This Document Contains Chapters 15 to 16 CHAPTER 15 RELIGION CHAPTER SUMMARY • Émile Durkheim was perhaps the first sociologist to recognize the critical importance of religion in human societies. In Durkheim’s view, religion is a collective act and includes many forms of behavior in which people interact with others. Durkheim defined religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things.” The sacred encompasses elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and even fear. By contrast, the profane includes ordinary and commonplace elements. Durkheim argued that religious faiths distinguish between certain events that transcend the ordinary and the everyday world. Tremendous diversity exists in religious beliefs and practices. Overall, about 85 percent of the world’s population adheres to some form of religion. In sociological terms, religion is centrally important in most human societies. • Functionalists and conflict theorists evaluate religion’s impact as a social institution. Functionalists view religion as providing an integrative function for society. Religion provides a form of “societal glue,” which offers meaning and purpose for people’s lives. The integrative power of religion can be found in celebrations of life events such as weddings or funerals, or in times of crisis or confusion, such as immediately after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Religion provides a framework for social support during stressful life events. Max Weber demonstrated the collective nature of religion in his pioneering work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber’s Protestant ethic suggested an association between religious allegiance and capitalist development. • The conflict view of religion suggests that religion impedes social change by encouraging oppressed people to focus on otherworldly concerns rather than on their immediate poverty or exploitation. Karl Marx described religion as an “opiate” that drugged the masses into submission. Marxists suggest that religious followers are lured into a “false consciousness” and that this lessens the possibility of collective political action. Feminists study the important role of women in religious socialization. Furthermore, feminist scholars bring attention to the patriarchal nature of most major world religions and the historical omission of women and women’s perspectives. • Certain forms of religious behaviors help define what is sacred and profane within a society. Religious beliefs are statements to which members of a particular religion adhere. For example, the account of Adam and Eve is a religious belief that many people strongly adhere to and may even insist be taught in schools. Religious rituals are practices required or expected of members of a faith. They remind adherents of their religious duties and responsibilities. Religious experience refers to the feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality, such as a divine being, or being overcome with religious emotion. • Sociologists find it useful to distinguish among four basic forms of religious organization. An ecclesia is a religious organization that claims to include most or all of the members of a society and is recognized as the national or official religion, such as Islam is in Saudi Arabia. A denomination is a large, organized, widely accepted religious tradition that is not officially linked to the state or government. A sect can be defined as a relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other religious organization to renew what it considers the original vision of faith. An established sect is a religious group that is the outgrowth of a sect, yet remains isolated from society. The Seventh-Day Adventists and the Amish are contemporary examples. A new religious movement or cult is generally a small, loosely organized religious group (e.g., Heaven’s Gate) that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith. New religious movements are often led by charismatic leaders. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources 1. What is the sociological perspective on religion? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: secularization, religion, sacred, profane, Protestant ethic, liberation theology IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: The Halévy Thesis (13-1), Goal Multiplication and Religious Organizations (13-2) Classroom Discussion Topics: Anti-Defamation League (13-1), Ramadan (13-2), Ritual (13-3), Market-Based Theory of Religious Growth (13-4), Protestant Diversity (13-5), For This Land (13-6), Field Trips (13-7), Student Census (13-8) Student Research and Assignments: No Religion, Attitudes Toward Religion and Court Decisions, Religion and the Economy, Religion and the Government Video Resources: God and the Inner City; Religion REEL SOCIETY VIDEO Topic Index: Religion and Social Change; Religion and Sociology 2. What are the components of religion? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: religious beliefs, religious rituals, religious experience IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Doing Religion (13-4), Unitarian-Universalism (13-5) Classroom Discussion Topics: Ramadan (13-2), Ritual (13-3) Video Resources: The Jolo Serpent-Handlers; The King Does Not Lie; Muslims in America; On Fire with Faith 3. What are the main types of religious organizations in the United States? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: ecclesia, denomination, sect, established sect, new religious movement (NRM), cult Boxes: Research Today: Wicca: Religion or Quasi-Religion? IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: Market-Based Theory of Religious Growth (13-4), Protestant Diversity (13-5) Student Research and Assignments: Contemporary Religious Patterns Video Resources: Cults; Jonestown; Knocking 4. What are the issues surrounding religion in the schools? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: creationism REEL SOCIETY VIDEO Topic Index: See School Vouchers in the Topic Index LECTURE OUTLINE I. Durkheim and the Sociological Approach to Religion • Recognized the importance of religion in human societies. Religion is a collective act, defined as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things.” • The sacred encompasses elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and fear. Example: Rituals such as prayer or fasting. • The profane includes the ordinary and commonplace, which can sometimes become sacred. Example: A candelabra becomes sacred for Jews (menorah), as do incense sticks for Taoists. II. World Religions • About 85 percent of the world’s population adheres to some religion. About 15 percent of the population is nonreligious. • Christianity is the largest single faith; Islam is the second largest. • Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are monotheistic. • Hinduism is polytheistic and distinguished by a belief in rebirth through reincarnation. • Buddhism is based on teaching of Siddhartha, or Buddha. Goal of enlightenment through meditation. III. Sociological Perspectives on Religion • Manifest functions of religion are open and stated explanations of events. • Latent functions are unintended, covert, or hidden. A. The Integrative Function of Religion • Durkheim viewed religion as an integrative power or “social glue” that holds society together. Example: Religious rituals surrounding celebrations (i.e., weddings) or loss (i.e., funerals). • People are also bound together by crisis. Example: 9/11 terror attacks. • Integrative impact is evident for immigrants and variant lifestyles. • Religious loyalties can be dysfunctional. Example: Nazi Germany and Jews. • Religious conflict is evident between conservative and liberal elements. Examples: Debates over abortion and gay marriage. B. Religion and Social Support • Idea of divine intervention allows people to face calamities as “God’s will,” thus having an ultimate benefit or purpose. • Establishment of faith-based organizations provides social assistance. C. Religion and Social Change 1. The Weberian Thesis • Max Weber examined the connection between religious allegiance and capitalist development. His findings presented in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. • Protestant ethic: emphasis on disciplined work ethic, this-worldly concerns (i.e., material things), and a rational orientation to life. A by-product of the Protestant ethic is to accumulate savings for future investment. • Weber stressed that the collective nature of religion has social consequences for society as a whole. 2. Liberation Theology • Clergy in the forefront of social change. • Use of a church in a political effort to eliminate poverty, discrimination, and other forms of injustice in a secular society. Example: Roman Catholic activists in Latin America. • Liberation theology suggests a moral responsibility to stand against oppression. • Critics charge that liberation theology ignores personal and spiritual needs. Some Catholics in Latin America are converting to mainstream Protestant faiths or to Mormonism. D. Religion and Social Control: A Conflict View • Marx suggested that religion impeded social change by encouraging oppressed people to focus on other-worldly concerns rather than on their immediate poverty or exploitation. • Religion is an “opiate” harmful to oppressed people. Example: Tithing by the poor serves to perpetuate their dependence. • Marx believed that religion’s promotion of social stability perpetuates social inequality. Example: Women are typically found in subservient positions both within religious institutions and at home. • Marxists suggest that by inducing a “false consciousness” among followers, religion lessens collective political action. E. Feminist Perspective • Religion serves to subordinate women. • Women play a fundamental role in the religious socialization of children. • Most faiths have a long tradition of exclusively male leadership. Women make up 51 percent of the students enrolled in theological schools, but account for only 12.8 percent of the clergy. They tend to have shorter careers, and to serve outside of congregational leadership. IV. Components of Religion • All religions have certain elements in common that are expressed distinctively in each faith and across cultures. A. Belief • Religious beliefs are statements to which members of a particular religion adhere. Example: Creationism. • In general, spirituality is not as strong in industrialized nations as in developing ones. B. Ritual • Rituals are practices required or expected of members of a faith. Example: Muslims’ hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca. • Rituals affirm beliefs and remind adherents of their religious duties. • Religion develops distinctive norms to structure behavior, and uses sanctions to reward or penalize behavior. Example: Bar mitzvah gifts; expulsion for violating religious norms. C. Experience • Religious experience refers to the feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality, such as the divine being, or of being overcome with religious emotion. Example: Being “born again.” • Baptists are most likely to report such experiences, compared to Catholics or Episcopalians. V. Religious Organization • Collective nature of religion has led to many forms of religious association. A. Ecclesiae • Ecclesia is a religious organization that claims to include most or all of the members of a society and is recognized as the national or official religion. Example: Islam in Saudi Arabia. • Generally, ecclesiae are conservative and do not challenge the leaders of secular government. B. Denominations • A denomination is a large, organized religion not officially linked to the state or government. • Like an ecclesia, it tends to have an explicit set of beliefs, a defined system of authority, and a generally respected position in society. But a denomination lacks the official recognition and power held by an ecclesia. • Roman Catholicism is the largest single denomination in the U.S. (22 percent of adults in the U.S.). • Collectively, Protestants account for about 49 percent of the U.S. adult population. C. Sects • A sect is a relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other religious organization to renew what it considers the original version of the faith. • Sects are fundamentally at odds with society and do not seek to become established national religions. • They require intensive commitment and demonstrations of belief by members. • Sects are often short-lived. • An established sect is a religious group that is an outgrowth of a sect. Examples: Hutterites, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Seventh-Day Adventists, and Amish. D. New Religious Movements or Cults • A new religious movement (NRM) or cult is generally a small, secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith. • NRMs are similar to sects in that they tend to be small and are often viewed as less respectable than more established faiths. Example: Heaven’s Gate. • Like sects, NRMs may be transformed over time into other types of religious organizations. Example: Christian Science Church began as an NRM, but today exhibits the characteristics of a denomination. E. Comparing Forms of Religious Organization • The study of religions in the U.S. focuses on denominations and sects, since no ecclesia exists in the United States. • Electronic churches are still another form of religious organization facilitated by cable television and satellite transmissions. Example: Televangelists. • Internet offers sites online to augment or serve as substitutes for going to church in person. Examples: GodTube, congregations in Second Life. VI. Case Study: Religion in India A. The Religious Tapestry in India • Hinduism and Islam are the two most important religions in India. Muslims account for 13 percent of the population; Hindus make up 83 percent. • The Sikh faith is monotheistic. Sikhs make up 2 percent of the population, but their presence in the military gives them a large voice in governance. • Jainism also has been influential beyond its numbers (about 4 million members). They are influential through their business dealings and charitable contributions. B. Religion and the State in India • Religion was a moving force in overthrowing British colonialism. • Immediately after independence, India was partitioned into two states, Pakistan for the Muslims and India for the Hindus. Boundary disputes continue to this day. • India is secular today and dominated by Hindus. • Religion is the moving force in Indian society. Tensions between Hindus and Muslims remain high in some states. Conflict also exists among various Hindu groups, from fundamentalists to more secular and ecumenical. VII. Social Policy and Religion: Charter Schools A. The Issue • Charter schools are experimental schools that are developed and managed by individuals, groups of parents, or educational management organizations. Although these schools are typically considered to be public schools, they are administered outside the official public school system. B. The Setting • Discontent with public schools stretches back for decades. In the 1970s, “classrooms without walls” were supposed to open up the curriculum to students’ creativity. In 2002, the No Child Left Behind initiative was supposed to guarantee that all students would learn the basics. Although test scores inched up a bit in response, critics complained that schools were becoming too test-oriented, creating a climate in which the charter school movement began to gather strength. • Charter schools first opened in Minnesota in 1992; by 2011, nearly 5,000 of them had been established in 40 different states C. Sociological Insights • Functionalists argue that charter schools meet society’s need for education while serving a diverse student body. • From a conflict perspective, charter schools do not represent teachers’ interests well and are contributing to the decline of labor unions. . D. Policy Initiatives • In the United States, unlike virtually all other industrial nations, school policy is driven at the local level. Although the federal government may encourage certain policies through public funding, and may dictate certain standards like nondiscrimination, school policy is created largely at the community level following statewide standards. Thus, in 2010, when the Department of Education began to expend $4.3 billion as part of a general educational stimulus program, it left the structure and organization of schools to local communities. KEY TERMS Creationism A literal interpretation of the Bible regarding the creation of humanity and the universe used to argue that evolution should not be presented as established scientific fact. Denomination A large, organized religion that is not officially linked with the state or government. Ecclesia A religious organization that claims to include most or all members of a society, and is recognized as the national or official religion. Established sect A religious group that is the outgrowth of a sect, yet remains isolated from society. Fundamentalism Rigid adherence to fundamental religious doctrines, often accompanied by a literal application of scripture or historical beliefs to today’s world. Intelligent design (ID) The idea that life is so complex that it could have been created only by intelligent design. Liberation theology Use of a church, primarily Roman Catholicism, in a political effort to eliminate poverty, discrimination, and other forms of injustice evident in a secular society. New religious movement (NRM) or cult A small, secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith. Profane The ordinary and commonplace elements of life, as distinguished from the sacred. Protestant ethic Max Weber’s term for the disciplined work ethic, this-worldly concerns, and rational orientation to life emphasized by John Calvin and his followers. Quasi-religion A scholarly category that includes organizations that may see themselves as religious but are seen by others as “sort of religious.” Religion A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things. Religious belief A statement to which members of a particular religion adhere. Religious experience The feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality, such as a divine being, or of being overcome with religious emotion. Religious ritual A practice required or expected of members of a faith. Sacred Elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and even fear. Sect A relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other religious organization to renew what it considers the original vision of the faith. Secularization The process through which religion’s influence on other social institutions diminishes. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 15-1: The Halévy Thesis: Religion as a Stabilizer Max Weber is not the only scholar to contend that religion can exert an important influence on the process of social change. Elie Halévy (1870–1937), a Frenchman and noted historian who wrote at about the same time as Weber, was primarily interested in the stability of English society during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Halévy thesis suggests that Methodism, under the influence of John Wesley (1703–1791) and his followers, provided a kind of “escape valve” for the discontented English working class. This religious faith became a mechanism for dissent, an outlet for opposition to everything from labor practices to the monarchy itself. Yet this opposition was basically peaceful and was oriented to social reform rather than revolutionary change. From a Marxist point of view, Methodists were not part of the ruling bourgeoisie, yet they served the interests of the wealthy and powerful. For Halévy, the rise of Methodism explains why England, of all the nations of Europe, was most free from political disorders and revolutions during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Halévy’s thesis has been criticized; in fact, many of the objections are similar to those raised in response to Weber’s monumental work. Some critics have argued that Halévy exaggerates the influence of Methodism and fails to explain the lack of revolt in England before this religion arose. Nonetheless, Halévy’s work, like Weber’s, contains important insights regarding the relationship between religious beliefs and the process of social change. See Elie Halévy. A History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century. Translated by E.I. Watkins and D.A. Barker. London: Ernest Benn; Halévy, 1924, rev. 1960; The Birth of Methodism in England. Translated by B. Senimel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971; Michael Hill. A Sociology of Religion. New York: Basic Books, 1973, pp. 183–203. 15-2: Goal Multiplication and Religious Organizations Religious groups fulfill many of what Durkheim would term secular (rather than sacred) functions. In recent years (with the emphasis on government downsizing), churches and other religious organizations have started providing services previously assumed by government agencies. Republicans want to roll back government-funded welfare programs and shift the social safety net to private organizations in general and to churches and religious charities in particular. There appears to be public support for this role. Yet, the public rejects the notion that the nation’s religious organizations should be the main source of funds for the needy. In a 1995 national Gallup survey, respondents were asked: “Who do you think should be more responsible for providing assistance to the poor—government or religious organizations?” The results showed 55 percent selecting the government, 28 percent religious organizations, 10 percent both, 4 percent neither, and 3 percent with no opinion. Among Republicans and Protestants, the government was still favored as a source for such funds, but by smaller margins. Only self-identified conservatives favored religious organizations over the government as the main source of support for assisting the poor. Some clergy and other observers are concerned about religious groups playing more of a role. They feel it is unconstitutional and spiritually wrong to force the poor through a religious doorway to meet their basic needs. Federal legislation has been proposed that would create a charity tax credit of $500 per taxpayer. It would allow taxpayers to designate money to a religious or charitable organization that devotes 70 percent of its efforts to poverty relief. Source: “Should Religious Organizations Provide All Welfare?” Emerging Trends 17 (November 1995): 5. 15-3: Courts and Holiday Displays Confusion continues regarding holiday displays that involve the government, however indirectly. In December 1995, a federal judge in Newark, New Jersey, ruled that adding Frosty the Snowman and Santa with a sleigh to a nativity scene, a Christmas tree, and a menorah makes a city’s holiday display legal. Judge Dickerson Debevoise said that “installing these symbols sufficiently demystified the holy” (Leavitt 1995:A3). Sociologists would regard these as efforts to make a legal distinction between what Durkheim called the sacred and the secular. At the heart of the conflict are the constitutional provisions of the First Amendment: “Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” The ruling followed a lawsuit brought by civil liberties activists that had led to the judge barring solely religious items on the City Hall lawn in Jersey City. “We shouldn’t have to censor those holidays that have a religious aspect,” said Mayor Bret Schundler (Leavitt 1995:A3). The Supreme Court ruled in June 1995 that if government allows public displays, it cannot choose to bar religious displays per se. Religious expression must be treated like other forms of expression, such as United Way donation thermometers, which are often displayed on the sides of public buildings or in parks. Not everyone agrees with the ruling. Barry Lynn of Americans United for Separation of Church and State argues that “the Supreme Court is turning a lot of town squares into churchyards. And that has made a lot of people from minority religions feel like second-class citizens in their own towns” (Mauro 1995:A2). In Chicago, a government office building stopped playing Christmas music when there were protests, but a court saw no problems with a mixture of Christmas music along with winter seasonal songs. Sources: Jan Crawford Greenburg, “In Season to be Tolerant, It’s Still Easier Said than Done,” Chicago Tribune (December 21, 1995), sec. 3:1, 3; Paul Leavitt, “Christmas Displays OK,” USA Today (December 19, 1995): 3A; Tony Mauro, “Ruling Helps Communities Set Guidelines,” USA Today (December 21, 1995): A1, A2. 15-4: Doing Religion More than 100 people in a Black congregation are packed into the living room of an old house. Led by the pastor’s wife and four dancing women, the worshippers are singing, dancing, waving their arms. The church is rocking, and the pace doesn’t stop for three hours. Across town a White congregation is singing the same hymns, but no one is dancing. The mood is mellow and the drummer looks almost embarrassed to be there. Sharon Bjorkman uncovered these contrasting styles in the course of fieldwork researching forms of worship in churches in the Chicago area. This observation research was part of a nationwide study conducted by the Hartford Institute for Religion Research. Bjorkman was interested in going beyond the doctrinal background of a particular church and observing the physical actions of the people attending services and those conducting them. As Durkheim noted, defining what is sacred in a religion is a collective act. Using the interactionist perspective, Bjorkman took notes on what happened at services, who participated, and what or who motivated them to do so. The first thing that she discovered was the disadvantage of being an outsider. For example, not “knowing the ropes,” she was unprepared for the strenuous physical activity in the Black church. In the churches she visited, she didn’t know whether to carry a Bible or what version to use. As Bjorkman notes, you need to be socialized to know what is expected of you in a church service. Depending on the socialization church members receive, usually through example and reprimand, they will be active or passive, loud or quiet, meditative or demonstrative. The church leader plays a key role in shaping the congregation’s actions. Leaders decide the format of services, including what songs are sung, what instruments are used, and how much to involve the worshippers. In services that call for testimonies from the congregation, the leader would actively solicit certain members and badger them if need be. The same tactic applied to “altar calls” where congregants would come forward to confess sins or seek blessings. As important as church leaders are, they would have little influence if the individual members chose not to cooperate. Worship styles, then, are jointly developed by leaders and members. Generally, Bjorkman found, leaders would take small incremental steps to “train” their members to accept a particular style of service. This study illustrates the crucial part that human relations play within formal organizations. Religious rituals are not just dry formal procedures dictated by a rote program of service. They evolve out of the active participation of leaders and members “doing religion” together. 15-5: Unitarian-Universalism Ordinarily, we assume that people who practice the same religious faith hold to a common set of beliefs about the spiritual world, and that it is these beliefs which unite them as a community. But in at least one contemporary religious group in the United States, the Unitarian-Universalists (UUs), a central tenet is that the church should not impose any specific set of religious beliefs on its members. Today’s Unitarian-Universalist church includes members who consider themselves to be Christians, Buddhists, Jews, theists, Pagans, agnostics, and even atheists. Moreover, UUs come from a variety of religious backgrounds. Only 10 percent were raised in the Unitarian-Universalist faith (Dart 2001). Under such conditions, how is it that the Unitarian-Universalist church is able to survive? Why would anyone want to join such a church, and, when they do, how are Unitarian-Universalists able to create a sense of community? Today’s Unitarian-Universalist church came into being through the joining of two distinct religions, Unitarianism and Universalism. Unitarianism formed out of a rejection of the Trinity, or, in other words, out of a belief that Jesus was human and not supernatural. The original Universalists joined in a rejection of the concept of hell. Instead, they believed that God offers heavenly salvation to all. Both eventually became largely non-creedal religions whose members professed a wide variety of religious beliefs, and in 1961, the two organizations formally merged (Marshall 1988). There are currently about 225,000 Americans who are formal members of the Unitarian-Universalist Association, although as many as 629,000 Americans self-describe as Unitarian-Universalist (Dart 2001, Higgins 2003). What, if anything, allows UUs to feel a sense of togetherness with one another? One answer is in the socio-economic characteristics of Unitarian-Universalists. Although diverse in their religious beliefs, UUs are remarkably homogenous in income, occupational prestige, education, and ethnicity. They have the highest average income and occupational prestige among mainline American religions, have a very high percentage of members who are college graduates, and are a largely White denomination (Roof and McKinney 1987). Likewise, Unitarian-Universalists are united by a common set of religious values—if not beliefs—including freedom of religion, religious thought based on reason, and social justice (Scholefield 1963). It is also important to understand that, from a sociological perspective, what holds religious organizations together may be something other than a coherent set of religious beliefs. A religious community can also congeal through shared assumptions about the broader reasons for assembling. While some congregations may see themselves primarily as a vehicle for religious worship, others may have more of a social activist or family orientation, for example (Becker 1999). Indeed, though, their lack of a unified religious creed has not been without its problems for the Unitarian-Universalists. In 2001, a breakaway group proposed to form the American Unitarian Association, an organization that would use nineteenth-century New England Unitarianism as the basis for its theological creed. Group organizers were dissatisfied with the diversity of religious beliefs within the Unitarian-Universalist Association, and wanted to form an organization with a clear religious creed (Christian Century 2001). Sources used for this essay and additional reading ideas include: Penny Egdell Becker. Congregations in Conflict: Cultural Models of Local Religious Life. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999; Christian Century, “Theological Stirrings in Unitarian Circles,” 118 (5) (2001): 8–9; John Dart, “Churchgoers from Elsewhere,” Christian Century 118 (33) (2001): 2; George N. Marshall. Challenge of a Liberal Faith. (3rd edition.) Boston: Unitarian-Universalist Association, 1988; Wade Clark Roof and William McKinney. American Mainline Religion. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987; Harry Barron Scholefield, ed. The Unitarian Universalist Pocket Guide. Boston: Beacon Press, 1963; Robert Tapp. Religion among the Unitarian Universalists. New York: Seminar Press, 1973. 15-6: Women in the Clergy Throughout history and in many diverse cultures, the highest positions of spiritual leadership within organized religion have been reserved for men. Even today, the largest denomination in the United States, Roman Catholicism, does not permit women to be priests. A 1993 Gallup survey found that 63 percent of Roman Catholics in this country favor the ordination of women, compared with only 29 percent in 1974, but the church has continued to maintain its long-standing teaching that priests should be male. The largest Protestant denomination, the Southern Baptist Convention, has voted against ordaining women (even though some of its autonomous churches have women ministers). Other religious faiths that do not allow women clergy include the Lutheran church–Missouri Synod, the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of North and South America, the Orthodox Church in America, the Church of God in Christ, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, and Orthodox Judaism. Despite these restrictions, there has been a notable rise in female clergy in the last 20 years. Female enrollment in seminaries in the United States has steadily increased since the early 1970s. For example, in 1973, women accounted for 10 percent of Protestant theological students; by 1992, the proportion of women had risen to almost 33 percent. Of 190 students in Reform Judaism’s rabbinical school in the 1992–1993 school year, 43 percent were female. Of 32 students who entered Conservative Judaism’s rabbinical school in late 1991, 15 were women. Nevertheless, as of 1992, 92 percent of all clergy in the United States were male. Clearly, many branches of Protestantism and Judaism have been convinced that women have the right to be ordained as spiritual leaders. Yet a lingering question remains: Once ordained, will these female ministers and rabbis be accepted by congregations? Will they advance in their calling as easily as male counterparts, or will they face blatant or subtle discrimination in their efforts to secure desirable posts within their faiths? It is too early to offer any definitive answers to these questions, but thus far, women clergy continue to face lingering sexism after ordination. According to a 1986 random sampling of 800 lay and ordained leaders of the United Church of Christ, women find it difficult to secure jobs in larger, more prestigious congregations. Women ministers in other Protestant faiths have encountered similar problems. Although they may be accepted as junior clergy or as co-pastors, women may fail to receive senior clergy appointments. In both Reform and Conservative Judaism, women rabbis are rarely hired by the largest and best-known congregations. Consequently, women clergy in many denominations appear to be restricted to the low end of clerical pay scales and hierarchies. Sources for this essay include the following: Andrée Brooks, “Women in the Clergy: Struggle to Succeed,” New York Times (February 16, 1987): 15; Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States 1996. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996, p. 405; Debra Nussbaum Cohen, “The Right to be Rabbis Won, Women Face Role’s Challenges,” Long Island Jewish World 29 (August 23–29, 1991): 3, 22–23; Richard N. Ostling, “The Second Reformation,” Time 140 (November 23, 1992): 52–58; Princeton Religion Research Center, “Attitudes toward Priests Changing Rapidly,” Emerging Trends 15 (October 1993): 5. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 13-1. Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith (ADL): This is a useful source for many materials relating to Judaism. Visit their website at www.adl.org. 13-2. Ramadan: Ramadan is a Muslim ritual that entails 30 days of dawn-to-dusk fasting and powerful study of scriptures, marking Allah’s (God’s) revelation of the Koran to Muhammad and reminding the devout of the need to focus on spiritual rather than secular activities. See Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Adair T. Lummis. Islamic Values in the United States: A Comparative Study. New York: Oxford, 1987. 13-3. Ritual: After showing the video The King Does Not Lie: The Initiation of a Shango Priest (listed below under Audiovisual Materials), have students discuss similarities between the rituals performed in the video, and the ceremonies performed in churches and temples of established religions. 13-4. Market-Based Theory of Religious Growth: This new approach to religious dynamics draws on supply-side economics. For an overview of this area consult Ellen K. Coughlin, “Scholars Apply Economic Theories to Study of Religious Belief,” Chronicle of Higher Education, May 17, 1996. This theory was brought to national prominence by Rodney Stark and Roger Finke. The Churching of America. Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993. 13-5. Protestant Diversity: Drawing on local clergy, describe the differences among Protestant denominations in beliefs, rituals, and historical beginnings. 13-6. For This Land: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Vine Deloria Jr.’s For This Land: Writings on Religion in America can include the following: What is religion? What, if anything, is the difference between religion and magic? Using the excerpt as a basis, what position do students take on pluralism and assimilation? 13-7. Field Trips: If feasible, have the class visit a Catholic church, a Unitarian church, a Mormon stake house, and a Jewish synagogue or temple. If practical, attend services in a church in a minority community. What are the differences and similarities between this house of worship and a church in a middle-class White neighborhood? 13-8. Student Census: A religious “census” of the students can be taken to measure diversity within the classroom. 13-9. The Shame of the Nation: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Jonathan Kozol’s The Shame of the Nation can include the following: How do the poor schools discussed by Jonathan Kozol compare to the schools that you have attended? Examine the functions of education presented early in Chapter 16 and indicate whether the schools Kozol presents can meet these societal functions. What are the long-term implications of educational inequality? Would a bright student attending the poor schools discussed by Kozol have the same preparation for applying to a prestigious college? Would a student with learning needs in the poor schools discussed by Kozol be as likely to have those needs successfully addressed as students in a middle-class community? TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to identify events or objects that some religions may perceive as profane but that other religions would consider sacred. Discuss the transition of the ordinary into the realm of faith. Answer: Students should identify events or objects considered profane by some religions but sacred by others, such as holidays, dietary practices, or symbols. Discuss how ordinary elements can be transformed into sacred aspects through religious belief and rituals, illustrating the concept of how societies ascribe meaning and significance to various elements of life. 2. Ask students to search for evidence of various religious rituals that may seem bizarre to some, and discuss the significance of certain religious behaviors in encouraging adherence to religious norms. Answer: Research and identify religious rituals that might appear unusual or bizarre to outsiders, such as certain rites of passage or sacrificial practices. Discuss how these rituals function to reinforce religious norms, create a sense of community, and maintain adherence to religious traditions. 3. Ask students to research Scientology and identify its origins as a spiritual philosophy or as a religion. Answer: Investigate Scientology's origins, examining whether it began as a spiritual philosophy or as a formal religion. Analyze its founder, key beliefs, and practices to understand how Scientology has positioned itself within the broader context of religious movements and its impact on followers. SERVICE LEARNING ACTIVITIES Religion and education are also two important agents of socialization. In early America these two institutions were, in many regards, inextricably tied. Revolutions and rebellions were often the result of social change that stemmed from these social institutions. Today, in our ever changing culture, religion and education are still very important. Understanding their significance is critical to understanding cultural values. The increase in Faith-based Partnerships has added a new dimension to religion. Education, on the other hand, has wrestled continuously to obtain meaningful change and reform. Nevertheless, the service learner can contribute to the community and gain valuable insight while doing so: Develop a research team that will contact local churches to help assemble a clearinghouse (list and description) of all government funded Faith-based initiative programs in the area. This list will allow students to get a clear picture of the scope of this program. Students will donate the document to the Sociology Department at their college. This will localize the issue and provide data that professors can use for instruction. Students can also volunteer to be a part of any outreach program that assists in community improvement at the religious organization of their choice. Students can volunteer to be a part of an After School Tutorial program at a local school. Again, background checks will be required. They can also volunteer to work with ESL programs at local schools. CHAPTER 16 GOVERNMENT AND THE ECONOMY CHAPTER SUMMARY Two basic types of economic systems distinguish contemporary industrial societies: capitalism and socialism. Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are held largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits. In a socialist economy, the means of production and distribution in a society are collectively rather than privately owned. The basic objective of the system is to meet people’s needs rather than to maximize profits. In the informal economy, transfers of money, goods, or services take place but are not reported to the government. Participants in this type of economy avoid taxes and government regulations. Power is at the heart of a political system. Max Weber defined power as the ability to exercise one’s will over others. Weber identified three ideal types of authority. Legitimate power based on traditional authority is conferred by custom and accepted practice. Power made legitimate by law is known as rational-legal authority, in which authority is derived from written rules and regulations. Charismatic authority refers to power made legitimate by a leader’s exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers. There are five basic types of government: monarchy, in which a single member of a royal family holds power; oligarchy, in which a few individuals rule; dictatorship, in which a single person has near total power; totalitarianism, a dictatorship in which control over people’s lives is overwhelming; and democracy, or rule by the people. In general, people are becoming more apathetic in their participation in the political process. Studies reveal that only 8 percent of people in the United States belong to a political club or organization. Furthermore, in the 2008 election, voter turnout was only around 62 percent of all eligible voters. Political strength is lacking among marginalized groups. Women and racial and ethnic minorities continue to be underrepresented in positions of political power. Karl Marx and Sociologist C. Wright Mills argued that power rests in the hands of a few, both inside and outside government. This group is known as the power elite. G. William Domhoff suggested that the elites of corporate communities and leaders of policy-formation organizations are largely White male upper-class groups that exercise a vast amount of power over other groups. Critics charge that power is more widely shared than the elite model of power relations contends. According to the pluralist model of power relations, many competing groups within the community have access to government, so that no single group is dominant. Conflict is a central aspect of social relations. Too often it becomes ongoing and violent, engulfing innocent bystanders as well as intentional participants. War is defined as conflict between organizations that possess trained combat forces equipped with deadly weapons. Sociologists have considered peace to be both the absence of war and a proactive effort to develop cooperative relations among nations. Sociologists and other social scientists who draw on sociological theory and research have tried to identify conditions that deter war. Terrorism is the use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in pursuit of political aims. The Internet has emerged as a new force in political activism. Political activists worldwide use the Internet to gain and share information and recruit members. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources 1. What are the different types of economic systems found throughout the world? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: industrial society, capitalism, laissez-faire, monopoly, socialism, communism, informal economy IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Marx and Marxism Analyzed (14-1) Classroom Discussion Topics: Changing Economies (14-8) Video Resources: Capitalism: A Love Story; The Last Truck 2. What are the key sources of power in political systems? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: politics, power, force, influence, authority, traditional authority, rational-legal authority, charismatic authority IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: Power in Interpersonal Relationships (14-2), Corporate Power (14-6) Video Resources: Capitalism: A Love Story; Consequences of Conflict; The Power Game REEL SOCIETY VIDEO Topic Index: Political Power 3. What are the main types of government? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, totalitarianism, democracy, representative democracy Video Resources: Dancing Boys of Afghanistan; Sold: Fighting the New Global Slave Trade 4. What are the trends in U.S. political behavior? IN THE TEXT Boxes: Research Today: Why Don’t More Young People Vote? IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: Is Voting for Older People (14-1); Gender and Politics (14-3); Class Voting Behavior (14-4); Gender Assumptions in Politics (14-5); Civic Engagement (14-9) Student Research and Assignments: Political Activism among Hispanics Video Resources: The Power Game; A Woman’s Place is in the Boardroom 5. What models have been used to describe the power structure of the United States? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: elite model, power elite, pluralist model IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Military-Industrial Complex (14-2), Who Rules? (14-3) Classroom Discussion Topics: Corporate Power (14-6) Student Research and Assignments: Japanese Power Elite Video Resources: A Woman’s Place is in the Boardroom 6. What are the sociological insights regarding war, peace, and terrorism? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: war, peace, terrorism Video Resources: Consequences of Conflict; In Time of War; Is Compromising Civil Rights Justified; Sold: Fighting the New Global Slave Trade LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction I. Power and Authority • The struggle for power and authority inevitably involves politics. “Who gets what, when, and how.” A. Power • Max Weber defined power as the ability to exercise one’s will over others. • Three basic sources of power within a political system: force (actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one’s will over another), influence (power through persuasion), and authority (institutionalized power recognized by the people over whom it is exercised). B. Types of Authority • Three ideal types of authority developed by Weber. 1. Traditional Authority • Legitimate power conferred by custom and accepted practice. Example: A king or queen. • Authority rests in custom, not personal characteristics. 2. Legal-Rational Authority • Authority derived from written rules and regulations of political systems. Example: The Constitution. 3. Charismatic Authority • Refers to power made legitimate by a leader’s exceptional personal or emotional appeal. Example: Joan of Arc or Martin Luther King, Jr. • Authority is derived more from belief than actual qualities of leaders. • Carl Couch indicates the media has facilitated the development of charismatic authority (interactionist perspective). II. Types of Government A. Monarchy • Single member of a royal family holds power. B. Oligarchy • A few individuals hold all power. C. Dictatorship and Totalitarianism • A single person has near total power in a dictatorship. • In a totalitarian state, control over people’s lives is overwhelming. D. Democracy • Rule by the people. III. Political Behavior in the United States A. Participation and Apathy • About 8 percent of the people in the U.S. belong to a political club or organization. Not more than 20 percent has ever contacted an official of national, state, or local government about a political issue. • Voters of all ages appear less enthusiastic than ever about elections. Example: Only 62 percent of eligible voters voted in 2008 presidential election, well below the levels of the 1960s. • Apathy is increasingly common in other nations. • Lower voter turnout is evident among racial and ethnic minorities and the poor. B. Race and Gender in Politics • Political strength is lacking in marginalized groups, such as women and racial and ethnic minorities. Examples: Women did not get the vote until 1920; African Americans were disenfranchised until 1965. • As of mid-2011, 17 out of 100 U.S. senators were women; 2 were Latino and 2 were Asian Americans, leaving 79 White non-Hispanic men. • However, today record-high numbers of Blacks and Latinos hold elective office. • “Fiesta politics:” White power brokers tend to visit racial and ethnic minority communities only when they need electoral support and want photo ops. • Media are more likely to report on a female candidate’s personal life, appearance, and personality than a male candidate’s. • Women do not account for half the members of the national legislature in any country except Rwanda. The United States ranked 94th among 190 nations in the proportion of women serving as national legislators at the end of 2011. IV. Models of Power Structure in the United States A. Power Elite Models • Marx believed that small numbers of capitalists dominate society. • Government officials and military leaders are servants of the capitalist class. 1. Mills’s Model • The power elite are leaders of military, industry, and governmental agencies that collectively control the fate of the U.S. • Mills suggested that the economically powerful coordinate their maneuvers with military and political establishments to serve their common interests. • Mills failed to clarify when the elite opposes protests and when it tolerates them. He also failed to provide detailed case studies. 2. Domhoff’s Model • Agrees that the power elite runs the U.S. Mainly white, male, and upper class. • Corporate conservative coalition has played a large role in political parties. Liberal labor coalition based in unions, environmental organizations, and minority groups. • Domhoff’s model reflects the influence of interest groups. 3. Pluralist Model • No single group is dominant. Several conflicting groups have access to government. • Dahl suggested that community power is diffuse. V. War and Peace A. War • War is conflict between organizations that possess trained combat forces equipped with deadly weapons. B. Peace • Peace is considered both the absence of war and a proactive effort to develop cooperative relations among nations. C. Terrorism • Terrorism is the use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in pursuit of political aims. VI. Political Activism on the Internet • Increasingly, surfing the net is the way people “watch” television news shows and “read” the news. • Information is not limited to traditional parties. Example: Falun Gong, Koha Ditore, and Zapatista movement. • Conflict theorists suggest the Internet could level the playing field for opposition groups. • Importance of growing borderless organizations such as Greenpeace. • Legitimate authority figures are responding with the creation of e-government sites. VII. Social Policy and the Government A. The Issue • Microfinancing B. The Setting • Sometimes referred to as “banking the unbanked,” microfinancing was the brainchild of Bangladeshi economist Muhammad Yunus (pronounced Iunus). Microfinancing is lending small sums of money to the poor so they can work their way out of poverty. Borrowers use the money to start small businesses in the informal economy. The idea came to Yunus when he reached into his pocket to help local villagers who asked him for help and subsequently established the Grameen Bank. • Working through local halls or meeting places, the Grameen Bank has now extended credit to nearly 7 million people. The idea has spread, and has even been underwritten by over a thousand for-profit banks and multinational organizations. According to 2011 estimates, microfinancing is now reaching 91 million people in 100 countries. • A study done by microfinance expert Daryl Collins and his colleagues (2009) shows how even with modest assistance, poor people can significantly improve their circumstances through mutual support. Tactics revealed in the research suggested new methods of fighting poverty and encouraged the development of broader microfinance programs. C. Sociological Insights • Researchers who draw on the interactionist approach have shown that there is more to microfinancing than money; this is illustrated by the study done by microfinance expert Daryl Collins and his colleagues (described above). • Drawing on world systems analysis (see Chapter 9), sociologist Marina Karides (2010) contrasts microfinancing with the Western model of economic development, in which multinational corporations based in core countries take advantage of the low wages and natural resources in periphery and semi-periphery countries. • Because an estimated 90 percent of the recipients of microcredit are women, feminist theorists are especially interested in the growth of microfinancing. D. Policy Initiatives • Even supporters of microfinancing acknowledge the need to reduce overlending and monitor the success of small loans in helping borrowers to escape poverty. Some indicators suggest that many borrowers do not achieve self-sufficiency. If that is true, lenders should increase their oversight and attempt to identify best practices—that is, those types of assistance that are most effective in helping the poor. • In 2010, officials of one state in India required all loans to be approved by the government, and their eventual repayment to be made in person before a public official. To the degree that profiteering is truly a problem, some type of remedy, whether through legislation or self-monitoring, may need to be introduced. Given the cultural, political, and legal differences among nations where microfinanciers operate, the development of this type of government policy will be a major undertaking. KEY TERMS Affirmative action Positive efforts to recruit minority group members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities. Authority Institutionalized power that is recognized by the people over whom it is exercised. Capitalism An economic system in which the means of production are held largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits. Charismatic authority Power made legitimate by a leader’s exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers. Color-blind racism The use of the principle of race neutrality to defend a racially unequal status quo. Communism As an ideal type, an economic system under which all property is communally owned and no social distinctions are made on the basis of people’s ability to produce. Deindustrialization The systematic, widespread withdrawal of investment in basic aspects of productivity, such as factories and plants. Democracy In a literal sense, government by the people. Dictatorship A government in which one person has nearly total power to make and enforce laws. Downsizing Reductions taken in a company’s workforce as part of deindustrialization. Economic system The social institution through which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed. Elite model A view of society as being ruled by a small group of individuals who share a common set of political and economic interests. Fair trade A movement in which consumers in industrialized countries voluntarily pay above-market prices for certain foods so that the workers who plant, pick, and pack the crops can receive higher wages. Force The actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one’s will on others. Industrial society A society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. Influence The exercise of power through a process of persuasion. Informal economy Transfers of money, goods, or services that are not reported to the government. Laissez-faire A form of capitalism under which people compete freely, with minimal government intervention in the economy. Microfinancing Lending small sums of money to the poor so they can work their way out of poverty. Monarchy A form of government headed by a single member of a royal family, usually a king, queen, or some other hereditary ruler. Monopoly Control of a market by a single business firm. Offshoring The transfer of work to foreign contractors. Oligarchy A form of government in which a few individuals rule. Peace The absence of war, or more broadly, a proactive effort to develop cooperative relations among nations. Pluralist model A view of society in which many competing groups within the community have access to government, so that no single group is dominant. Political system The social institution that is founded on a recognized set of procedures for implementing and achieving society’s goals. Politics In Harold Lasswell’s words, “who gets what, when, and how.” Power The ability to exercise one’s will over others. Power elite A small group of military, industrial, and government leaders who control the fate of the United States. Rational-legal authority Power made legitimate by law. Representative democracy A form of government in which certain individuals are selected to speak for the people. Socialism An economic system under which the means of production and distribution are collectively owned. Sovereignty movement The effort by the indigenous people of Hawai’i to win self-government, as well as the restoration of - or compensation for - their ancestral lands. Terrorism The use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in pursuit of political aims. Totalitarianism Virtually complete government control and surveillance over all aspects of a society’s social and political life. Traditional authority Legitimate power conferred by custom and accepted practice. War Conflict between organizations that possess trained combat forces equipped with deadly weapons. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 14-1: Marx and Marxism Analyzed Despite extensive criticism, Karl Marx’s theory of rebellion has not been analyzed directly in cross-national research. The failure of proletarian revolutions to occur in the world’s most developed countries has discredited some of Marx’s important predictions. With this in mind, sociologist Terry Boswell and political scientist William J. Dixon (1993) contend that recent cross-national studies of rebellion and political violence reveal a perplexing positive effect of economic development on rebellion (controlling for income inequality and political democracy in these nations). Boswell and Dixon argue that a proper understanding of Marx’s theory can explain this finding. According to these researchers, economic development leads to class conflict by creating, expanding, and organizing the proletariat. Under capitalism, production is centralized and concentrated on facilitating workers’ organization and joint action. The result, according to Marx, is a more polarized class structure with the proletariat growing in size and power. At the same time, class exploitation accelerates. Consequently, there are two contradictory trends: growing wealth in the capitalist class and growing exploitation of the working class. Why, then, have revolts not typically occurred in the capitalist societies? Boswell and Dixon suggest that the conventional explanation is “class compromise.” Overall growth in a country’s economy can allow the proletariat to achieve relative prosperity (nothing, of course, like the wealth of the bourgeoisie). Marx talks about secondary exploitation through mortgages, loans, and land rents, which can lead the self-employed (i.e., the peasantry) to form alliances among themselves and with artisans and small merchants (the petty bourgeoisie). Although not fully developed by Marx, this view of secondary exploitation does offer insight into peasant rebellions. With a Marxist interpretation of rebellion research in mind, Boswell and Dixon developed a novel measure of class exploitation in a cross-national regression analysis of violent rebellion in 61 countries. The dependent variable used as a measure of revolution was the number of deaths from violent rebellions against the state from 1973 to 1977. To measure class exploitation, Boswell and Dixon used the total value of goods in manufacturing in excess of a nation’s wages and salaries. In addition, they drew upon income inequality as measured by the richest 20 percent of a country’s population. After statistical analysis, the researchers found (as Marx might have expected) that the effect of class exploitation on revolt is conditioned by market crises, or what we refer to as economic recessions. In such times, as Marx speculated, class conflict intensifies. Most of this tension is manifested in day-to-day struggles on the job. However, in a time of market crisis or national recession, these conflicts can become nationwide and can be directed at the state. “Class compromise” is typically lacking because capitalists tend to be opportunistic in order to secure their positions. In summary, Karl Marx’s theory helps to explain the frequent but perplexing finding that economic development can instigate violent rebellion. Development creates the industrial proletariat and the conditions for its organization (class consciousness). As Marx anticipated, revolt in industrial countries was offset by the relative affluence of the working classes. Yet, as the researchers’ cross-national comparison shows, market crises coupled with class exploitation can facilitate rebellion (as Marx himself might have expected). Source: Terry Boswell and William Jo Dixon, “Marx’s Theory of Rebellions: A Cross-National Analysis of Class Exploitation, Economic Development, and Violent Rape,” American Sociological Review 58 (October 1993): 681–702. 14-2: Military-Industrial Complex With the possible exception of George Washington and Ulysses S. Grant, no president has been so readily identified with his military exploits in wartime as Dwight D. Eisenhower. It is ironic, then, that Eisenhower chose in 1961 to warn the nation against the danger of an alliance between the military and industry: In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist. From remarks made by Eisenhower during his retirement from public service, we know that he was not overly concerned about the military industrial complex. However, for advocates of the power elite model, Eisenhower’s remarks were an unusually honest warning from someone who should know. 14-3: Who Rules? The text presents two models of power structure, pluralist and elite. What methodology is used in researching the distribution of power in a community? Three research designs have been developed for the study of community power: the reputational approach, the positional approach, and the issues approach. The reputational approach attempts to identify people who have a reputation for being influential in community decision making; this is typically done by asking knowledgeable people who they consider the most influential. The positional approach is more direct; it simply assumes that people who fill the formal positions of a community (mayor, councilors, etc.) exercise power. Finally, the issues approach attempts to analyze the actual process of decision making with respect to specific issues that are significant for a community. In some ways, the methodology selected often directs a researcher to either the “pluralist” or the “elitist” camp. For example, trying to determine “who rules” by virtue of reputations or positions tends to lead to a small, finite number of people, if not an elite. On the other hand, the issues approach (especially if several diverse issues are analyzed) tends to lead to a more pluralist conclusion. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 14-1. Is Voting for Older People?: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Is Voting for Older People? include these: Is there a generation gap in politics? What actions might we take in order to close this gap? How does youth apathy in the U.S. compare to apathy in other countries? Is politics relevant to young people? How? 14-2. Power in Interpersonal Relationships: In this exercise students observe and discuss power dynamics in dyadic groups. It involves a short field exercise, followed by a class discussion of findings. See William A. Gamson (ed.). Learning Group Exercises for Political Sociology. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1989, pp. 53–58. 14-3. Gender and Politics: See Janet Lee, “Teaching Gender Politics,” Teaching Sociology 21 (January 1993): 26–32. Also see Jeff Manza and Clem Brooks, “The Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections: When? Why? Implications?” American Journal of Sociology 103 (March 1998): 1235–1266. 14-4. Class Voting Behavior: The first year that 18-year-olds could vote was 1972. Fifty-five percent of them voted. By the 2000 presidential election only 32 percent of young people cast a vote. Youth voting increased in 2004 to about 49 percent. In 2008 that percentage increased by one to six percentage points (49.3 to 54.5 percent) according to CIRCLE, a Tufts University nonpartisan research center. Conduct an anonymous survey of the class to find out how many of those who were eligible to vote actually did vote in the 2008 election. Encourage student feedback on the issue of apathy among young people. Why didn’t they vote? Were youth more likely to vote in 2004 because our country had experienced a recent terrorist attack? And in 2008? Ask them to explain. 14-5. Gender Assumptions in Politics: A discussion in which students brainstorm the ideal characteristics for a political leader leads to insights about gender assumptions in politics. See Marybeth C. Stalp and Julie Childers (eds.). Teaching Sociological Concepts and the Sociology of Gender. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 2000, p. 31. 14-6. Corporate Power: Examine one or more large corporations to determine the many spheres of life over which its power extends. 14-7. Using Humor: Joseph E. Faulkner has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated into lectures associated with Chapter 17. See Chapter 10 in Faulkner, Sociology Through Humor. New York: West, 1987. This book is out of print, but used copies are readily available. 14-8. Changing Economies: Have students trace the evolution of the American economy, from agrarian, to industrial, to post-industrial. Describe the changes, noting the primary characteristics of each type of economy as well as social changes accompanying each stage. Discuss the social and economic implications of the shift from a manufacturing to a service (or information-based) economy. 14-9. Civic Engagement: Many colleges and universities are incorporating civic engagement and service learning into their curriculums and/or as a campus-wide theme. Instructors may wish to discuss the importance of civic engagement to a healthy, socially viable society (and to incorporate a small civic engagement component into their courses). A useful reference might be Learning Through Serving: A Student Guidebook for Service-Learning Across the Disciplines, by Christine M. Cress, Peter J. Collier, and Vicki L. Reitenauer, 2005. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to identify various business enterprises that attempt to monopolize products or services, and discuss why government is often hesitant to interfere. Answer: Identify businesses that attempt to monopolize markets, such as tech giants or pharmaceutical companies, and discuss why government intervention is often limited. Examine the balance between fostering competition and preventing monopolistic practices, and the role of regulatory bodies in maintaining market fairness. 2. Ask students to identify the common ideologies of conservative and liberal politics and compare both views with capitalism and socialism. Discuss the relationship of politics to economy. Answer: Compare conservative and liberal ideologies, noting their positions on capitalism and socialism. Discuss how political ideologies influence economic policies and structures, exploring how conservatism tends to favor capitalism and liberalism may support more socialistic elements. 3. Ask students to identify various charismatic leaders who have intentionally or unintentionally corrupted members of a social group or even caused their deaths, and discuss the issues relevant to Weber’s views on charismatic authority. Answer: Research charismatic leaders, such as Jim Jones or David Koresh, who have led their followers to destructive outcomes. Discuss Weber’s concept of charismatic authority and how such leaders use their personal appeal to gain control and influence over their followers. 4. Ask students to identify elements of the current Iraq war that might support the elite model of power structure in the United States, and discuss the concepts and elements of Marx’s and Mills’s power elite models. Answer: Analyze elements of the Iraq war that may illustrate the elite model of power, focusing on the influence of a small group of political and economic elites. Compare Marx’s and Mills’s views on the power elite, examining how they argue that elites control key decisions and resources. 5. Ask students to identify political advertising that could be considered as issue advocacy, and discuss the consequences of campaign reform. Answer: Identify examples of political advertising focused on advocating specific issues rather than promoting candidates. Discuss the impact of campaign reform on such advocacy, exploring how changes in campaign finance laws aim to influence the transparency and effectiveness of political messaging. SERVICE LEARNING ACTIVITY In barbershops across America there are always discussions about what the government is or is not doing. The First Amendment gives Americans that right. One of the President’s biggest challenges is always managing the ups and downs of the economy. Each administration likes to take credit when the economy is good, but it shuns criticism when it is bad. Most Americans would rather talk than act. Talk is cheap, but voting is freedom. Why is it that more and more Americans fail to get involved in the political process? America has one of the lowest voter turnouts of industrialized nations: Organize and conduct a voter registration drive in your community and/or on your campus. Students may want to contact a local organization and become a part of that group’s effort to get more people to vote. This is especially important for local elections. This is a valuable service learning project. Instructor Manual for Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026812, 9780071318419
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