This Document Contains Chapters 15 to 19 CHAPTER 15: Political Life Multiple Choice Questions 1. Political life includes all of the following except __________. a. party politics b. the various branches of government c. the issuing of parking tickets d. the resolution of disputes 2. A __________ is politically autonomous and is comprised of the local group or community. a. band b. tribe c. chiefdom d. state 3. Societies with tribal political organization are similar to band societies in their tendency to be __________. a. caste-based b. egalitarian c. ranked d. open caste-based 4. What is the mode of subsistence for chiefdoms? a. Horticulture b. Shifting agriculture c. Food collecting d. Intensive agriculture 5. __________ is not a power of the state. a. Tax collection b. Drafting men for the military c. Establishing marriage patterns d. Decree and enforce laws 6. __________ is a short-term use of force, planned and organized, to realize a limited objective. a. Individual violence b. Feuding c. Raiding d. Large-scale confrontation 7. Of the following, which is a characteristic trait necessary to be the big man of Kumdi-Engamoi, of New Guinea? a. Good looking b. Good writer c. Good speaker d. The father of a several sons 8. A(n) __________ is a means used to determine guilt or innocence by submitting the accused to dangerous or painful tests believed to be under supernatural control. a. ritual b. gauntlet c. resolution d. ordeal 9. __________ are used where political officials lack sufficient power to make and enforce judicial decisions. a. Resolutions b. Oaths c. Courts d. Conflicts 10. When no regular, effective means of resolving a conflict are available, __________. a. violence is commonly used to settle a dispute. b. ordeals are arranged for the opposing parties. c. wars are the common result. d. men must pick sides and battle until the dispute is resolved. 11. Which of the following is not considered a classification of political organization? a. Bands b. Tribes c. Clans d. States 12. In discussing political groups, anthropologists generally focus on groups organized on the basis of __________. a. age b. kinship c. territory d. sex 13. A society composed of a number of politically autonomous, small, and unusually nomadic groups is classified as a __________. a. band society b. tribal society c. state society d. chiefdom society 14. What distinguishes tribal from band political organization is __________. a. the presence of some multilocal, but not usually society-wide, integration b. permanent multi-local integration c. formal multi-local integration d. smaller local groups 15. Among the Tiv of northern Nigeria, political organization is based on __________. a. lineage organization b. agricultural organization c. religious organization d. wealth 16. Complementary opposition is typical of which kind of group? a. secret societies b. age-sets c. clans d. segmentary lineages 17. The Karimojong of northeast Uganda use what type of system as the basis of their political organization? a. age-set b. ethnic association c. regional association d. unisex organization 18. In contrast to tribes, chiefdoms have all of the following except __________. a. generally denser populations b. some formal multi-community authority structure c. more nomadic communities d. greater economic production 19. Which of the following is not generally characteristic of leaders in a chiefdom? a. inheritance of the chiefly position b. high status c. leader gains position because of personal qualities d. chiefly position is held permanently 20. __________ is not generally an important role of chiefs. a. Coordinating labor b. Collecting taxes c. Supervising religious ceremonies d. Redistributing goods 21. A set of explicit, usually written rules stipulating what is permissive and what is not is a(n) __________. a. oath b. codified law c. ordeal d. ritual 22. States generally have all of the following except __________. a. monopoly on the use of physical force to coerce people b. complex, centralized political structure c. egalitarian distribution of wealth d. large bureaucracy 23. State-level societies generally get most of their food from __________. a. pastoral activities b. food collecting c. plundering of conquered territories d. intensive agriculture 24. __________ is a state of recurring hostilities between families or groups of kin. a. Individual violence b. Feuding c. Raiding d. Large-scale confrontation 25. Cross-cultural research shows that the higher the level of political organization, the __________. a. more egalitarian the society b. more class distinctions are present in the society c. less dense the population d. greater the dependence on collected foods 26. Which form of distribution do anthropologists link to chiefdoms? a. balanced reciprocity b. generalized reciprocity c. commercial exchange d. redistribution 27. Oaths and ordeals are most likely in __________. a. complex societies with strong centralized authority b. smaller and simpler societies with little formal legal authority c. theocratic societies d. complex societies where political leaders lack the power to enforce judicial decisions 28. Warfare in preindustrial societies is most likely __________. a. in societies suffering from chronic food shortages b. in societies smaller than 21,000 people c. between nations that are militarily more unequal d. where people fear unpredictable natural disasters 29. Societies with only local political institutions are not likely to depend on __________. a. hunting b. fishing c. gathering d. agriculture 30. Violence can often be avoided if the parties in a dispute voluntarily avoid each other or are separated until emotions cool down. This technique is particularly used by __________. a. industrialists b. farmers c. foragers d. family members Essay Questions 31. What factors have led to the almost complete conversion of the world to the state system in such a short time? 32. Why is it that small-scale societies and democratic nation-states have high levels of political participation while feudal states and preindustrial empires do not? 33. Why is it that foragers use the avoidance technique to resolve hostilities? 34. What types of societies have capital punishment? Why? 35. What is the function of ceremonial apologies? How is it applied by the Fijians? 36. What are the major differences between raiding and warfare? 37. What is the relationship between the use of capital punishment by a society and the homicide rate? Can you suggest a reason? 38. How do the village courts of Papua, New Guinea reflect the merger of values of the former colonial government and earlier New Guinean legal practices? 39. How is the practice of “scalding” related to the concept of ordeal? Why do some societies practice ordeals in their legal-justice system, while others do not? Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. c 2. a 3. b 4. d 5. c 6. c 7. c 8. d 9. b 10. a 11. c 12. c 13. a 14. a 15. a 16. d 17. a 18. c 19. c 20. b 21. b 22. c 23. d 24. b 25. b 26. d 27. d 28. d 29. d 30. c Essay Answer 31. The factors that led to the almost complete conversion of the world to the state system include: 1. Treaties like the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which established the principles of state sovereignty and non-interference. 2. Industrialization and technological advancements that necessitated centralized governance. 3. Nationalism and identity movements that promoted the idea of unified political entities. 4. Colonization and decolonization processes that redefined political boundaries based on ethnic and cultural identities. 32. Small-scale societies and democratic nation-states typically have high levels of political participation because they feature more inclusive political structures where individuals have direct involvement in decision-making processes. In contrast, feudal states and preindustrial empires tend to concentrate political power among elites or rulers, limiting participation among the general population. 33. Foragers often use avoidance techniques to resolve hostilities because conflict can threaten group cohesion and survival. By avoiding confrontations, they maintain social harmony and minimize the risk of physical harm or retaliation, crucial in environments where cooperation and mutual support are essential for survival. 34. Capital punishment is typically found in societies with hierarchical structures and centralized authority, such as authoritarian regimes, monarchies, and some traditional societies. These societies use capital punishment as a means of maintaining social control, enforcing obedience to laws, and deterring serious crimes perceived as threats to social order and stability. 35. Ceremonial apologies serve to restore social harmony and mend relationships by acknowledging wrongdoing and expressing remorse. In Fijian culture, ceremonial apologies, known as "sevusevu," involve presenting a gift of yaqona (kava) to signify sincerity and respect. This ritual is essential for resolving conflicts, reconciling differences, and reaffirming communal bonds within the community. 36. Raiding involves short-term, small-scale attacks aimed at gaining resources or prestige without seeking complete destruction of the enemy. Warfare, on the other hand, is more organized, involving larger groups with the intent to conquer territory, subjugate opponents, or achieve political goals through sustained military engagement. 37. Research suggests there's no clear relationship between the use of capital punishment and the homicide rate. Factors such as socio-economic conditions, cultural norms, and effective law enforcement play larger roles in influencing homicide rates than the presence or absence of capital punishment. 38. The village courts of Papua New Guinea reflect a merger of values from the former colonial government, emphasizing legal structure and processes, with traditional New Guinean practices, which prioritize community consensus and restorative justice. This hybrid system aims to blend formal legal frameworks with local customs and values to ensure justice is culturally relevant and accessible. 39. The practice of "scalding," where a person endures boiling water as a form of ordeal, is related to the concept of ordeal in legal systems. Ordeals are trials by extreme physical tests believed to determine guilt or innocence based on divine intervention. Some societies use ordeals because they believe in supernatural intervention and see them as a way to ensure justice through divine judgment. Others reject ordeals due to concerns about fairness, human rights, and reliance on empirical evidence in legal proceedings. CHAPTER 16: Religion and Magic Multiple Choice Questions 1. Religion deals with the __________. a. existential b. dialectic c. supernatural d. nonexistent 2. After their efforts at creation, many creator gods __________. a. die b. retire c. watch their creation d. demand to be worshiped 3. According to Clifford Geertz, it is when faced with ignorance, pain, and the unjustness of life that a person explains events __________. a. as capricious b. based on scientific knowledge c. as supernatural d. by the intervention of the gods 4. Anthony Wallace distinguishes taboo from mana by pointing out that __________. a. things containing taboo can be touched b. things containing taboo cannot be touched c. taboo is an evil, hideous force quite able to destroy all people who touch it d. taboo is a premeditated form of evil 5. A polytheistic religion recognizes __________ gods, not one of which is __________. a. many important/supreme b. two/unimportant c. three/important d. potential/important 6. People tend to be punished by gods for immoral behavior __________. a. in most societies b. in only some rare societies c. when there are considerable differences in wealth in a society d. when the rulers of a society receive their power from the gods 7. __________ seeks practical answers from the supernatural about anything that is troublesome. a. Divination b. Magic c. Mana d. Sorcery 8. When an individual compels the gods to act on his or her behalf, __________. a. divination is being performed b. sorcery is being performed c. witchcraft is being performed d. magic is being performed 9. One explanation of the witchcraft phenomenon in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692 was that __________. a. many women were involved in a coven b. the men wanted the unusual women of the community removed c. ergot poisoning was causing the effects d. the women who were accused were unfit mothers 10. __________ are generally full-time male specialists who officiate at public events. a. Shamans b. Mediums c. Sorcerers d. Priests 11. Gods are often anthropomorphic, that is, conceived in the image of __________. a. a person b. an animal c. a celestial body d. a geologic entity 12. To either divert anger or to attract goodwill, some societies __________ to/for a god in order to influence the god’s action. a. perform seances b. make sacrifices c. ingest hallucinogens d. practice magic 13. One factor suggested in __________ is political turmoil, which may give rise to widespread distrust and a search for scapegoats. a. revitalization movements b. taboos c. shamanism d. witch hunts 14. Richard Antoun suggests that fundamentalist movements have the following elements in common, except __________. a. the selective use of scripture to inspire and assert proof of particular certainties b. the quest for purity and traditional values in what is viewed as an impure world c. the active opposition to what is viewed as a permissive secular society d. a nation-state that combines religion and the state 15. For anthropologists, the term mana refers to __________. a. a supernatural force residing in some people and objects b. polluting and dangerous qualities that reside in certain activities such as menstruation c. the souls of living things as they are exhibited in dreams, trances, and apparitions of the dead d. food given by gods to humans 16. In most societies, ghosts resemble __________. a. distant relatives b. unknown strangers c. close relatives d. known animals 17. People are most likely to believe their ancestors play an active role in their lives in societies __________. a. where many people live to an extremely old age b. where mortality rates are high c. with a pastoral or food-collecting economy and nuclear family households d. where descent groups are important decision-making groups 18. In which kinds of society are gods most likely to be viewed as aggressive and malevolent? a. societies with external war b. societies with hunting and gathering technologies c. societies with punitive or hurtful child-rearing practices d. societies with nuclear-family households 19. Monotheistic religions generally have beliefs in __________. a. a supreme supernatural being together with lower ranked supernatural beings b. only one supernatural being c. a dual existence for all living things d. forces of nature, rather than anthropomorphized gods 20. In the ranked society of Palau, the gods __________. a. are associated with different clans and are ranked like the clans b. have little to do with human actions c. are not thought to be permanent, but may die and be born again, just like the clans d. are all considered of equal power 21. __________ is most likely to have a monotheistic religion. a. A society with hierarchical political systems b. A society that is located near the equator c. A relatively small society in which most members know each other well d. A society in which children are harshly disciplined 22. In __________ the gods are most likely to take an active interest in the moral behavior of humans? a. a food-collecting society b. pastoral societies c. a society with inequality of wealth d. an egalitarian society 23. Human sacrifices are most likely in societies with __________. a. high mortality in warfare b. simple hunting and gathering economies c. gods that do not concern themselves with human morality d. full-time craft specialists, slavery, and the corvée 24. The non-response of the gods will be explained by a __________ in terms of the people’s unworthiness of supernatural favor, while retaining his position. a. sorcerer b. shaman c. medium d. priest 25. Sorcerers and witches of both sexes tend to have __________. a. very high social and economic status in their societies b. very low social and economic status in their societies c. about the same status as a shaman might have d. much more status than a shaman might have 26. Which type of religious practitioner is most likely to be female? a. Sorcerer b. Shaman c. Medium d. Priest 27. A “revitalization movement” is __________. a. the process of resurrection in tribal eschatology b. the return from the dead on ritual occasions, such as the Ghost Dance c. an effort to save a culture by infusing it with new purpose and life d. a religious movement characterized by miracles 28. Which of the following is not a revitalization movement? a. A messianic movement b. A cargo cult c. The witchcraft accusations of Salem, Massachusetts d. The religious movement of Handsome Lake, which convinced the Seneca to stop drinking 29. Evidence of __________ can never be found. a. sorcery b. witchcraft c. divination d. taboos 30. __________ tend to have more types of religious or magical practitioners. a. Agricultural societies b. Hunter-gatherer societies c. Pastoral societies d. More complex societies Essay Questions 31. What is Tylor’s idea of animism? How does it compare to animatism? 32. Compare Freud’s views of religion with those of Bronislaw Malinowski. 33. Describe how simulation is used in Voodoo. Explain the link between simulation and divination. How is Holy Communion a simulation of the Last Supper? 34. What is magic? How does it differ from prayer? 35. How does magic differ from sorcery? What is the purpose of witchcraft and witch hunts according to Beatrice Whiting? 36. What are the basic uses of a taboo or a good luck charm? 37. What social problems motivated the witch craze in Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? 38. List and describe the various types of religious practitioners. How does social complexity relate to this? Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. c 2. b 3. d 4. b 5. a 6. c 7. a 8. d 9. c 10. d 11. a 12. b 13. d 14. d 15. a 16. c 17. d 18. c 19. a 20. a 21. a 22. c 23. d 24. d 25. b 26. c 27. c 28. c 29. b 30. d Essay Answer 31. Tylor's idea of animism is the belief that all objects, places, and creatures possess a distinct spiritual essence. He posited that early humans attributed souls to inanimate objects and natural phenomena, leading to the development of religious beliefs. Animatism, on the other hand, is the belief in a generalized, impersonal power or force present in the world, not associated with specific spiritual beings. It involves attributing life force or energy to natural phenomena without the concept of individual spirits. In summary, animism involves spirits with individual personalities, while animatism involves a pervasive, non-personal life force. 32. Freud viewed religion as an illusion and a form of neurosis, believing it stemmed from deep-seated psychological needs and conflicts. He argued that religion serves to repress instincts and fulfill unconscious desires, particularly related to the Oedipus complex. In contrast, Bronislaw Malinowski saw religion as a practical and functional part of society. He argued that religion helps individuals cope with uncertainty and anxiety, particularly in situations where human control is limited, such as illness or death. Malinowski emphasized the psychological comfort and social cohesion provided by religious beliefs and practices. In summary, Freud saw religion as a psychological dysfunction, while Malinowski viewed it as a beneficial social and psychological support system. 33. In Voodoo, simulation is used through rituals and symbolic actions to influence real-world outcomes. For example, a Voodoo doll represents a person, and actions performed on the doll (like sticking pins) are believed to affect the person it represents. The link between simulation and divination lies in the belief that symbolic actions can reveal hidden knowledge or predict future events. Divination often involves simulating scenarios to gain insight into the unknown. Holy Communion is a simulation of the Last Supper as it reenacts Jesus' final meal with his disciples. Participants consume bread and wine, symbolizing Jesus' body and blood, to commemorate and connect with that pivotal event in Christian faith. 34. Magic is the use of rituals, symbols, actions, and gestures believed to harness supernatural forces to influence events or outcomes in the natural world. It is often seen as a way to directly control or manipulate these forces. Prayer, on the other hand, is a form of communication with a deity or higher power, seeking guidance, assistance, or intervention. It relies on faith and the goodwill of the divine rather than attempting to control supernatural forces directly. In summary, magic involves direct manipulation of supernatural forces, while prayer seeks divine intervention through supplication and communication. 35. Magic generally refers to practices aimed at influencing natural events through supernatural means, which can be either beneficial (white magic) or harmful (black magic). Sorcery specifically involves the use of supernatural powers to cause harm or manipulate others, often considered malevolent. According to Beatrice Whiting, the purpose of witchcraft and witch hunts is to explain and control misfortune and social tensions within a community. They serve as a means to identify and eliminate perceived sources of harm, thereby maintaining social cohesion and order. 36. The basic uses of a taboo are to prohibit certain actions or behaviors to prevent misfortune, maintain social order, and protect sacred or important aspects of culture. A good luck charm is used to attract positive outcomes, provide a sense of security, and boost confidence by invoking a belief in the charm's power to bring good fortune and ward off bad luck. 37. The witch craze in Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was motivated by a combination of social problems, including religious conflicts (such as the Reformation and Counter-Reformation), political instability, economic hardship, and widespread fear and superstition. These issues created a climate of anxiety and tension, leading to the scapegoating of individuals, particularly women, as witches to explain and control misfortune and societal discord. 38. Types of Religious Practitioners: 1. Shamans: Part-time practitioners who use trance and ritual to interact with the spirit world for healing and divination. 2. Priests: Full-time, formally trained practitioners who perform rituals and offer guidance within organized religions. 3. Prophets: Individuals believed to receive divine messages or revelations, often leading religious movements or reforms. 4. Healers: Practitioners who use spiritual or supernatural means to cure illnesses and alleviate suffering. 5. Mediums: Individuals who communicate with spirits on behalf of others, often during rituals or seances. Social Complexity and Religious Practitioners: • In simpler societies, religious roles are typically part-time and more flexible, with shamans and healers being common. • In more complex societies, organized religions emerge with specialized, full-time roles like priests and prophets, reflecting the need for structured religious practices and leadership. CHAPTER 17: The Arts Multiple Choice Questions 1. Most societies do not have a word for art. Perhaps that is because art, particularly in societies with relatively little __________, is often an integral part of religious, social, and political life. a. specialization b. artistic ability c. invention d. unconscious invention 2. From the viewpoint of the person who creates it, art __________ feelings and ideas; from the viewpoint of the observer or participant, it __________ feelings and ideas. a. determines/creates b. provokes/explains c. expresses/evokes d. allows/provides 3. Artistic activities are always __________ in part; involving shared and learned patterns of behavior, belief, and feeling. a. social b. religious c. academic d. cultural 4. Of the following which is not a quality of art? a. Stimulates the senses b. Affects emotions c. Wastes capital resources d. Evokes ideas 5. In what percentage of societies do people adorn their bodies? a. 100 b. 85 c. 67 d. 50 6. Earrings and lipstick both work to __________. a. cover unattractive parts of the female body form b. attract attention to erogenous zones c. signal high-status in many societies d. create an illusion of beauty 7. What is particularly meaningful to anthropologists is the realization that, although the materials available to a society may to some extent limit or influence what it can do artistically, the materials by no means __________ what is done. a. predict b. determine c. create d. assign 8. __________ of a simple element, for example, tends to be found in the art of egalitarian societies, which have little political organization and few authority positions. a. Creation b. Repetition c. Extinction d. Production 9. The musical refrain line “tra-la-la-la” would more likely be found in a(n) __________ society. a. commercial agricultural b. culturally complex c. foraging d. intensive agricultural 10. Alan Lomax discovered that in societies in which women’s work is responsible for at least half of the food, songs are likely to contain more than _________ simultaneous melody, with the higher tunes usually sung by women. a. two b. three c. one d. four 11. Barbara Ayres suggested that the importance of regular rhythm in the music of a culture is related to the rhythm’s __________ —that is, its associations with feelings of security or relaxation in infancy. a. devaluation b. diffusion c. evolution. d. acquired reward value 12. __________ is a broad category comprising all the myths, legends, folktales, ballads, riddles, proverbs, and superstitions of a cultural group. a. Folklore b. Folklife c. Folkways d. The written story 13. The “Star Husband Tale”, a common Native American story probably originated in the __________. a. Southwest b. Southeast c. Plains d. Northwest 14. A cross-cultural study by Alex Cohen found that unprovoked aggression is likely in folktales of societies that are/were __________. a. war-like b. repressed c. colonized by European powers d. subject to unpredictable food shortages 15. The expression “garbage in” – garbage out, is a modern example of __________. a. folkways b. folklore c. folktales d. urban legend 16. __________ raised some critical questions about how Western museums and art critics look at the visual art of less complex cultures. a. Margaret Mead b. Mary Leakey c. Ruth Benedict d. Sally Price 17. The Navajo, who are well known for their rug weaving, probably obtained their weaving technology from the _________ and then began to weave wool and herd sheep. a. Zuni b. Puebloans c. Hopi d. Crow 18. Each Plains warrior stressed his individual accomplishments by painting representations of those accomplishments on __________. a. war shields b. animal hides c. rock faces d. cave walls 19. __________ is often evaluated negatively, perhaps because of its association with money. a. Western art b. Asian art c. Native American art d. Tourist art. 20. Clyde Kluckhohn suggested that __________ themes occur in the myths and folktales of all societies. a. one b. three c. five d. seven Essay Questions 21. Why is it that we insist that art must be original? 22. How does art stimulate the senses and evoke ideas? 23. How is music a form of art that can have meaning? Why is it that you may not understand the music of another society? 24. Explain the various functions of body art. Why are some permanent, while others are temporary? 25. What conclusions did John Fischer demonstrate about visual art? Give examples. 26. What are the major differences found between the artistic styles of egalitarian societies compared to stratified societies? 27. Songs with phrases such as “tra-la-la-la” are more likely than not the creation of hunter gatherer bands. Why? 28. Paul Ekman and Carroll Izard both studied masks cross-culturally. What were their conclusions as to whether masks show emotion in universal ways? Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. a 2. c 3. d 4. c 5. a 6. b 7. b 8. b 9. c 10. c 11. d 12. a 13. c 14. d 15. b 16. d 17. c 18. b 19. d 20. c Essay Answer 21. The insistence that art must be original stems from several cultural, historical, and philosophical reasons: 1. Romantic Ideal of Creativity: During the Romantic era, the notion of the artist as a unique and individual genius became prominent. This period emphasized the originality and personal expression of the artist, setting a precedent that art should reflect an individual’s unique vision and creativity. 2. Value and Authenticity: Originality is often linked to the value and authenticity of a piece of art. An original work is seen as a genuine product of the artist's skill and imagination, making it more valuable and desirable compared to copies or derivative works. 3. Innovation and Progress: Originality drives innovation and progress in the arts. When artists create original works, they contribute new ideas, techniques, and perspectives to the cultural landscape, pushing the boundaries of what is possible and enriching the artistic discourse. 4. Cultural Prestige: Societies often place high cultural prestige on originality, rewarding artists who create novel and groundbreaking works. This prestige encourages artists to strive for uniqueness and originality in their creations. 5. Intellectual Property and Copyright: Modern intellectual property laws protect original works, giving artists legal rights and recognition for their creations. This legal framework reinforces the importance of originality in the arts. 6. Individual Expression: Original art is seen as a form of individual expression, reflecting the personal experiences, thoughts, and emotions of the artist. This personal connection between the artist and their work is highly valued in many cultures. In summary, the insistence on originality in art is rooted in historical ideals, the pursuit of value and authenticity, the drive for innovation, cultural prestige, legal frameworks, and the importance of individual expression. These factors collectively shape the belief that art should be original. 22. Art stimulates the senses and evokes ideas through various elements and techniques: 1. Visual Stimulation: Art uses color, form, line, shape, texture, and composition to capture attention and create visual interest. These elements can produce emotional responses, convey movement, and create harmony or tension, engaging the viewer’s sight. 2. Emotional Resonance: Art often taps into universal emotions such as joy, sorrow, fear, and love. By depicting scenes, expressions, or abstract forms that resonate emotionally, art can evoke deep feelings and personal connections. 3. Sensory Engagement: Beyond visual art, forms like music, dance, and theater engage other senses such as hearing and touch. Music uses rhythm, melody, and harmony to affect mood and evoke memories, while dance and theater combine movement and performance to create immersive experiences. 4. Symbolism and Metaphor: Artists frequently use symbols and metaphors to convey complex ideas and messages. These symbolic elements can stimulate thought and interpretation, encouraging viewers to find deeper meanings and connections. 5. Narrative and Storytelling: Many artworks tell stories or depict scenes from myths, history, literature, or everyday life. These narratives engage the viewer’s imagination and intellect, prompting reflection on the themes and messages conveyed. 6. Context and Environment: The context in which art is experienced—such as a museum, gallery, public space, or natural setting—can enhance sensory stimulation. The environment can influence how the art is perceived and interpreted. 7. Interactive and Participatory Elements: Some contemporary artworks are designed to be interactive, inviting viewers to engage directly with the piece. This participation can heighten sensory involvement and create a more personal and memorable experience. 8. Innovative Techniques and Media: Artists often experiment with new materials, technologies, and techniques, pushing the boundaries of traditional media. These innovations can create novel sensory experiences and challenge viewers’ perceptions. Through these various methods, art has the power to captivate the senses, provoke thought, and inspire a wide range of emotional and intellectual responses. 23. Music is a form of art that carries profound meaning and significance across cultures and societies. Here’s how music can have meaning and why understanding music from another society can be challenging: 1. Expressive and Emotional: Music communicates emotions, stories, and cultural narratives through melody, rhythm, harmony, and lyrics (if present). It can evoke feelings of joy, sadness, celebration, or contemplation, reflecting the human experience and societal values. 2. Cultural Identity: Music serves as a powerful expression of cultural identity and heritage. It often incorporates traditional instruments, scales, rhythms, and vocal styles unique to a particular culture, conveying beliefs, rituals, and historical narratives. 3. Symbolism and Context: Like other forms of art, music uses symbolism and context to convey meaning. Lyrics, instrumentation, and performance styles may hold symbolic significance that is understood within a specific cultural context but may be less clear to those outside that culture. 4. Aesthetic Preferences: Aesthetic preferences in music vary widely across societies. What one culture finds melodious and pleasing may differ drastically from another culture’s musical tastes. This divergence can affect how listeners perceive and interpret music from unfamiliar traditions. 5. Cognitive and Perceptual Differences: Musical perception is influenced by cognitive frameworks and perceptual filters shaped by one’s cultural background. For example, rhythmic structures or tonal patterns that are familiar and comprehensible in one culture may be challenging to interpret in another. 6. Language and Communication: In cultures where music is intertwined with language and oral traditions, understanding the lyrics is crucial for grasping the full meaning of a song. Language barriers can hinder the comprehension of lyrical content and thematic messages. 7. Evolution and Adaptation: Music evolves over time within societies, responding to social, political, and technological changes. Contemporary music may incorporate global influences, creating hybrids that blend cultural elements in ways that challenge traditional interpretations. 8. Artistic Interpretation: Like visual art or literature, music invites diverse interpretations and subjective responses. The meaning derived from music often depends on the listener’s personal experiences, emotions, and cultural background, influencing how they connect with the music. In conclusion, music is a meaningful form of art that transcends language and communicates emotions, cultural identity, and societal values. Understanding music from another society can be complex due to differences in cultural context, aesthetic preferences, linguistic barriers, and perceptual frameworks. Yet, this diversity enriches the global tapestry of musical expression, offering insights into the richness and complexity of human creativity and experience. 24. Body art serves multiple functions across cultures and individuals, ranging from personal expression to cultural tradition. Here are various functions of body art and reasons for their permanence or temporariness: 1. Personal Expression: Body art, such as tattoos and piercings, allows individuals to express their identity, beliefs, values, and emotions. It serves as a form of self-expression and can convey personal narratives or experiences. 2. Cultural and Tribal Identity: Many cultures use body art to signify membership in specific groups, tribes, or communities. These markings or adornments may denote social status, rites of passage, religious affiliations, or ancestral heritage. 3. Spiritual and Ritualistic Purposes: Body art is often employed in spiritual and ritualistic contexts to connect with divine forces, invoke protection, or mark important life events such as births, marriages, or deaths. Examples include henna tattoos in Indian weddings or scarification rituals in African tribes. 4. Artistic and Aesthetic Enhancement: Body art can be appreciated for its artistic value, transforming the body into a canvas for intricate designs, patterns, and colors. This aesthetic enhancement may be temporary, as seen in body painting for performances or festivals. 5. Medical and Therapeutic Uses: In some cases, body art serves medical or therapeutic purposes. Medical tattoos, for instance, are used to mark areas for radiation therapy or to enhance the appearance of scars. 6. Social and Group Affiliation: Body art can signal affiliation with social or subcultural groups, such as bikers, punks, or military personnel. These markings often foster a sense of solidarity and belonging within the community. Permanence vs. Temporariness: 1. Tattoos vs. Body Painting: Tattoos are typically permanent, involving ink injected into the dermis layer of the skin. They require professional equipment and expertise to apply and remove. Body painting, on the other hand, uses non-permanent paints or dyes applied to the skin’s surface and can be washed off easily. 2. Cultural and Ritual Significance: Permanent body modifications like scarification or traditional tattoos often have deep cultural or ritual significance, representing lifelong commitments or spiritual connections. Temporary body art, such as henna tattoos or face painting, may be used for specific ceremonies or celebrations without the long-term commitment. 3. Personal Choice and Fashion: Some individuals prefer permanent body art as a lasting form of self-expression or identity. Others opt for temporary forms to experiment with different styles, change their appearance for special occasions, or adhere to fashion trends without permanent alteration. 4. Practical Considerations: The decision between permanent and temporary body art also involves practical considerations like pain tolerance, potential health risks, cost, and societal acceptance. Temporary options offer flexibility and allow individuals to change their body art as preferences or circumstances evolve. In essence, body art serves diverse functions ranging from personal expression to cultural tradition and spiritual significance. The choice between permanent and temporary forms often reflects individual preferences, cultural norms, and the intended meaning or purpose behind the body modification. 25. John Fischer, an American philosopher, explored various aspects of visual art and drew several conclusions about its nature and significance. Some of the key conclusions he demonstrated include: 1. Subjectivity of Aesthetic Experience: Fischer argued that the experience of art is inherently subjective, varying from person to person based on their unique perspectives, emotions, and cultural background. For example, a painting like Pablo Picasso's "Guernica" can evoke different emotional responses and interpretations depending on the viewer's personal experiences and knowledge of the historical context. 2. Interpretation and Meaning: Fischer emphasized that visual art invites interpretation and multiple layers of meaning. Artworks often contain symbolic elements, metaphors, and visual cues that encourage viewers to engage critically and interpretatively. For instance, Salvador Dalí's "The Persistence of Memory" challenges viewers with its surrealistic depiction of melting clocks, inviting interpretations about time, reality, and the subconscious mind. 3. Artistic Intent vs. Audience Response: Fischer discussed the tension between the artist's intent and how the audience perceives and interprets the artwork. Artists may intend to convey specific messages or emotions through their work, but viewers bring their own interpretations and responses based on personal experiences. An example is Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain," a ready-made artwork that sparked debates about the definition of art and challenged traditional notions of artistic creation. 4. Emotional and Ethical Dimensions: Fischer explored how visual art can evoke strong emotional responses and provoke ethical considerations. Artworks such as Francisco Goya's "The Third of May 1808" convey powerful messages about human suffering and political oppression, prompting viewers to reflect on moral dilemmas and societal injustices. 5. Cultural and Historical Context: Fischer highlighted the importance of understanding the cultural and historical context in which artworks are created and received. Contextual factors shape the meaning and reception of art over time. For example, the ancient Greek sculpture "Nike of Samothrace" symbolizes victory and freedom in its original context but may evoke different meanings in contemporary interpretations. In summary, John Fischer's analysis of visual art underscores its complexity, subjective nature, and capacity to stimulate intellectual, emotional, and ethical engagement among viewers. His conclusions emphasize the dynamic relationship between artists, artworks, and audiences, highlighting the enduring relevance and impact of visual art across diverse cultural and historical contexts. 26. Egalitarian Societies: • Focus on communal and utilitarian art. • Simple, functional designs. • Collective creation and cultural continuity. • Use of natural materials. Stratified Societies: • Art reflects wealth, status, and authority. • Specialized craftsmanship and artisan mastery. • Symbolic of hierarchical structures. • Technological innovation and cultural capital. 27. Songs with phrases like "tra-la-la-la" are hypothesized to originate from hunter-gatherer bands due to their simple, repetitive nature, which aligns with the musical traditions of early human societies. These songs likely served social and communicative functions, reflecting the communal and egalitarian nature of hunter-gatherer cultures where music played a role in bonding and expression. 28. Paul Ekman and Carroll Izard both concluded that masks can indeed convey emotions in universal ways, transcending cultural boundaries. Their research indicated that certain facial expressions associated with basic emotions (such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust) are universally recognizable even when masked. This suggests that the underlying physiological and neurological processes involved in emotional expression are consistent across different cultures, enabling recognition of emotions despite facial coverings like masks. CHAPTER 18: Global Problems Multiple Choice Questions 1. Climatic and other events in the physical environment become disasters because __________. a. people are killed b. of the lack of medical knowledge c. of conditions in the natural environment d. of conditions in the social environment 2. The major cause of China’s Hwang River floods is __________. a. burst dams b. deforestation c. farming on floodplains d. too few dams 3. __________ did not contribute to the famine in the African Sahel in 1974. a. Drought b. Deforestation c. Civil war d. Floods 4. Which social problem does cross-cultural research suggest that societies with individual property rights, rather than shared rights are more likely to suffer? a. Malnutrition b. Drought c. Famine d. Homelessness 5. In India, __________ may be the cause of the uneven distribution of food and other supplies provided to flood victims by the government. a. rules of social and gender stratification b. rules of descent c. ethnic biases d. retribution 6. The __________, in socially stratified societies, are most likely to be forced to over-cultivate, over-graze, and deforest their land, making it susceptible to degradation. a. elite b. poor c. minority population d. elderly 7. As of the 2000s, what percentage of the people in inadequate housing worldwide? a. 40 b. 57 c. 32 d. 72 8. The deliberate policy to reduce the number of people hospitalized for mental illness and other disabilities was a factor of homelessness in which country? a. El Salvador b. Mexico c. Australia d. United States 9. The contrast between homelessness in the United States and Australia makes it clear that the cause or causes of homelessness is/are __________. a. mental illness b. poverty and disability c. social and medical policies d. social and political policies 10. Many researchers focus their studies on variations in the frequencies of specific behaviors to avoid having to decide what is or is not __________. a. mental illness b. abuse c. culturally appropriate d. discipline 11. What percent of the violence against women comes from a male intimate partner, such as a husband? a. 50 b. 65 c. 75 d. 90 12. The reasons for infanticide are similar to those given for __________. a. murder b. abortion c. wife battering d. physical abuse 13. Cross-culturally, __________ is the most common form of family violence. a. murder b. child abuse c. wife beating d. husband beating 14. Societies that have violent methods of conflict resolution within communities, physical punishment of criminals, high frequency of warfare, and cruelty toward enemies generally have more __________. a. homicide b. child abuse c. wife beating d. husband abuse 15. What is the most reliably reported crime in official records? a. Homicide b. Child abuse c. Wife beating d. Husband abuse 16. One of the clearest findings to emerge from comparative studies of crime is that war is associated with higher rates of __________. a. homicide b. child abuse c. wife beating d. capital punishment 17. What legitimizes violence just as war seems to? a. Homicide b. Defending territory c. Unemployment d. Capital punishment 18. Property crimes increase with increases in __________. a. homicide b. child abuse c. unemployment d. capital punishment 19. __________ is a cause of socialization for aggression. a. Homicide b. Child abuse c. War d. Capital punishment 20. People in nonindustrial societies mostly go to war __________. a. out of self-defense b. for religious reasons c. as an unconscious means of population control d. as a hedge against the unpredictability of natural disasters 21. What type of national political systems rarely fight each other? a. Totalitarian dictatorships b. Participatory governments c. Government by tribunal d. Fascist dictatorships 22. What is one marker of the difference between most crime and terrorism? a. Criminals rarely take credit for their activities. b. Terrorists have higher motives than simple criminals. c. One country’s terrorism is another country’s salvation. d. Terrorists are not criminals, just misunderstood freedom-fighters. 23. R. J. Rummel estimates that nearly __________ million people have been killed by governments in the twentieth century. a. 50 b. 262 c. 35 d. 130 24. Observations and interviews with homeless individuals suggest that they do not want to go to municipal shelters because of __________. a. violence b. pride c. disease d. drug abuse 25. The income inequality in the United States is more like that of __________. a. Japan b. Italy c. Germany d. Cambodia and Morocco 26. In over __________ of the world’s societies, physical punishment of children occurs at least sometimes. a. 50% b. 60% c. 70% d. 80% 27. State terrorism is responsible for __________ times more deaths than all the wars, civil and international, that occurred during the twentieth century. a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 d. 6 28. Terrorists usually have __________ than the average person. a. more education b. less education c. more siblings d. less social status 29. A __________ government is a predictor of state terrorism against one’s own people. a. democratic b. socialist c. totalitarian d. communist 30. In Melbourne Australia, __________ of the people living in marginal accommodations were diagnosed as having some form of mental illness. a. 10% b. 30% c. 50% d. 70% Essay Questions 31. Why do anthropologists feel that they can solve social problems? 32. What constitutes a natural disaster? What can we do to alleviate these types of problems? (You may take just one example and expand on it.) 33. What is the problem of homelessness? How does this problem continue, even though we are clearly aware of it? 34. Why are homicide rates associated with war? What happens after a war? Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. d 2. b 3. b 4. c 5. a 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. d 10. b 11. c 12. b 13. c 14. c 15. a 16. a 17. d 18. c 19. c 20. d 21. b 22. a 23. b 24. a 25. d 26. c 27. b 28. a 29. c 30. c Essay Answer 31. Anthropologists believe they can solve social problems because their holistic approach to studying cultures and societies helps understand root causes, cultural contexts, and diverse perspectives essential for effective solutions. 32. A natural disaster is a sudden event caused by natural forces that significantly disrupts human life and infrastructure, such as earthquakes. To alleviate earthquake-related problems, proactive measures like constructing earthquake-resistant buildings, educating communities on emergency preparedness, and improving early warning systems can mitigate impact and save lives. 33. Homelessness persists due to a complex mix of factors including lack of affordable housing, poverty, mental health issues, and inadequate support systems. Despite awareness, systemic challenges like housing shortages and social stigma hinder effective solutions and perpetuate the problem. 34. Homicide rates can increase during war due to heightened violence and lawlessness. After war, rebuilding infrastructure, restoring security, and addressing trauma are crucial to stabilize communities and reduce violence. CHAPTER 19: Applied and Practicing Anthropology Multiple Choice Questions 1. __________ is not a phase of applied anthropology. a. Research into the life ways of a particular group b. Assembling relevant knowledge c. Assessing the likely social and environmental impact of particular plans d. Implementing and monitoring the program and its effects 2. One out of two anthropologists in the United States is employed __________. a. outside of the field of applied anthropology b. outside of the field as ethnographic researchers and archaeologists c. outside of colleges, universities, and museums d. in fields outside of pure anthropology 3. In a cross-cultural study of 139 societies, only two did not believe that illnesses are caused by __________. a. supernatural forces b. physiological causes c. natural causes d. bacteria 4. The ethics of applied anthropologists require that __________. a. only pure research can be applied to a particular problem b. the anthropologist must not take any action that is harmful to the interests of the community c. the anthropologist in charge of the project balances the needs of his employer with those of the local community d. the anthropologist working with a community must answer to the needs of his or her employer 5. The concept that a body must be kept in balance appears in the many cultures, illustrated by all the following notions except for __________. a. yin and yang b. light and dark c. wet and dry d. hot and cold 6. Of the following, ___________ is not a difficulty in instituting planned change. a. resistance by the target population b. psychological barriers to the planned change c. social barriers to planned change d. the use of local channels of influence 7. What is the major reason anthropologists are hired by nonacademic organizations? a. To enlighten others about different cultures. b. To help people get along with each other. c. To help solve practical problems. d. To help solve environmental problems. 8. What do many researchers in anthropology and the other social sciences do about social problems? a. Conduct surveys b. Conduct basic research c. Make hypotheses d. Test hypotheses 9. As a profession, applied or practicing anthropology is explicitly concerned with ___________. a. conducting basic research b. testing hypotheses c. making anthropological knowledge useful d. suggesting solutions to social problems 10. __________ refers to the type of applied work required in connection with many programs funded by government or private agencies. a. Forensic anthropology b. Social impact studies c. Cultural resource studies d. Basic research 11. Applied or practicing anthropologists may be involved in all of the following except ___________. a. assembling data relevant to a program b. assessing the likely social and environmental impact of particular plans c. monitoring the effects of a program d. Applied anthropologists may be involved in all of the above 12. Applied anthropology in the United States developed ___________. a. out of anthropologists’ personal experience with disadvantaged people in other cultures b. as a result of a directive by the American Anthropological Association c. as younger scholars with a more developed sense of social responsibility replaced the older generation d. with the creation of the Society of Applied Anthropology 13. __________ are shared behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs that tend to impede acceptance of an innovation. a. Concepts of balance b. Local channels of influence c. Cultural resources d. Cultural barriers 14. Most medical anthropologists use the term __________ to refer to the dominant medical paradigm in Western cultures today. a. relativistic medicine b. universalistic medicine c. ethnomedicine d. biomedicine. 15. Applied anthropologists who were trained in physical anthropology would probably not work in which area? a. medicine b. public health c. forensic investigations d. agricultural investigations 16. According to the code of ethics adopted by the Society of Applied Anthropology in 1948, ___________. a. there is no need to include the target community in planning a study b. anthropologists should not do research on applied questions unless specifically asked to do so by the people affected c. the first responsibility of the anthropologist in the field is to his sponsors, second to himself or herself, and third to the people being studied d. the target community should be included as much as possible in the formulation of policy 17. Decisions about whether a proposed change would benefit a target population ___________. a. are normally made by a project’s sponsors, with little or no input from consulting anthropologists b. are not ethically required before a program is implemented c. are entirely up to the target population d. are not always easy 18. Practicing anthropologists often work on specific projects that aim to improve people’s lives, usually by trying to ___________. a. convince governments to adopt specific programs b. convince the target population of the benefits of the project c. improve the economy of the target population d. change behavior or the environment 19. The changeover from mother’s milk to formula and powdered milk in many underdeveloped areas resulted in increased malnutrition and misery for the following reasons except ___________. a. the bottles and water needed to be sterilized b. the mothers needed to dilute the formula when without cash c. the formula and powdered milk is more nutritious than mother’s milk d. the mother’s own milk would dry up and she could not return to breast-feeding 20. Large-scale programs of planned change can also have an impact on the archaeological record. Recovering and recording the archaeological record before programs of planned change disturb or destroy it is called ___________. a. archaeological management (AM) b. cultural repository excavation (CRE) c. cultural resource management (CRM) d. archaeological resource management (ARM) 21. CRM firms complete what type of anthropological projects? a. Biological b. Forensic c. Contract archaeology d. Residual 22. Which field of anthropology is devoted to solving crimes? a. Forensic b. Archaeology (but only crimes of the past) c. Biological anthropology d. Ethnology 23. CRM work is carried out by “contract archaeologists” who typically work under contract to ____________. a. a government agency b. a private developer c. a native group d. all of the above 24. __________ is the health-related beliefs, knowledge, and practices of a cultural group. a. Sociomedicine b. Ethnomedicine c. Biomedicine d. Forensics 25. One question that medical anthropologists would ask of a cultural group about its views on health and illness would not be ___________? a. What are your theories about the cause of illness b. Are there specialized medical practitioners c. How are special medicines administered d. Why do you continue to believe in primitive methods 26. __________ appears to focus on specific diseases and cures for those diseases, while not treating the whole body, with the body being partitioned into different specialties. a. Sociomedicine b. Ethnomedicine c. Biomedicine d. Forensics 27. An Otomi Indian shaman uses his powers to remove “evil” illnesses caused by __________, yet refers other patients to medical doctors to treat those illnesses. a. wizards b. shamans c. sorcerers d. physicians 28. For many diseases, health problems, and death rates, incidence or relative frequency varies directly with ____________. a. social class b. age c. education level d. occupation 29. Many people think of __________ as only a medical problem that requires only a medical solution, without realizing that there are behavioral, cultural, and political issues that need to be addressed. a. malnutrition b. AIDS c. influenza d. voodoo 30. E. Fuller Torrey concluded that shamans use the same mechanisms and techniques to cure patients as __________. a. anthropologists b. sorcerers c. psychiatrists d. physicians Essay Questions 31. How did the Bureau of Indian Affairs and then World War II result in the new field of applied anthropology? 32. What are the ethical standards that applied anthropologists follow? Why? 33. How did the spraying of DDT in Mauritius affect the population and economy of that island nation? 34. What are the difficulties that anthropologists can encounter in trying to institute planned change? 35. Describe the results of Gerald Murray’s Haitian project. 36. Describe how cultural, social, and psychological barriers may hinder acceptance of beneficial projects by a society. 37. What are the social causes of famine? How do they relate to physical causes? Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. a 2. c 3. a 4. b 5. b 6. d 7. c 8. b 9. c 10. b 11. d 12. a 13. d 14. d 15. d 16. d 17. d 18. d 19. c 20. c 21. c 22. a 23. d 24. b 25. d 26. c 27. c 28. a 29. b 30. c Essay Answer 31. The Bureau of Indian Affairs created demand for anthropologists to study Native American cultures and solve social problems. WWII expanded applied anthropology as anthropologists worked on wartime projects, leading to post-war roles in development, public health, and policy. 32. Applied anthropologists follow ethical standards such as informed consent, confidentiality, cultural sensitivity, and transparency. These standards ensure respectful and responsible treatment of research subjects and communities, safeguarding their rights and well-being. 33. The spraying of DDT in Mauritius led to environmental damage, including harm to wildlife such as birds, affecting the ecosystem balance. Economically, tourism suffered due to negative perceptions of environmental safety, impacting the nation's economy. 34. Anthropologists can face challenges such as resistance from local communities to imposed changes, cultural misunderstandings leading to ineffective interventions, and unintended consequences that disrupt social dynamics or traditions. 35. Gerald Murray's Haitian project involved an ethnographic study in Haiti where he explored local land tenure systems and agricultural practices. His research provided insights into the complex and dynamic land ownership patterns in rural Haiti, revealing that land was often acquired, used, and transferred through informal and customary means rather than formal legal processes. This understanding helped to inform more effective development policies and programs tailored to the realities of Haitian rural life. 36. Cultural, social, and psychological barriers can hinder the acceptance of beneficial projects by a society in the following ways: • Cultural Barriers: Deep-rooted traditions and beliefs may conflict with new projects, causing resistance to change. • Social Barriers: Social norms, peer pressure, and the influence of community leaders can discourage individuals from adopting new initiatives. • Psychological Barriers: Fear of the unknown, mistrust of outsiders, and a lack of perceived relevance or benefits can lead to reluctance in accepting new projects. 37. Social causes of famine include: • Political Instability: Conflicts and wars disrupt food production and distribution. • Economic Factors: Poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to markets hinder people's ability to purchase food. • Social Inequality: Discrimination and unequal distribution of resources leave certain groups more vulnerable to famine. • Poor Governance: Corruption and inadequate policies can exacerbate food shortages. These social causes often interact with physical causes such as: • Natural Disasters: Droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events that directly reduce food production. • Environmental Degradation: Soil erosion, deforestation, and climate change impact agricultural yields. Together, these factors create a complex web where social issues can amplify the effects of physical causes, leading to famine. Test Bank for Human Evolution and Culture: Highlights of Anthropology Carol R. Ember, Melvin R. Ember, Peter N. Peregrine 9780205924776, 9780205232390, 9780136036357, 9780133976069
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