CH-15-16 Religion – Sociology : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 15 to 16 CHAPTER 15 RELIGION CHAPTER OUTLINE DURKHEIM AND THE SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO RELIGION WORLD RELIGIONS SOCIOLOGICAL PESPECTIVES ON RELIGION The Integrative Function of Religion Religion and Social Support Religion and Social Change Religion and Social Control: A Conflict View Feminist Perspective COMPONENTS OF RELIGION Belief Ritual Experience RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION Ecclesiae Denominations Sects New Religious Movements or Cults Comparing Forms of Religious Organization CASE STUDY: RELIGION IN INDIA The Religious Tapestry in India Religion and the State in India SOCIAL POLICY AND RELIGION: RELIGION IN THE SCHOOLS Boxes Research Today: Wicca: Religion or Quasi Religion? LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 15 1. Discuss the sociological approach to the study of religion. 2. Describe the diversity of world religions and practices. 3. Discuss the role of religion from the various sociological perspectives. 4. Describe the components of religious behavior. 5. Discuss the basic forms of religious organization. 6. Discuss the emergence of new religious movements (NRMs). 7. Discuss the sociological significance of religion in India. 8. Discuss social policy regarding religion in schools. • Chapter-opening excerpt from Toying with God: The World of Religious Games and Dolls, by Niki Bado-Fralick and Rebecca Sachs Norris • Trend Spotting Box, “None of the Above: The Nonreligious” • Figure, “Test Your Religious Knowledge” • Discussion of the socialization function of religion • Use Your Sociological Imagination Exercise • Research Today Box, “Wicca: Religion or Quasi-Religion?” CHAPTER SUMMARY Émile Durkheim was perhaps the first sociologist to recognize the critical importance of religion in human societies. In Durkheim’s view, religion is a collective act and includes many forms of behavior in which people interact with others. Durkheim defined religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things.” The sacred encompasses elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and even fear. By contrast, the profane includes ordinary and commonplace elements. Durkheim argued that religious faiths distinguish between certain events that transcend the ordinary and the everyday world. Tremendous diversity exists in religious beliefs and practices. Overall, about 85 percent of the world’s population adheres to some form of religion. In sociological terms, religion plays a basic role in human societies. Functionalists and conflict theorists evaluate religion’s impact as a social institution. Functionalists view religion as providing an integrative function for society. Religion provides a form of “societal glue,” which offers meaning and purpose for people’s lives. The integrative power of religion can be found in celebrations of life events such as weddings or funerals, or in times of crisis or confusion, such as immediately after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Religion provides a framework for social support during stressful life events. Max Weber demonstrated the collective nature of religion in his pioneering work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber’s Protestant ethic suggested an association between religious allegiance and capitalist development in which one by-product was the accumulation of savings. The conflict view of religion suggests that religion impedes social change by encouraging oppressed people to focus on otherworldly concerns rather than on their immediate poverty or exploitation. Karl Marx described religion as an “opiate” that drugged the masses into submission. Marxists suggested that inducing a “false consciousness” through religion lessens the possibility of collective political action. Feminists study the important role of women in religious socialization. This is in contrast to the patriarchal ideology and leadership of most religions. Certain forms of religious behaviors help define what is sacred and profane within a society. Religious beliefs are statements to which members of a particular religion adhere. For example, the account of Adam and Eve is a religious belief that many people strongly adhere to and may even insist be taught in schools. Religious rituals are practices required or expected of members of a faith. They remind adherents of their religious duties and responsibilities. Religious experience refers to the feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality, such as a divine being, or being overcome with religious emotion. Sociologists find it useful to distinguish among four basic forms of religious organization. An ecclesia is a religious organization that claims to include most or all of the members of a society and is recognized as the national or official religion, such as Islam is in Saudi Arabia. A denomination is a large, organized religion that is not officially linked to the state or government. A sect can be defined as a relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other religious organization to renew what it considers the original vision of faith. An established sect is a religious group that is the outgrowth of a sect, yet remains isolated from society. The Seventh-Day Adventists and the Amish are contemporary examples. A new religious movement or cult is generally a small, secretive religious group (e.g., Heaven’s Gate) that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith. The case study of India provides insight into the social institution of religion. Eighteen officially recognized languages and several religions animate Indian society. Hinduism and Islam are the two most important religions in India. Hindus account for 74 percent of India’s population, while Muslims account for 12 percent. Other religions include Sikhism and Jainism. Religion was a major force in overturning British colonial rule. In India, political parties align themselves along religious lines. Religion has also affected economic progress for some in India. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR 1. How have sociologists viewed and studied religion? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: secularization, religion, sacred, profane Box: Research Today, Income and Education, Religiously Speaking Visual Support: Photo of boy with dreidel IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 15-1 Video Resources: God and the Inner City; Religion REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Religion and Social Change; Religion and Sociology 2. What are the major world religions? IN THE TEXT Boxes: Trend Spotting, “None of the Above: The Nonreligious” Visual Support: Table 15-1, “Major World Religions”; Figure 15-1, “Test Your Religious Knowledge”; Photo of Catholic bishop in Los Angeles IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 15-1 Classroom Discussion Topics: 15-1, 15-2, 15-7, 15-8, 15-9 Topics and Sources for Student Research: No Religion Video Resources: Muslims in America; On Fire with Faith; Religion 3. What are the sociological perspectives on religion? IN THE TEXT Visual Support: Photo of Muslim Americans; Photo of Protestant worship service; Table 15-2, “Sociological Perspectives on Religion” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 15-9 Classroom Discussion Topics: 15-3, 15-4 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Religion and the Economy; Religion and the Government Video Resources: The Jolo Serpent-Handlers; Religion 4. What are the components of religion? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: religious beliefs, fundamentalism, religious ritual, religious experience Visual Support: Cartoon about women clergy IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: 15-3, 15-8 Video Resources: The King Does Not Lie 5. What are the main types of religious organizations in the United States? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: ecclesia, denomination, sect, established sect, new religious movement (NRM or cult) Boxes: Research Today: “Wicca: Religion or Quasi-Religion?” Visual Support: Photo of hajj pilgrims; Figure 15-2, “Religious Participation in Selected Countries, 2006”; Table 15-3, “Components of Religion”; Table 15-4, “Characteristics of Ecclesiae, Denominations, Sects, and New Religious Movements” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 15-6 Classroom Discussion Topics: 15-8 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Contemporary Religious Patterns Video Resources: Cults LECTURE LAUNCHER NBC NEWS VIDEO CLIPS Volume 1: Religious Cults LECTURE OUTLINE I. Durkheim and the Sociological Approach to Religion • Recognized the importance of religion in human societies. Religion is a collective act, defined as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things.” • The sacred encompasses elements beyond everyday life that inspire, awe, respect, and fear. Example: rituals such as prayer or sacrifice. • The profane includes the ordinary and commonplace, which can sometimes become sacred. Example: A candelabra becomes sacred for Jews (menorah), as do incense sticks for Taoists. II. World Religions • About 85 percent of the world’s population adheres to some religion. About 15 percent is nonreligious. • Christianity is the largest single faith; Islam is the second largest. • Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are monotheistic. • Hinduism is polytheistic and distinguished by a belief in rebirth through reincarnation. • Buddhism is based on teaching of Siddhartha, or Buddha. Goal of enlightenment through meditation. III. Sociological Explanations of Religion • Manifest functions of religion are open and stated explanations of events. • Latent functions are unintended, covert, or hidden. A. The Integrative Function of Religion • Durkheim viewed religion as an integrative power or “social glue” that holds society together. Example: celebrations or funerals. • People are also bound together by crisis. Example: 9/11 terror attacks. • Integrative impact is evident for immigrants and variant lifestyles. • Religious loyalties can be dysfunctional. Example: Nazi Germany and Jews. • Religious conflict is evident between conservative and liberal elements. Examples: abortion, gay marriage. B. Religion and Social Support • Idea of divine intervention allows people to face calamities as “God’s will,” thus having an ultimate benefit or purpose. • Establishment of faith-based organizations provides social assistance. C. Religion and Social Change 1. The Weberian Thesis • Max Weber examined the connection between religious allegiance and capitalist development. His findings presented in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. • Protestant ethic: emphasis on disciplined work ethic, this-worldly concerns, and a rational orientation to life. A by-product of the Protestant ethic is to accumulate savings for future investment. • Weber stressed that the collective nature of religion has social consequences for society as a whole. 2. Liberation Theology • Clergy in the forefront of social change. • Use of a church in a political effort to eliminate poverty, discrimination, and other forms of injustice in a secular society. Example: Roman Catholic activists in Latin America. • Liberation theology suggests a moral responsibility to stand against oppression. • Critics charge that liberation theology ignores personal and spiritual needs. Some Catholics in Latin America are converting to mainstream Protestant faiths or to Mormonism. D. Religion and Social Control: A Conflict View • Marx suggested that religion impeded social change by encouraging oppressed people to focus on other-worldly concerns rather than on their immediate poverty or exploitation. • Religion is an “opiate” harmful to oppressed people. Example: slavery. • Marx believed that religion’s promotion of social stability perpetuates social inequality. Example: women in subservient positions both within Christian churches and at home. • Marxists suggest that by inducing a “false consciousness” among disadvantaged people, religion lessens collective political action. E. Feminist Perspective • Religion serves to subordinate women. • Women play a fundamental role in the religious socialization of children. • Most faiths have a long tradition of exclusively male leadership. Women make up 51 percent of the students enrolled in theological schools, but account for only 12.8 percent of the clergy. They tend to have shorter careers, and to serve outside of congregational leadership. IV. Components of Religion • All religions have certain elements in common that are expressed distinctively in each faith. A. Belief • Religious beliefs are statements to which members of a particular religion adhere. Example: creationism. • In general, spirituality is not as strong in industrialized nations as in developing ones. B. Ritual • Rituals are practices required or expected of members of a faith. Example: Muslims’ hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca. • Rituals affirm beliefs and remind adherents of their religious duties. • Religion develops distinctive norms to structure behavior, and uses sanctions to reward or penalize behavior. Example: bar mitzvah gifts; expulsion for violating religious norms. C. Experience • Religious experience refers to the feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality, such as the divine being, or of being overcome with religious emotion. Example: being “born again.” • Baptists are most likely to report such experiences, compared to Catholics or Episcopalians. V. Religious Organization • Collective nature of religion has led to many forms of religious association. A. Ecclesiae • Ecclesia is a religious organization that claims to include most or all of the members of a society and is recognized as the national or official religion. Example: Islam in Saudi Arabia. • Generally, ecclesiae are conservative and do not challenge the leaders of secular government. B. Denominations • A denomination is a large, organized religion not officially linked to the state or government. • Like an ecclesia, it tends to have an explicit set of beliefs, a defined system of authority, and a generally respected position in society. But a denomination lacks the official recognition and power held by an ecclesia. • Roman Catholicism is the largest single denomination in the U.S. (22 percent of adults in the U.S.). • Collectively, Protestants account for about 49 percent of the U.S. adult population. C. Sects • A sect is a relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other religious organization to renew what it considers the original version of the faith. • Sects are fundamentally at odds with society and do not seek to become established national religions. • They require intensive commitment and demonstrations of belief by members. • Sects are often short-lived. • An established sect is a religious group that is an outgrowth of a sect. Examples: Hutterites, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Seventh-Day Adventists, and Amish. D. New Religious Movements or Cults • A new religious movement (NRM) or cult is generally a small, secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith. • NRMs are similar to sects in that they tend to be small and are often viewed as less respectable than more established faiths. Example: Heaven’s Gate. • Like sects, NRMs may be transformed over time into other types of religious organizations. Example: Christian Science Church began as a NRM, but today exhibits the characteristics of a denomination. E. Comparing Forms of Religious Organization • The study of religions in the U.S. focuses on denominations and sects, since no ecclesia exists in the United States. • Electronic churches are still another form of religious organization facilitated by cable television and satellite transmissions. Example: Televangelists. • Internet offers sites online to augment or serve as substitutes for going to church in person. Examples: GodTube, congregations in Second Life. VI. Case Study: Religion in India A. The Religious Tapestry in India • Hinduism and Islam are the two most important religions in India. Muslims account for 13 percent of the population; Hindus make up 83 percent. • The Sikh faith is monotheistic. Sikhs make up 2 percent of the population, but their presence in the military gives them a large voice in governance. • Jainism also has been influential beyond its numbers (about 4 million members). They are influential through their business dealings and charitable contributions. B. Religion and the State in India • Religion was a moving force in overthrowing British colonialism. • Immediately after independence, India was partitioned into two states, Pakistan for the Muslims and India for the Hindus. Boundary disputes continue to this day. • India is secular today and dominated by Hindus. • Religion is the moving force in Indian society. Tensions between Hindus and Muslims remain high in some states. Conflict also exists among various Hindu groups, from fundamentalists to more secular and ecumenical. VII. Social Policy and Religion: Religion in the Schools A. The Issue • Prayer and the teaching of creationism in schools. B. The Setting • First Amendment and the separation of church and state. • Engle v. Vitale: In 1962, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that organized school prayer violates the Constitution. • Subsequent Court decisions have allowed voluntary school prayer by students, but have forbidden school officials to sponsor any prayer or religious observances at school events. • In 1987, a Supreme Court ruling disallowed the teaching of creationism in public schools if the primary purpose was to promote religion. • Those who believe in the divine origin of life are now advancing the concept of intelligent design (ID). In 2005, a federal court judge ended a Pennsylvania school district’s plan to require teaching ID. The debate continues nationally. C. Sociological Insights • Supporters of school prayer (and creationism) suggest that it provides spiritual guidance and socialization. Many communities believe schools should transmit the dominant culture of the U.S. by encouraging prayer. • Opponents contend that a religious majority is trying to impose viewpoints specific to its faith at the cost of religious minorities. • Others are concerned that school prayer would put pressure on children to conform to the beliefs and practices of a religious majority. D. Policy Initiatives • In 2003, President Bush declared that schools preventing the right of students to pray risk losing their federal funding. • An appeals court ruled that including the phrase “under God” in the Pledge of Allegiance is unconstitutional, but the U.S. Supreme Court reversed the decision in 2004. KEY TERMS Creationism A literal interpretation of the Bible regarding the creation of humanity and the universe used to argue that evolution should not be presented as established scientific fact. Denomination A large, organized religion that is not officially linked with the state or government. Ecclesia A religious organization that claims to include most or all members of a society, and is recognized as the national or official religion. Established sect A religious group that is the outgrowth of a sect, yet remains isolated from society. Fundamentalism Rigid adherence to fundamental religious doctrines, often accompanied by a literal application of scripture or historical beliefs to today’s world. Intelligent design (ID) The idea that life is so complex that it could have been created only by intelligent design. Liberation theology Use of a church, primarily Roman Catholicism, in a political effort to eliminate poverty, discrimination, and other forms of injustice evident in a secular society. New religious movement (NRM) or cult A small, secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith. Profane The ordinary and commonplace elements of life, as distinguished from the sacred. Protestant ethic Max Weber’s term for the disciplined work ethic, this-worldly concerns, and rational orientation to life emphasized by John Calvin and his followers. Quasi-religion A scholarly category that includes organizations that may see themselves as religious but are seen by others as “sort of religious.” Religion A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things. Religious belief A statement to which members of a particular religion adhere. Religious experience The feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality, such as a divine being, or of being overcome with religious emotion. Religious ritual A practice required or expected of members of a faith. Sacred Elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and even fear. Sect A relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other religious organization to renew what it considers the original vision of the faith. Secularization The process through which religion’s influence on other social institutions diminishes. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 15-1: The Halévy Thesis: Religion as a Stabilizer Max Weber is not the only scholar to contend that religion can exert an important influence on the process of social change. Elie Halévy (1870–1937), a Frenchman and noted historian who wrote at about the same time as Weber, was primarily interested in the stability of English society during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Halévy thesis suggests that Methodism, under the influence of John Wesley (1703–1791) and his followers, provided a kind of “escape valve” for the discontented English working class. This religious faith became a mechanism for dissent, an outlet for opposition to everything from labor practices to the monarchy itself. Yet this opposition was basically peaceful and was oriented to social reform rather than revolutionary change. From a Marxist point of view, Methodists were not part of the ruling bourgeoisie, yet they served the interests of the wealthy and powerful. For Halévy, the rise of Methodism explains why England, of all the nations of Europe, was most free from political disorders and revolutions during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Halévy’s thesis has been criticized; in fact, many of the objections are similar to those raised in response to Weber’s monumental work. Some critics have argued that Halévy exaggerates the influence of Methodism and fails to explain the lack of revolt in England before this religion arose. Nonetheless, Halévy’s work, like Weber’s, contains important insights regarding the relationship between religious beliefs and the process of social change. See Elie Halévy. A History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century. Translated by E.I. Watkins and D.A. Barker. London: Ernest Benn; Halévy, 1924, rev. 1960; The Birth of Methodism in England. Translated by B. Senimel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971; Michael Hill. A Sociology of Religion. New York: Basic Books, 1973, pp. 183–203. 15-2: Goal Multiplication and Religious Organizations Religious groups fulfill many of what Durkheim would term secular (rather than sacred) functions. In recent years (with the emphasis on government downsizing), churches and other religious organizations have started providing services previously assumed by government agencies. Republicans want to roll back government-funded welfare programs and shift the social safety net to private organizations in general and to churches and religious charities in particular. There appears to be public support for this role. Yet, the public rejects the notion that the nation’s religious organizations should be the main source of funds for the needy. In a 1995 national Gallup survey, respondents were asked: “Who do you think should be more responsible for providing assistance to the poor—government or religious organizations?” The results showed 55 percent selecting the government, 28 percent religious organizations, 10 percent both, 4 percent neither, and 3 percent with no opinion. Among Republicans and Protestants, the government was still favored as a source for such funds, but by smaller margins. Only self-identified conservatives favored religious organizations over the government as the main source of support for assisting the poor. Some clergy and other observers are concerned about religious groups playing more of a role. They feel it is unconstitutional and spiritually wrong to force the poor through a religious doorway to meet their basic needs. Federal legislation has been proposed that would create a charity tax credit of $500 per taxpayer. It would allow taxpayers to designate money to a religious or charitable organization that devotes 70 percent of its efforts to poverty relief. Source: “Should Religious Organizations Provide All Welfare?” Emerging Trends 17 (November 1995): 5. 15-3: Courts and Holiday Displays Confusion continues regarding holiday displays that involve the government, however indirectly. In December 1995, a federal judge in Newark, New Jersey, ruled that adding Frosty the Snowman and Santa with a sleigh to a nativity scene, a Christmas tree, and a menorah makes a city’s holiday display legal. Judge Dickerson Debevoise said that “installing these symbols sufficiently demystified the holy” (Leavitt 1995:A3). Sociologists would regard these as efforts to make a legal distinction between what Durkheim called the sacred and the secular. At the heart of the conflict are the constitutional provisions of the First Amendment: “Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” The ruling followed a lawsuit brought by civil liberties activists that had led to the judge barring solely religious items on the City Hall lawn in Jersey City. “We shouldn’t have to censor those holidays that have a religious aspect,” said Mayor Bret Schundler (Leavitt 1995:A3). The Supreme Court ruled in June 1995 that if government allows public displays, it cannot choose to bar religious displays per se. Religious expression must be treated like other forms of expression, such as United Way donation thermometers, which are often displayed on the sides of public buildings or in parks. Not everyone agrees with the ruling. Barry Lynn of Americans United for Separation of Church and State argues that “the Supreme Court is turning a lot of town squares into churchyards. And that has made a lot of people from minority religions feel like second-class citizens in their own towns” (Mauro 1995:A2). In Chicago, a government office building stopped playing Christmas music when there were protests, but a court saw no problems with a mixture of Christmas music along with winter seasonal songs. Sources: Jan Crawford Greenburg, “In Season to be Tolerant, It’s Still Easier Said than Done,” Chicago Tribune (December 21, 1995), sec. 3:1, 3; Paul Leavitt, “Christmas Displays OK,” USA Today (December 19, 1995): 3A; Tony Mauro, “Ruling Helps Communities Set Guidelines,” USA Today (December 21, 1995): A1, A2. 15-4: Doing Religion More than 100 people in a Black congregation are packed into the living room of an old house. Led by the pastor’s wife and four dancing women, the worshippers are singing, dancing, waving their arms. The church is rocking, and the pace doesn’t stop for three hours. Across town a White congregation is singing the same hymns, but no one is dancing. The mood is mellow and the drummer looks almost embarrassed to be there. Sharon Bjorkman uncovered these contrasting styles in the course of fieldwork researching forms of worship in churches in the Chicago area. This observation research was part of a nationwide study conducted by the Hartford Institute for Religion Research. Bjorkman was interested in going beyond the doctrinal background of a particular church and observing the physical actions of the people attending services and those conducting them. As Durkheim noted, defining what is sacred in a religion is a collective act. Using the interactionist perspective, Bjorkman took notes on what happened at services, who participated, and what or who motivated them to do so. The first thing that she discovered was the disadvantage of being an outsider. For example, not “knowing the ropes,” she was unprepared for the strenuous physical activity in the Black church. In the churches she visited, she didn’t know whether to carry a Bible or what version to use. As Bjorkman notes, you need to be socialized to know what is expected of you in a church service. Depending on the socialization church members receive, usually through example and reprimand, they will be active or passive, loud or quiet, meditative or demonstrative. The church leader plays a key role in shaping the congregation’s actions. Leaders decide the format of services, including what songs are sung, what instruments are used, and how much to involve the worshippers. In services that call for testimonies from the congregation, the leader would actively solicit certain members and badger them if need be. The same tactic applied to “altar calls” where congregants would come forward to confess sins or seek blessings. As important as church leaders are, they would have little influence if the individual members chose not to cooperate. Worship styles, then, are jointly developed by leaders and members. Generally, Bjorkman found, leaders would take small incremental steps to “train” their members to accept a particular style of service. This study illustrates the crucial part that human relations play within formal organizations. Religious rituals are not just dry formal procedures dictated by a rote program of service. They evolve out of the active participation of leaders and members “doing religion” together. 15-5: Unitarian-Universalism Ordinarily, we assume that people who practice the same religious faith hold to a common set of beliefs about the spiritual world, and that it is these beliefs which unite them as a community. But in at least one contemporary religious group in the United States, the Unitarian-Universalists (UUs), a central tenet is that the church should not impose any specific set of religious beliefs on its members. Today’s Unitarian-Universalist church includes members who consider themselves to be Christians, Buddhists, Jews, theists, Pagans, agnostics, and even atheists. Moreover, UUs come from a variety of religious backgrounds. Only 10 percent were raised in the Unitarian-Universalist faith (Dart 2001). Under such conditions, how is it that the Unitarian-Universalist church is able to survive? Why would anyone want to join such a church, and, when they do, how are Unitarian-Universalists able to create a sense of community? Today’s Unitarian-Universalist church came into being through the joining of two distinct religions, Unitarianism and Universalism. Unitarianism formed out of a rejection of the Trinity, or, in other words, out of a belief that Jesus was human and not supernatural. The original Universalists joined in a rejection of the concept of hell. Instead, they believed that God offers heavenly salvation to all. Both eventually became largely non-creedal religions whose members professed a wide variety of religious beliefs, and in 1961, the two organizations formally merged (Marshall 1988). There are currently about 225,000 Americans who are formal members of the Unitarian-Universalist Association, although as many as 629,000 Americans self-describe as Unitarian-Universalist (Dart 2001, Higgins 2003). What, if anything, allows UUs to feel a sense of togetherness with one another? One answer is in the socio-economic characteristics of Unitarian-Universalists. Although diverse in their religious beliefs, UUs are remarkably homogenous in income, occupational prestige, education, and ethnicity. They have the highest average income and occupational prestige among mainline American religions, have a very high percentage of members who are college graduates, and are a largely White denomination (Roof and McKinney 1987). Likewise, Unitarian-Universalists are united by a common set of religious values—if not beliefs—including freedom of religion, religious thought based on reason, and social justice (Scholefield 1963). It is also important to understand that, from a sociological perspective, what holds religious organizations together may be something other than a coherent set of religious beliefs. A religious community can also congeal through shared assumptions about the broader reasons for assembling. While some congregations may see themselves primarily as a vehicle for religious worship, others may have more of a social activist or family orientation, for example (Becker 1999). Indeed, though, their lack of a unified religious creed has not been without its problems for the Unitarian-Universalists. In 2001, a breakaway group proposed to form the American Unitarian Association, an organization that would use nineteenth-century New England Unitarianism as the basis for its theological creed. Group organizers were dissatisfied with the diversity of religious beliefs within the Unitarian-Universalist Association, and wanted to form an organization with a clear religious creed (Christian Century 2001). Sources used for this essay and additional reading ideas include: Penny Egdell Becker. Congregations in Conflict: Cultural Models of Local Religious Life. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999; Christian Century, “Theological Stirrings in Unitarian Circles,” 118 (5) (2001): 8-9; John Dart, “Churchgoers from Elsewhere,” Christian Century 118 (33) (2001): 2; George N. Marshall. Challenge of a Liberal Faith. (3rd edition.) Boston: Unitarian-Universalist Association, 1988; Wade Clark Roof and William McKinney. American Mainline Religion. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987; Harry Barron Scholefield, ed. The Unitarian Universalist Pocket Guide. Boston: Beacon Press, 1963; Robert Tapp. Religion among the Unitarian Universalists. New York: Seminar Press, 1973. 15-6: Women in the Clergy Throughout history and in many diverse cultures, the highest positions of spiritual leadership within organized religion have been reserved for men. Even today, the largest denomination in the United States, Roman Catholicism, does not permit women to be priests. A 1993 Gallup survey found that 63 percent of Roman Catholics in this country favor the ordination of women, compared with only 29 percent in 1974, but the church has continued to maintain its long-standing teaching that priests should be male. The largest Protestant denomination, the Southern Baptist Convention, has voted against ordaining women (even though some of its autonomous churches have women ministers). Other religious faiths that do not allow women clergy include the Lutheran church–Missouri Synod, the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of North and South America, the Orthodox Church in America, the Church of God in Christ, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, and Orthodox Judaism. Despite these restrictions, there has been a notable rise in female clergy in the last 20 years. Female enrollment in seminaries in the United States has steadily increased since the early 1970s. For example, in 1973, women accounted for 10 percent of Protestant theological students; by 1992, the proportion of women had risen to almost 33 percent. Of 190 students in Reform Judaism’s rabbinical school in the 1992–1993 school year, 43 percent were female. Of 32 students who entered Conservative Judaism’s rabbinical school in late 1991, 15 were women. Nevertheless, as of 1992, 92 percent of all clergy in the United States were male. Clearly, many branches of Protestantism and Judaism have been convinced that women have the right to be ordained as spiritual leaders. Yet a lingering question remains: Once ordained, will these female ministers and rabbis be accepted by congregations? Will they advance in their calling as easily as male counterparts, or will they face blatant or subtle discrimination in their efforts to secure desirable posts within their faiths? It is too early to offer any definitive answers to these questions, but thus far, women clergy continue to face lingering sexism after ordination. According to a 1986 random sampling of 800 lay and ordained leaders of the United Church of Christ, women find it difficult to secure jobs in larger, more prestigious congregations. Women ministers in other Protestant faiths have encountered similar problems. Although they may be accepted as junior clergy or as co-pastors, women may fail to receive senior clergy appointments. In both Reform and Conservative Judaism, women rabbis are rarely hired by the largest and best-known congregations. Consequently, women clergy in many denominations appear to be restricted to the low end of clerical pay scales and hierarchies. Sources for this essay include the following: Andrée Brooks, “Women in the Clergy: Struggle to Succeed,” New York Times (February 16, 1987): 15; Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States 1996. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996, p. 405; Debra Nussbaum Cohen, “The Right to be Rabbis Won, Women Face Role’s Challenges,” Long Island Jewish World 29 (August 23–29, 1991): 3, 22–23; Richard N. Ostling, “The Second Reformation,” Time 140 (November 23, 1992): 52–58; Princeton Religion Research Center, “Attitudes toward Priests Changing Rapidly,” Emerging Trends 15 (October 1993): 5. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 15-1. Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith (ADL): This is a useful source for many materials relating to Judaism. Visit their website at www.adl.org. 15-3. Ramadan: Ramadan is a Muslim ritual that entails 30 days of dawn-to-dusk fasting and powerful study of scriptures, marking Allah’s (God’s) revelation of the Koran to Muhammad and reminding the devout of the need to focus on spiritual rather than secular activities. See Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Adair T. Lummis. Islamic Values in the United States: A Comparative Study. New York: Oxford, 1987. 15-4. Ritual: After showing the video The King Does Not Lie: The Initiation of a Shango Priest (listed below under Audiovisual Materials), have students discuss similarities between the rituals performed in the video, and the ceremonies performed in churches and temples of established religions. 15-5. Market-Based Theory of Religious Growth: This new approach to religious dynamics draws on supply-side economics. For an overview of this area consult Ellen K. Coughlin, “Scholars Apply Economic Theories to Study of Religious Belief,” Chronicle of Higher Education, May 17, 1996. This theory was brought to national prominence by Rodney Stark and Roger Finke. The Churching of America. Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993. 15-6. Protestant Diversity: Drawing on local clergy, describe the differences among Protestant denominations in beliefs, rituals, and historical beginnings. 15-7. Stimulating Classroom Discussions about For This Land: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Vine Deloria Jr.’s For This Land: Writings on Religion in America can include the following: What is religion? What, if anything, is the difference between religion and magic? Using the excerpt as a basis, what position do students take on pluralism and assimilation? 15-8. Field Trips: If feasible, have the class visit a Catholic church, a Unitarian church, a Mormon stake house, and a Jewish synagogue or temple. If practical, attend services in a church in a minority community. What are the differences and similarities between this house of worship and a church in a middle-class White neighborhood? 15-9. Student Census: A religious and ethnicity “census” of the students can be taken to determine diversity within the classroom. 15-10. Using Humor: Joseph E. Faulkner has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated into lectures associated with Chapter 13. See Chapter 11 in Faulkner, Sociology through Humor. New York: West, 1987. This book is out of print, but used copies are readily available. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to identify events or objects that some religions may perceive as profane but that other religions would consider sacred. Discuss the transition of the ordinary into the realm of faith. 2. Ask students to search for evidence of various religious rituals that may seem bizarre to some, and discuss the significance of certain religious behaviors in encouraging adherence to religious norms. 3. Ask students to identify the various religious forces and elements that may have impacted the most recent war with Iraq. 4. Ask students to research Scientology and identify its origins as a spiritual philosophy or as a religion. CHAPTER 16 EDUCATION CHAPTER OUTLINE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION Functionalist View Conflict View Feminist View Interactionist View SCHOOLS AS FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS Bureaucratization of Schools Teachers: Employees and Instructors Student Subcultures Homeschooling SOCIAL POLICY AND EDUCATION: CHARTER SCHOOLS Boxes Sociology on Campus: Google University Sociology on Campus: The Debate over Title IX Taking Sociology to Work: Diane Belcher, Assistant Director of Volunteer Services, New River Community College LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 16 1. Discuss the role of education from the various sociological perspectives. 2. Discuss the reasons why schools are considered formal organizations. 3. Identify the bureaucratic features of schools. 4. Discuss the dual role of teachers serving as both employees and instructors. 5. Discuss the functions and concerns surrounding student subcultures. 6. Identify the issues of home schooling. 7. Discuss controversies and concerns surrounding charter schools. • Chapter-opening exerpt from The Death and Life of the Great American School System, by Diane Ravitch • Figure, “Annual Median Earnings by Educational Level” • Trend Spotting Box, “Rising College Enrollment among Racial and Ethnic Minorities, Women” • Figure, “Tuition Costs, 1976-2009” • Taking Sociology to Work Box, “Diane Belcher, Assistant Director of Volunteer Services” • Discussion of the immigration to the United States of families from countries where homeschooling is illegal • Social Policy Section on charter schools, with Mapping Life Nationwide map, “Charter Schools” CHAPTER SUMMARY Education prepares citizens for the various roles demanded by other institutions, including religion. The functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives offer distinctive views when examining education as a social institution. The functionalist perspective suggests that education performs a rather conservative function in transmitting the dominant culture. Schooling exposes each generation of young people to the existing beliefs, norms, and values of their culture. Beyond the manifest function of transmitting knowledge, education serves the latent function of maintaining social control by socializing young people to the norms of punctuality, discipline, scheduling, and responsible work habits. By contrast, the conflict perspective views education as an instrument of elite domination in which a hidden curriculum is offered. Schools convince subordinate groups of their inferiority, reinforce existing social class inequality, and discourage alternative and more democratic visions of society. Conflict theorists suggest that credentialism reinforces social inequality. The feminist view holds that the educational system of the United States has been characterized by discriminatory treatment of women. Gains in opportunity and achievement in recent decades have resulted in more women in higher education. Feminist theorists investigate the role of women’s education in economic development as a global concern. The term tracking refers to the practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups on the basis of their test scores and other criteria. The practice can reinforce the disadvantages that children from less affluent families face if they have not been exposed to various forms of educational stimulation. The interactionist perspective purports that the labeling of children may limit their opportunities to break away from expected roles. The teacher-expectancy effect refers to the impact that a teacher’s expectations have on students’ actual achievements. Max Weber noted five basic characteristics of bureaucracy, all of which are evident in the vast majority of schools: (1) A division of labor: Specialized experts teach particular age levels of students and specific subjects; (2) A hierarchy of authority: Each employee of a school system is responsible to a higher authority; (3) Written rules and regulations: Teachers and administrators must conform to numerous rules and regulations in the performance of their duties; (4) Impersonality: The university has been portrayed as a giant faceless bureaucracy that cares little for the uniqueness of the individual; and (5) Employment based on technical qualifications: At least in theory, the hiring of teachers and college professors is based on professional competence and expertise. Another significant recent trend in education that counters bureaucratization in schools is education over the Internet. Research on this type of learning is just beginning, so evaluation of web education as an effective learning method remains to be settled. The status of any job reflects several factors, including the level of education required, financial compensation, and the respect given the occupation by society. Teachers are feeling pressure in all three areas. The organization of the school follows the principles of a hierarchy and expects adherence to rules, etc. However, schools also expect professionalism of the practitioner. While students may appear to constitute a cohesive, uniform group to some, the student subculture is actually complex and diverse. Among college students, four distinctive subcultures have been noted: collegiate, academic, vocational, and nonconformist. Home schooling is attracting a broad range of families. More than 1.6 million students are now being educated at home. Poor academic quality, peer pressure, and school violence are motivating many parents to teach their children at home. Quality control is an issue, and the extent to which homeschooling is monitored varies a great deal across the states. Charter schools are experimental schools which are administered outside of the official public school system. Their charters permit them to establish their own rules, curricula, admissions and professional standards. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR 1. What is the functionalist view of education? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: education Box: Sociology on Campus, “Google University” Visual Support: Figure 16-1, “Current Higher Education Graduation Rates (BA/BS), Selected Countries”; Photo from Harry Potter movie; Photo of sex education class IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 16-4 Video Resources: A History of Education REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Education 2. What are the conflict and feminist views of education? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: hidden curriculum, credentialism, tracking, correspondence principle Boxes: Sociology on Campus, “The Debate over Title IX” Visual Support: Figure 16-2, “Annual Median Earnings By Educational Level”; Cartoon about school funding inequities; Figure 16-3, “Foreign Students By Major Countries of Origin and Destination”; Photo of clock; Figure 16-4, “Tuition Costs, 1976-2009”; Photo of female graduate IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 16-1, 16-2, 16-3, 16-4 Classroom Discussion Topics: 16-1, 16-2, 16-4 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Sexual Harassment in Schools; Tracking; Women in Higher Education Video Resources: Educating to End Inequity; Public Education; Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Education 3. What is the interactionist view of education? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: teacher-expectancy effect Visual Support: Photo of mother and daughter in Tokyo; Table 16-1, “Sociological Perspectives on Education” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 16-4 Classroom Discussion Topics: 16-5, 16-6 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Interactionist View REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Education 4. How do sociologists analyze schools as formal organizations? IN THE TEXT Box: Taking Sociology to Work, “Diane Belcher, Assistant Director of Volunteer Services, New River Community College” Visual Support: Photo of students in impersonal school setting; Photo of principal’s ‘door; Figure 16-5, Mapping Life Nationwide “Average Salary for Teachers”; Photo of student subcultures; Figure 16-6, “College Campuses by Race and Ethnicity: Then, Now, and in the Future” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: 16-5 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Peer Groups in School; Teachers and Students LECTURE OUTLINE I. Sociological Perspectives on Education • People 25 years of age and over with a high school diploma increased from 41 percent in 1960 to more than 84 percent in 2007. Those with a college degree rose from 8 percent in 1960 to about 28 percent in 2007. A. Functionalist View • Manifest function of education is the transmission of knowledge. • Latent functions include transmitting culture, promoting social and political integration, maintaining social control, and serving as agents of change. 1. Transmitting Culture • Schooling exposes young people to existing beliefs, norms, and values. • Teaches respect for social control and reverence of institutions. 2. Promoting Social and Political Integration • Transforming diverse racial, ethnic, and religious groups into a group sharing a common identity. Example: Immigrant children. • Integrative function of promoting a common language. 3. Maintaining Social Control • Students learn punctuality, discipline, scheduling, and responsible work habits. • Schools direct and restrict student aspirations in a manner reflective of societal values and prejudices. Example: Males are directed into sciences and females into elementary teaching. 4. Serving as an Agent of Change • Sex education classes and affirmative action in admissions illustrate the efforts of education to stimulate social change. • Formal education is associated with openness to new ideas and critical analysis. B. Conflict View • Conflict perspective views education as an instrument of elite domination. • Socializes students into values dictated by the powerful and stifles creativity and individualism. • Inhibiting effects are apparent in the hidden curriculum, credentialism, and bestowal of status. 1. The Hidden Curriculum • The need for control and discipline take precedence over learning. • Children must not speak until the teacher calls on them. • Concentrate on their own work and not work together. • Value is placed on pleasing the teacher. 2. Credentialism • Term used to describe the increase in the lowest level of education needed to enter a field. • Employers may use credentialism as a discriminating factor by raising degree requirements for a position. • Conflict theorists suggest credentialism reinforces social inequality. 3. Bestowal of Status • Conflict theorists suggest schools sort pupils according to social class. • Tracking refers to the practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups on the basis of test scores. • The correspondence principle refers to promoting values expected of individuals in each class. Example: Working-class children placed in vocational tracks. C. Feminist View • Oberlin College was first to admit women in 1833. • Many female students were encouraged to serve men and become wives and mothers. • Educational discrimination is evident in university professorship and administrative positions, which are predominately held by men. D. Interactionist View • Labeling of children has an impact on school performance. • Teacher expectancy refers to a teacher’s expectations of a student’s performance impacting the student’s actual performance. Example: Spurters. • Teachers will wait longer for answers from high achievers and are more likely to give them a second chance. II. Schools as Formal Organizations • Large-scale school systems are formal organizations, in the same way as factories, hospitals, and business firms. A. Bureaucratization of Schools • Weber noted five basic characteristics of bureaucracy, which are evident in the vast majority of schools. (1) A division of labor: specialized experts teach particular age levels of students and specific subjects. (2) A hierarchy of authority: each employee of a school system is responsible to a higher authority. (3) Written rules and regulations: teachers and administrators must conform to numerous rules and regulations in the performance of their duties. (4) Impersonality: large class sizes make it difficult for teachers to give individual attention to students. (5) Employment based on technical qualifications: at least in theory, the hiring of teachers and college professors is based on professional competence and expertise. • Conflict theorists argue that the trend toward more centralized education has harmful consequences for disadvantaged persons. • Internet-based courses counter the bureaucratization of schools. B. Teachers: Employers and Instructors • Conflicts among serving as an instructor, disciplinarian, and an employee. • Forty to 50 percent of new teachers quit within five years. • Appeal of teaching for college students is less than it was in 1968. • Salary considerations may impact those contemplating teaching. C. Student Subcultures • Schools provide social and recreational needs for children. • Development of interpersonal relationships. Example: College students may meet future husbands and wives. • High school cliques may develop based on race, social class, physical attractiveness, placement in courses, athletic ability, and leadership roles. • Four ideal types of subcultures for college students: 1) collegiate: focuses on having fun and socializing, 2) academic: identifies with the intellectual concerns of the faculty and values knowledge for its own sake, 3) vocational: views college as a means of obtaining degrees essential for advancement, and 4) nonconformist: seeks out ideas that may or may not relate to studies. • Black students face pervasive whiteness. D. Homeschooling • About 1.6 million American children are now educated at home by a parent. • Parents may choose to homeschool their children because of academic concerns, concerns about peer pressure, or fears about violence in schools. • Whether or not homeschooled children have adequate opportunities for socialization is a controversial issue. • Parents who homeschool their children are more likely to have higher incomes and educational attainments. III. Social Policy and Education: Charter Schools A. The Issue • Discontent with public schools stretches back for decades. The charter school movement began gaining strength in the late 1980s and early 1990s. • Charter schools operate outside of the official public school system. Their charters allow them to establish their own rules, curricula, and admissions standards. B. The Setting • Charter schools first opened in Minnesota in 1992. By 2010, nearly 5,000 of them had been established in 40 different states. C. Sociological Insights • Functionalists argue that charter schools meet society’s need for education while serving a diverse student body. • Conflict theorists argue that charter schools do not represent the interests of teachers and have contributed to the decline of labor unions. D. Policy Initiatives • School policy continues to be created largely at the community level following statewide standards. • In 2010, when the Department of Education began to expend $4.3 billion as a part of a general educational stimulus program, it left the structure and organization of schools to local communities. KEY TERMS Charter school: Experimental schools that are administered outside of the official public school system. Correspondence principle The tendency of schools to promote the values expected of individuals in each social class and to prepare students for the type of job typically held by members of their class. Credentialism An increase in the lowest level of education required to enter a field. Education A formal process of learning in which some people consciously teach while others adopt the social role of learner. Hidden curriculum Standards of behavior that are deemed proper by society and are taught subtly in schools. Reliability The extent to which a measure produces consistent results. Teacher-expectancy effect The impact that a teacher’s expectations about a student’s performance may have on the student’s actual achievements. Tracking The practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups on the basis of test scores and other criteria. Validity The degree to which a scale or measure truly reflects the phenomenon under study. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 16-1: Educational Institutions as a Setting for Intolerance In his 1995 presidential address to the Midwest Sociological Society, entitled “Education and Prejudice: Unraveling the Relationship,” senior author of Sociology, Richard T. Schaefer, made the following remarks: The legal and social history of the United States is defined in part by differential treatment in our educational institutions of African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans (American Indians) in public elementary and secondary schools. Historically, concerns in higher education have been limited to the creation of separate and unequal college systems for White and Black students. Legal efforts to desegregate began in higher education in the 1960s, but litigation has continued into the 1990s. Increasingly, colleges are being viewed today by the general public as a source of positive change. In reviewing the literature, there are 13 areas in which I see these issues raised and which remain to varying degrees unresolved: 1. Overwhelming White nature of predominantly White colleges. Despite all the efforts to recruit Black, Hispanic, and Native American students, most colleges remain overwhelmingly White. Outsiders view this as a significant difference between explicit goals to diversify the student body and accomplishments to date. 2. Lack of minority faculty. The relatively few minority faculty are primarily represented among part-time lower ranks than in higher faculty ranks or administrative positions. This paucity is further underscored by the often-public campaigns to entice the few minority faculty to a particular college or professional school. 3. Racial discrimination charges by faculty and employees. Numerous incidents alleging either anti-minority practices or anti-White episodes insinuating “reverse racism” are covered widely in the educational press and the larger media. 4. Debate over affirmative action. The 1995 renewed debate at the level of Congress and the White House has been preceded by years of campus debate over alleged preferences to minority students in admissions and financial aid. 5. Curriculum discussions. From two-year community colleges through to law and medical schools, faculty have debated, sometimes acrimoniously, the content of the curriculum. These debates have included what topics are a part of the canon in literature, Afrocentric and Eurocentric coverage, and the inclusion of multiculturalism among courses required of all undergraduates. 6. Athletic program controversies. Recruitment of minority student athletes, persistence to graduation, and representation among coaches and athletic directors have all had racial and ethnic agendas in recent years. 7. Controversies over differential justice by campus policy and disciplinary boards. Resolving student life disputes is subject to the same concerns about differential justice as in larger society. 8. Calls for separate residence hall space. Many residential colleges have witnessed the de facto development of segregated on-campus or off-campus housing. Other institutions of higher education have responded to calls for separate housing for racial and ethnic groups to self-segregate themselves, which has prompted critics to refer to the trend as the “balkanization of campus life.” This is further substantiated by studies showing the relative lack of social contact at colleges among different racial groups even when diversity in the student body has been achieved. 9. Administrators’ lack of commitment to diversity issues. The 1994 comments by Francis L. Lawrence, the president of Rutgers University in New Jersey, implying to many a belief that Black students are inferior, is only atypical in the degree of national attention it received. 10. Racial harassment policies. Debates have developed over college efforts to establish “free speech” regulations curtailing public statements as well as behavior that stigmatizes on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, creed, national origin, ancestry, age, marital status, handicap, or Vietnam-era veteran status. While debates have raised questions about violating constitutional guarantees, the need for such policies has contributed to the perception of campuses as hotbeds of intolerance. 11. Racial incidents. While typically unreported but certainly noticed, nonviolent racial incidents range from incompatible roommate situations, fraternity songbooks and skits, indelicate letters or articles in campus newspapers, and acrimonious homecoming queen elections, to the appearance of anonymous racial notes and posters, intolerant Internet messages or telephone calls, or inflammatory symbols. While terminology and methodology vary, campus studies in the 1990s indicate that between 20 and 22 percent of all students, and from 25 to about 50 percent of minority students, are victimized for reasons of prejudice annually on their college campuses. 12. Campus incidents of violence. The incident at the University of Massachusetts is not the exception; there are numerous documented incidents of confrontation, harassment, intimidation, and assault. 13. Insularity of colleges from their surroundings. When neighboring colleges erupt in racial violence or tension, the nearby college is viewed retrospectively as having an ivory-tower, rather than a community-oriented, perspective. Institutions of higher education located in racially mixed neighborhoods have embarked on campus expansion plans into neighborhoods in a manner that some view as failing to consider the social impact. All 13 of these areas would lead to an expression of concern about the role of educational institutions in a diverse population and would question the belief that education in and of itself promotes tolerance. Source Richard T. Schaefer, “Education and Prejudice: Unraveling the Relationship,” Sociological Quarterly 37 (Winter 1996):1–16. 16-2: Both Boys and Girls Have Reason to Feel Disadvantaged in School Recent studies have focused on how schools work against young women, documenting such sexist practices as failing to involve women as much as men in classroom discussion, differential treatment in career guidance, and even episodes of sexual harassment. However, University of Chicago educators Larry Hedges and Amy Nowell (1994) point to systematic differences in reading and writing, with girls outperforming boys. The same analysis of six national data sets from 1960 through 1992 also showed that boys outperform girls in science, mathematics, and auto mechanics. Why these differences exist and persist is not clear. For example, closer analysis shows that larger differences in the performances of the sexes occur even in areas not generally taught in schools, such as mechanical comprehension and other vocational aptitudes. On writing tests, young men score significantly lower than women do. Hedges and Nowell observe that “[t]he data imply that males are, on average, at a rather profound disadvantage in the performance of this basic skill” (7). Some of this difference may come from differences in reading between boys and girls: because reading may be linked to writing, girls write more fluently since they may also read books more frequently than boys. These results suggest that both men and women are harmed by these differences. See Larry V. Hedges and Amy Nowell, “Sex Differences in Mental Test Scores, Variability, and Numbness of High-Scoring Individuals,” Science (July 7, 1995): 41–45; and The Division of the Social Sciences, University of Chicago, “Both Boys and Girls Have Reasons to Feel Disadvantaged in School,” Reports 15 (Autumn 1995): 7–8. 16-3: Inequality in Education As was discussed in Chapter 9, educational achievements play a critical role in social mobility. Consequently, concern has been expressed that subordinate minorities in the United States, such as Blacks, Hispanics, and Native Americans, do not have positive experiences in schools that will assist them in later competition in the job market. This country’s minorities, however, are not alone in this experience. The anthropologist John Ogbu looked at educational opportunities and achievements in six societies and found group inequality in all of them. In Great Britain, for example, Black West Indian immigrants and their descendants (many of whom are born in Britain) perform poorly in school. By contrast, in New Zealand it is the native Maori people (the original islanders now outnumbered and dominated by White Europeans) who have the greatest difficulty in the educational system. Whites are 350 times more likely than Maori to attend college. In these societies, race was the critical factor differentiating successful and unsuccessful educational performance. However, in studying other societies, Ogbu found that inequality was evident even when racial distinctions were absent. In India, people from lower-caste backgrounds are physically indistinguishable from other residents. Yet children from the lower castes are much less likely to attend the private schools that launch Indians toward better careers. While lower-caste children account for more than 15 percent of India’s population, they constitute only about 5 percent of those attending college. Ogbu found certain common themes in all the societies he studied (one of which was the United States). The dominant groups in each society agree on the importance of education and the key role of educational attainment in shaping one’s position in adult life. At the same time, however, folk explanations in many societies contribute to prejudice and discrimination by ascribing failure in school to the alleged inferiority of subordinate minorities. More recent studies have demonstrated that educational inequalities persist around the world: • A study of educational attainment in Taiwan found a substantial difference between the “mainlanders” (those who immigrated to Taiwan from mainland China in the 1940s) and the native Taiwanese. The latter are much less likely to continue schooling than are the mainlanders. • Researchers have found a significant gap in educational attainment between Jews and Arabs living in Israel. In part, this has resulted from the government’s failure to apply compulsory school attendance laws to Arabs as forcefully as it has to Jews. • According to a 1992 report by the World Bank, children from poor and rural families around the world are less likely to attend primary schools than children from affluent and urban families are. Moreover, girls from all types of families are less likely to attend primary schools than boys are. The report urges governments to ensure greater access to education for these underrepresented groups. Sources: See Marlaine F. Lockheed, Adriaan M. Verspoor, and associates. Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991; John H. Ogbu. Minority Education and Caste: The American System in Cross-Cultural Perspective. New York: Academic, 1978; Shu-Ling Tsai and Hei-Yuan Chiu, “Changes in Educational Stratification in Taiwan.” In Yossi Shavit and Hans-Peter Blossfield (eds.). Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1993, pp. 193–227. 16-4: Online Education One of the most profound changes in college-level education in recent years has been the development of online courses and online degree programs. An online course may consist of a website that contains a course syllabus, course notes, Power Point presentations, links to relevant sites on the Internet, email capabilities between the instructor and students and between students, a real-time or synchronous chat room, and an asynchronous bulletin board for class discussions. Online courses are just the latest manifestation of distance learning courses, which have been available since the mid-1800s. Distance learning permits students to take college courses without being on a college campus full-time. Correspondence courses; television-, radio-, and newspaper-based courses; and interactive television courses are several types of distance learning courses. Schools may offer several types of distance learning courses in addition to traditional classroom or on-ground courses. At many colleges, students may now complete an entire undergraduate or graduate degree by taking only online courses. Online education may be examined using each of the three major sociological perspectives. Functionalists might note that online courses are a very flexible form of education that enable working students, homebound students, and housewives with childcare responsibilities to take courses when their schedules might not otherwise permit. Conflict theorists, on the other hand, would suggest that not all students have access to online courses. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to own or have access to a computer that will permit them to take advantage of online courses. Interactionists would focus in on the surprising statement made by many online instructors that they get to know their students better and they have better class discussions online than they have ever had in a classroom, because the level of interaction in an online class is more frequent and more personal than in a traditional course. In addition, the advent of online courses has had a significant impact on the organizational structure of colleges and the administrative relationship of colleges to one another. For example, one of the leaders in the field of online education is the state of New Jersey. For the first time in state history, all 19 of the state’s community colleges have banded together in an educational endeavor. Students may register for an online course at their local community college, but if their school does not offer the course that they want, they can take the course from any one of the other community colleges in the state that is offering the course. All 19 colleges have agreed to charge the same fee to students for online courses. When students have completed a course, the grade is sent to the student’s home college and the letter grade, not a transfer grade, is added to the student’s transcript. A system of this type has organizational implications for how each of the member schools does business, which is an interesting research base for future studies of formal organizations. (The author of this additional lecture idea is the Distance Learning Coordinator of a New Jersey community college and the Vice-Chair of the New Jersey Virtual Community College Consortium.) See Scott W. Wright and Eleanor Lee Yates, “Distance Learning,” Community College Week (May 31, 1999): 6–7, 14. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 16-1. Stimulating Classroom Discussions about The Shame of the Nation: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Jonathan Kozol’s The Shame of the Nation can include the following: How do the poor schools discussed by Jonathan Kozol compare to the schools that you have attended? Examine the functions of education presented early in Chapter 16 and indicate whether the schools Kozol presents can meet these societal functions. What are the long-term implications of educational inequality? Would a bright student attending the poor schools discussed by Kozol have the same preparation for applying to a prestigious college? Would a student with learning needs in the poor schools discussed by Kozol be as likely to have those needs successfully addressed as students in a middle-class community? 16-2. Schools Are Not the Answer: James Traub notes that a child living in an inner city is in school for only so many hours each day, and that it is the rest of the day—as well as the rest of the neighborhood—that is the big influence, and the big problem. See John Traub, “What No School Can Do,” The New York Times Magazine (January 16, 2000): 52–57, 68, 81, 90–91. 16-3. Foreign Students: Arrange to have a panel of foreign students talk about the educational systems in their countries. Have them include discussions of the types of homework they were given, and the number of hours they were expected to spend doing homework. Encourage the class to compare our educational system with those presented by the panel. 16-4. Hidden Curriculum: Susan M. Alexander offers a list of discussion questions that can be used to explore whether schools teach a hidden curriculum about gender roles. See Marybeth C. Stalp and Julie Childers (eds.). Teaching Sociological Concepts and the Sociology of Gender. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 2000, p. 44-45. 16-5. Subcultures on Campus: Have your class brainstorm some of the different groups present on campus that form their own subculture. Possibilities are: • Campus leaders versus uninterested masses. • Traditional students (18–24) versus “mature” students (over 25). • Commuters from home versus dorm residents. • Commuters from home versus commuters from off-campus apartments. • Drinkers versus abstainers. • Full-time students versus part-time students. • Graduate students versus undergraduates. • “Greeks” versus independents. • Married students versus single students. Not all of these subcultures are present on each college campus, but the list does point out that any student body is heterogeneous. 16.6 Using Humor: Joseph E. Faulkner has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated into lectures associated with Chapter 16. See Chapter 11 in Faulkner, Sociology through Humor. New York: West, 1987. This book is out of print, but used copies are readily available. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to collect evidence supporting the integrative power of education, and discuss the functionalist perspective on education. 2. Ask students to identify (anonymously) their true motivation for initially attending college, and discuss the issues of credentialism and the bestowal of status as institutionalized factors associated with education. 3. Ask students to identify rules or regulations that some educational institutions may use to encourage students to maintain the status quo and discourage individual creativity, and discuss the conflict view on education. 4. Ask students to search for evidence that school choice programs are working or not working, and discuss the current No Child Left Behind program. Instructor Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669