs: Many social welfare programs are means-tested, meaning eligibility is based on income and financial need. • Universal Programs: Some programs, like Social Security, are available to all eligible individuals regardless of income. 5. Challenges and Criticisms: • Funding and Sustainability: Ensuring adequate funding and long-term sustainability of social welfare programs can be challenging, especially during economic downturns. • Equity and Access: Ensuring that all eligible individuals can access and benefit from social welfare programs is a continuous concern. Addressing disparities in service delivery is crucial. • Stigma and Perception: Social welfare recipients often face stigma, and there is ongoing debate about the effectiveness and efficiency of welfare programs. 6. Recent Trends and Reforms: • Welfare Reform: Initiatives like the 1996 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) aimed to reduce dependency on welfare by promoting work and personal responsibility. • Healthcare Expansion: The Affordable Care Act (ACA) expanded Medicaid eligibility and aimed to improve access to healthcare for low-income individuals. • Universal Basic Income (UBI): There is increasing discussion around UBI as a potential policy to address poverty and economic insecurity in the face of automation and changing labor markets. In summary, social welfare policy in the United States includes a range of programs designed to provide financial support, healthcare, food, and housing assistance to those in need. These policies aim to reduce poverty and improve quality of life, facing challenges related to funding, access, and public perception while evolving through reforms and new initiatives. 115. Comment on the “War on Poverty.” Answer: The "War on Poverty" was a significant social and political initiative launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964 aimed at reducing poverty and addressing economic inequality in the United States. Here are key aspects and impacts of the War on Poverty: 1. Background and Goals: • Announcement: President Johnson announced the War on Poverty during his State of the Union address on January 8, 1964. • Objective: The primary goal was to eradicate poverty by providing economic opportunities, improving living standards, and promoting social welfare. 2. Key Programs and Legislation: • Economic Opportunity Act of 1964: Established the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to oversee various anti-poverty programs. • Head Start: A program providing early childhood education, nutrition, and parental involvement services to low-income children and families. • Job Corps: A program aimed at providing vocational training to young people. • Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA): A national service program designed to fight poverty through volunteerism. • Medicare and Medicaid: Established in 1965 to provide healthcare to the elderly and low-income individuals. • Food Stamp Act of 1964: Expanded access to food assistance for low-income households. • Elementary and Secondary Education Act: Provided federal funding to improve education for disadvantaged students. 3. Impact and Outcomes: • Poverty Reduction: The poverty rate in the United States decreased significantly during the 1960s, from 19% in 1964 to 12% in 1970. • Social Services Expansion: The War on Poverty led to the expansion and creation of numerous social welfare programs that continue to impact American society today. • Healthcare Access: Medicare and Medicaid dramatically increased healthcare access for the elderly and low-income individuals, improving health outcomes. 4. Criticism and Challenges: • Effectiveness: Critics argue that while the War on Poverty succeeded in reducing poverty rates, it did not eliminate poverty or address underlying structural issues such as income inequality and lack of economic opportunities. • Dependency: Some critics claim that the expansion of welfare programs led to increased dependency on government assistance. • Political Opposition: The War on Poverty faced significant political opposition, particularly from conservative lawmakers who believed in limited government intervention. 5. Legacy and Continuing Efforts: • Long-term Programs: Many programs initiated during the War on Poverty, such as Head Start, Job Corps, and Medicaid, continue to operate and have become integral parts of the social safety net. • Ongoing Debate: The effectiveness and approach of anti-poverty programs remain subjects of debate, with discussions about how best to address poverty in the context of modern economic challenges. In summary, the War on Poverty was a landmark initiative that led to significant reductions in poverty rates and the establishment of enduring social welfare programs. While it faced criticism and challenges, its legacy continues to influence social policy and efforts to combat poverty in the United States. 116. Comment on the goals of economic policy. Answer: Goals of Economic Policy: Economic policy aims to achieve a stable and prosperous economy through various strategies and interventions. The primary goals of economic policy are typically centered around several key objectives: 1. Economic Growth: • Objective: To increase the production of goods and services in the economy, leading to higher levels of income and wealth. • Strategies: Investment in infrastructure, education, and technology; fostering innovation; supporting business development. 2. Full Employment: • Objective: To achieve the highest possible employment levels, ensuring that everyone who wants to work can find employment. • Strategies: Job creation programs, workforce training and development, incentives for businesses to hire, and reducing barriers to employment. 3. Price Stability: • Objective: To control inflation and avoid deflation, maintaining stable prices for goods and services. • Strategies: Monetary policy (e.g., adjusting interest rates), fiscal policy (e.g., government spending and taxation), and regulatory measures to control price fluctuations. 4. Equitable Distribution of Income: • Objective: To reduce income inequality and ensure a fair distribution of wealth across society. • Strategies: Progressive taxation, social welfare programs, minimum wage laws, and policies promoting equal opportunities. 5. Economic Efficiency: • Objective: To optimize the allocation of resources, ensuring that goods and services are produced and consumed in the most efficient manner. • Strategies: Deregulation (where appropriate), encouraging competition, reducing market distortions, and improving productivity. 6. Economic Security: • Objective: To provide a safety net for individuals and families during times of economic distress, such as unemployment, illness, or retirement. • Strategies: Social security programs, unemployment benefits, health insurance, and pensions. 7. Balanced Trade: • Objective: To maintain a healthy balance of trade, ensuring that the value of exports roughly equals the value of imports. • Strategies: Trade agreements, tariffs, export incentives, and measures to boost domestic production. 8. Sustainable Development: • Objective: To promote economic growth that is environmentally sustainable and preserves natural resources for future generations. • Strategies: Environmental regulations, investment in renewable energy, policies to reduce carbon emissions, and sustainable agricultural practices. 9. Fiscal Responsibility: • Objective: To manage government finances prudently, avoiding excessive debt and ensuring long-term fiscal health. • Strategies: Balanced budgets, prudent borrowing, efficient tax collection, and expenditure controls. 10. International Economic Stability: • Objective: To contribute to global economic stability and cooperate with other countries on economic issues. • Strategies: Participation in international organizations (e.g., IMF, World Bank), trade negotiations, and financial aid programs. In summary, the goals of economic policy are multifaceted and interrelated, aiming to foster a stable, prosperous, and equitable economy. Policymakers use a combination of monetary, fiscal, and regulatory tools to achieve these objectives, balancing short-term needs with long-term goals. 117. Discuss the politics of the federal budget. Answer: The Politics of the Federal Budget: The federal budget process in the United States is a complex interplay of political priorities, economic policies, and institutional procedures. Here's an overview of the key aspects of the politics surrounding the federal budget: 1. Budget Formation: • Presidential Proposal: The budget process begins with the President submitting a proposed budget to Congress, typically in February. This proposal outlines the administration’s priorities and policy goals. • Congressional Action: The budget is then reviewed by Congress, where both the House of Representatives and the Senate develop their own budget resolutions. These resolutions set the framework for subsequent appropriations and spending decisions. 2. Key Players: • President: Sets the initial agenda and priorities through the budget proposal. • Congress: Holds the "power of the purse," making final decisions on budget allocations. Key committees include the House and Senate Budget Committees, Appropriations Committees, and the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). • Interest Groups and Lobbyists: Various stakeholders, including businesses, advocacy groups, and lobbyists, influence budget decisions to protect or advance their interests. 3. Political Priorities: • Partisan Differences: Democrats and Republicans often have differing priorities, such as defense spending versus social welfare programs. These differences lead to debates and negotiations. • Ideological Conflicts: Debates over the size and role of government, tax policies, and entitlement programs reflect broader ideological divides between limited government/free market advocates and those supporting a more active government role in economic and social issues. 4. Budget Categories: • Mandatory Spending: Includes entitlement programs like Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, which are funded automatically and constitute a significant portion of the budget. • Discretionary Spending: Includes defense and non-defense spending that Congress must authorize annually. This is where most political battles occur. • Interest on Debt: Payments on the national debt, which reduce funds available for other priorities. 5. Challenges and Conflicts: • Deficit and Debt Concerns: The budget deficit and national debt are perennial issues, with debates over how to reduce deficits through spending cuts or tax increases. • Government Shutdowns: When budget agreements are not reached by the fiscal year deadline (October 1), it can lead to partial government shutdowns, affecting many federal operations and services. • Sequestration and Spending Caps: Mechanisms like sequestration (automatic spending cuts) and statutory spending caps can limit budget flexibility and lead to across-the-board cuts. 6. Recent Trends and Issues: • COVID-19 Pandemic: The pandemic led to unprecedented federal spending on relief measures, impacting long-term budget projections and increasing the national debt. • Entitlement Reform: There is ongoing debate about reforming Social Security and Medicare to address long-term sustainability concerns. • Tax Policy: Tax cuts and reforms, such as the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, have significant impacts on federal revenue and budget dynamics. 7. Public Opinion: • Voter Preferences: Public opinion influences budget priorities, with voters often supporting both lower taxes and high levels of government services, creating a challenging dynamic for policymakers. • Transparency and Accountability: Calls for greater transparency and accountability in the budget process are common, with efforts to make budget documents more accessible and understandable to the public. In summary, the politics of the federal budget involve a complex negotiation process among the President, Congress, and various stakeholders, shaped by partisan priorities, economic policies, and public opinion. Balancing competing interests and addressing fiscal challenges are ongoing aspects of the federal budget process. 118. Discuss the sources of government revenue. Answer: Sources of Government Revenue: Governments obtain revenue from various sources to fund their operations and programs. The primary sources of government revenue include: 1. Taxes: • Income Tax: Levied on individuals and corporations based on their earnings. Progressive tax systems tax higher earners at higher rates. • Sales Tax: Imposed on the sale of goods and services. Rates vary by state and locality. • Property Tax: Based on the value of real estate or personal property. Used to fund local governments, schools, and other services. • Corporate Tax: Levied on the profits of corporations. • Excise Tax: Applied to specific goods, such as alcohol, tobacco, and gasoline. 2. Social Insurance Contributions: • Social Security: Contributions from employees and employers fund the Social Security program, which provides retirement and disability benefits. • Medicare: Similar to Social Security, Medicare is funded through payroll taxes and provides healthcare benefits for seniors and certain disabled individuals. 3. Borrowing: • Government Bonds: Governments issue bonds to borrow money from investors. Bonds pay interest over time and are repaid at maturity. 4. Fees and Charges: • User Fees: Charged for specific government services or facilities, such as tolls for using highways or entrance fees for national parks. • Licenses and Permits: Fees for obtaining licenses or permits, such as for driving, hunting, or operating a business. • Fines and Penalties: Revenue generated from fines for violating laws or regulations. 5. Investment Income: • Interest: Earned on investments, such as government securities or deposits. • Dividends: Income from owning shares of stock in corporations. 6. Customs Duties: • Tariffs: Taxes imposed on imported goods. Used to protect domestic industries and generate revenue. 7. Earnings from State-Owned Enterprises: • Profit: Some governments own and operate businesses that generate profits, which contribute to government revenue. 8. Grants and Aid: • Federal Grants: Governments receive grants from other governments or international organizations to fund specific projects or programs. 9. Lotteries and Gambling: • Revenue: Some governments operate lotteries or allow gambling, with the revenue used to fund various programs. Each government determines its revenue mix based on its economic goals, tax policies, and fiscal priorities. Changes in revenue sources can impact economic activity, income distribution, and government spending decisions. 119. Distinguish among progressive taxes, regressive taxes, and the capital gains tax. Answer: Progressive Taxes: • Definition: Progressive taxes are taxes where the tax rate increases as the taxable amount increases. This means that higher-income individuals pay a higher percentage of their income in taxes compared to lower-income individuals. • Example: The federal income tax in the United States is progressive, with tax rates ranging from 10% to 37% based on income levels. Regressive Taxes: • Definition: Regressive taxes are taxes where the tax rate decreases as the taxable amount increases. This means that lower-income individuals pay a higher percentage of their income in taxes compared to higher-income individuals. • Example: Sales taxes are often considered regressive because everyone pays the same rate on purchases regardless of income, meaning that lower-income individuals spend a larger proportion of their income on taxes. Capital Gains Tax: • Definition: The capital gains tax is a tax on the profit made from the sale of an asset, such as stocks, bonds, or real estate. It is not a separate tax but is typically treated differently from regular income tax. • Rate: The capital gains tax rate can vary depending on how long the asset was held before sale and the individual's income level. For example, in the United States, the tax rate on long-term capital gains is 0%, 15%, or 20% depending on income, while short-term capital gains are taxed at ordinary income tax rates. • Effectiveness: The capital gains tax is often seen as favoring wealthier individuals who are more likely to have significant capital gains. This is because they are taxed at a lower rate than ordinary income, and wealthier individuals are more likely to derive a larger portion of their income from investments. In summary, progressive taxes increase as income rises, regressive taxes decrease as income rises, and the capital gains tax is a tax on the profit from the sale of assets, often with preferential rates for certain taxpayers. Each type of tax has different implications for income distribution and tax fairness. 120. Discuss the difference between discretionary spending and mandatory spending. Answer: Discretionary Spending: • Definition: Discretionary spending is government spending that is subject to the annual budget process and must be approved by Congress through appropriation bills. It includes funding for government agencies, programs, and activities that Congress can adjust each year. • Examples: Defense, education, transportation, and housing programs are typically funded through discretionary spending. • Flexibility: Discretionary spending levels can be adjusted each year based on changing priorities, economic conditions, and political considerations. • Congressional Control: Congress has significant control over discretionary spending, as it determines the funding levels for specific programs through the appropriations process. Mandatory Spending: • Definition: Mandatory spending, also known as direct spending, is spending that is automatically authorized by law and does not require annual appropriation by Congress. It is typically driven by eligibility criteria and benefit formulas set by law. • Examples: Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, and other entitlement programs are funded through mandatory spending. • Automatic Funding: Mandatory spending is determined by the number of people eligible for benefits and the benefit levels set by law, rather than annual appropriations. • Legal Obligation: Once eligibility criteria are met, individuals are legally entitled to receive benefits, and funding for these programs is considered mandatory. Key Differences: • Flexibility: Discretionary spending levels can be adjusted annually, while mandatory spending is determined by existing laws and eligibility criteria. • Control: Congress has more control over discretionary spending, as it can adjust funding levels each year. Mandatory spending is more rigid, as it is determined by eligibility criteria and benefit formulas set by law. • Nature of Spending: Discretionary spending funds a wide range of government activities and programs, while mandatory spending primarily funds entitlement programs that provide benefits to eligible individuals based on specific criteria. In summary, discretionary spending is subject to annual budget decisions and can be adjusted by Congress each year, while mandatory spending is determined by existing laws and eligibility criteria and does not require annual appropriation. Test Bank for Approaching Democracy Larry A Berman, Bruce Allen Murphy 9780205903825
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