This Document Contains Chapters 15 to 16 Chapter 15 Cognitive Development in Adolescence True / False Questions 1. According to Piaget, the concrete operational stage is the highest level of cognitive development. FALSE 2. People in the formal operations stage of cognitive development can integrate what they have learned in the past with the challenges of the present and make plans for the future. TRUE 3. The shift to formal reasoning is attributed to a combination of brain maturation and expanding environmental opportunities. TRUE 4. Piaget's stages of cognitive development represent universal aspects of human development. FALSE 5. Personal fable is Elkind's term for an observer who exists only in an adolescent's mind and is as concerned with the adolescent's thoughts and actions as the adolescent is. FALSE 6. With the advent of abstract thought, adolescents more frequently use such terms as however, otherwise, anyway, therefore, really, and probably to express logical relationships. TRUE 7. The ability to tailor one's speech to another person's knowledge level and point of view is known as social engineering. FALSE 8. Driving a car and being able to use a computer are examples of declarative knowledge. FALSE 9. According to Kohlberg, the level of conventional morality is typically reached before age 10. FALSE 10. According to Kohlberg's theory, most people never move beyond the level of preconventional morality even in adulthood. FALSE 11. According to Kohlberg, before people can develop a fully principled morality they must recognize the relativity of moral standards. TRUE 12. Prosocial moral reasoning is reasoning about moral dilemmas in which one person's needs or desires conflict with those of others in situations in which social rules or norms are unclear or non-existent. TRUE 13. Adolescents with low socioeconomic status volunteer more than those with higher socioeconomic status. FALSE 14. School is considered to be a central organizing experience in most adolescents' lives. TRUE 15. High schoolers prefer to do their homework with their friends, while middle schoolers prefer to do it alone. FALSE 16. Girls have more gray matter than boys. TRUE 17. When compared to boys, girls benefit more from enriched neighborhoods and are hurt more by deprived neighborhoods. FALSE 18. Critical thinking and analysis skills have declined as a result of the increased use of computers and video games. TRUE 19. Parents' educational level and family income indirectly affect their children's educational attainment. TRUE 20. The state of the economy influences students' aspirations. TRUE Multiple Choice Questions 21. According to Piaget, in which of the following stages of cognitive development does an adolescent develop the capacity for abstract thought? A. Sensorimotor stage B. Formal operations stage C. Concrete operational stage D. Preoperational stage 22. According to Piaget, which of the following is the highest level of cognitive development? A. Formal operations stage B. Preoperational stage C. Sensorimotor stage D. Concrete operational stage 23. A person develops the capacity for abstract thought around the age of _____. A. 5 B. 7 C. 9 D. 11 24. Bethany solves a physics problem by developing and testing several hypotheses. According to Piaget, this is an example of the _____ stage of cognitive development. A. sensorimotor B. preoperational C. formal operational D. concrete operational 25. Morgan is reading Robert Frost's The Road Not Taken for the fourth time since elementary school, but she only now understands what the poem means in terms of life and the decisions people make. Morgan is demonstrating A. seriation. B. formal operations. C. egocentrism. D. equilibration. 26. A classic Piagetian test of formal reasoning is the A. pendulum problem. B. Skinner box experiment. C. Bobo doll experiment. D. moral dilemma exercise. 27. Stuart is 15 and likes puzzles and word problems. He thinks of all the possible solutions and tries to eliminate them logically, one by one. This is an example of _____ reasoning. A. analogical B. hypothetical-deductive C. systemic D. syllogistic 28. David's automotive teacher enters him in a troubleshooting competition. He will be given a car that will not start and then has to find the problem and repair the car as quickly as possible. The day of the competition, David goes right to the car and tries to start it. When the engine turns over, but does not start up, his mind lights up with a list of potential problems and the diagnostic procedures to verify them. David is demonstrating A. idealism and criticalness. B. hypothetical-deductive reasoning. C. self-efficacy. D. prosocial behavior. 29. Mary Jane's question "What if . . . ?" when she approaches a task or a puzzle is a sign of _____, that is, she considers all the relationships she can imagine and tests them systematically, one by one, to eliminate the false and arrive at the true. A. egocentrism B. the imaginary audience C. social perspective-taking D. hypothetical-deductive reasoning 30. Piaget's pendulum problem is significant in assessing cognitive development because finding a solution requires A. varying one factor at a time while holding the rest constant. B. comparing and contrasting someone else's point of view with your own. C. internalizing standards established by others. D. choosing from external standards by exercising one's own judgment. 31. Which of the following is a problem with Piaget's conception of formal operations? A. It fails to adequately consider the role of metacognition. B. It underestimates the abilities of older children. C. It pays too much attention to individual differences between children. D. It over-emphasizes the importance of social and cultural influences. 32. According to Elkind, adolescents find fault with parents and authority figures because A. their cognitive development allows them to envision an ideal world, but they see how adults fall short. B. they feel the need to separate emotionally from their parents in order to leave home. C. they often assume everyone else is thinking about the same thing they are thinking about: themselves. D. they are less-skilled at abstract thought and social perspective-taking. 33. Dinnertime conversations at the Watts' house have not been peaceful since Bryden turned 15. Which of the following reflects Bryden's desire to try out, and show off, his newfound formal reasoning abilities? A. Argumentativeness B. The imaginary audience C. Self-consciousness D. Prosocial behavior 34. Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind, but at the same time may lack effective strategies for choosing among them. This is attributed to _____. A. idealism B. self-consciousness C. indecisiveness D. apparent hypocrisy 35. Young adolescents often do not recognize the difference between expressing an ideal and making the sacrifices necessary to live up to it. This often results in _____. A. invulnerability B. self-consciousness C. indecisiveness D. apparent hypocrisy 36. Delia, 14, often feels uncomfortable around people because she believes they are watching and talking about her. This happens at church, school, and family gatherings. According to Elkind, Delia is experiencing _____. A. specialness B. invulnerability C. an imaginary audience D. a personal fable 37. When 13-year-old Andre comes out of the locker room in his gym shorts, he hears some girls laughing nearby and assumes they are laughing at the way his legs look. According to Elkind, this is an example of _____. A. an imaginary audience B. the personal fable C. criticalness D. specialness 38. Adolescents often assume everyone else is thinking about the same thing they are thinking about: themselves. Elkind refers to this as _____. A. specialness B. apparent hypocrisy C. invulnerability D. the imaginary audience 39. Jennifer recognizes that AIDS is a serious health risk, yet she sometimes engages in unprotected sex. She believes that bad things can happen to others but will never happen to her. According to Elkind, Jennifer is demonstrating which of the following aspects of adolescent thinking? A. Imaginary audience B. Idealism C. Personal fable D. Apparent hypocrisy 40. Roland's belief that harm might come to others but not to himself is referred to as A. the personal fable. B. apparent hypocrisy. C. an imaginary audience. D. idealism. 41. Eduardo is 17 and loves mountain biking. He pays no attention to warnings about closed trails and often says "Nothing will happen to me." According to Elkind, Eduardo exemplifies which aspect of adolescent thinking? A. Idealism B. Apparent hypocrisy C. Personal fable D. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning 42. According to Elkind, notions of the imaginary audience and the personal fable A. are linked with the emergence of the ability to take an outsider's perspective. B. are universal features of cognitive development in adolescence. C. are unrelated to specific social experiences. D. are both forms of egocentrism which persist into adulthood. 43. Jacob has begun to understand that the language he uses when he hangs out with his friends and the language he uses when he is in the classroom need to be different. Jacob is gaining an understanding of _____, the ability to tailor one's speech to another person's knowledge level and point of view. A. hypothetical-deductive reasoning B. social etiquette C. social perspective-taking D. group dynamics 44. Thomas has started working at Kmart on a part-time basis. His manager often commend him on his ability to understand customers' needs and help them make the right buying decision. This is a result of Thomas' A. exhaustive vocabulary. B. social perspective-taking. C. prosocial moral reasoning. D. use of puns, irony, and metaphors. 45. Changes in the way adolescents process information reflect the maturation of which of the following parts of the brain? A. Parietal lobe B. Corpus callosum C. Frontal lobe D. Hypothalamus 46. Which of the following is a structural change in information processing that takes place during adolescence? A. An increase in processing speed B. A decrease in the capacity of working memory C. Further development of executive functions D. An increase in the amount of knowledge stored in long-term memory 47. _____ knowledge consists of all the factual knowledge a person has acquired. A. Conceptual B. Declarative C. Procedural D. Structural 48. Henri is asked to name the twentieth-century artist who became famous for painting pictures of soup cans and celebrities. He correctly answers "Andy Warhol." This recall of information can best be described as _____ knowledge. A. conceptual B. declarative C. procedural D. structural 49. _____ knowledge consists of all the skills a person has acquired. A. Conceptual B. Declarative C. Procedural D. Structural 50. Frieda, age 16, is a boating enthusiast who can tie 56 different kinds of knots. This type of knowledge is most aptly described as _____ knowledge. A. conceptual B. declarative C. procedural D. functional 51. _____ knowledge refers to acquired interpretive understandings stored in long-term memory. A. Conceptual B. Declarative C. Procedural D. Structural 52. Which of the following is an example of conceptual knowledge? A. Being able to recall all the fifty U.S. states B. Knowing how to use an iPad C. Knowing how to book flight tickets online D. Knowing the impact of government regulations on business and trade 53. We remember the things we learned and what happened to us in our teenage years more clearly than during any other point in the lifespan—a memory quirk known as A. recency bias. B. the reminiscence bump. C. déjà vu. D. the availability heuristic. 54. Which of the following is true of the relationship between cognitive development and moral development? A. Advances in cognitive development makes individuals capable of more complex reasoning about moral issues. B. Advanced cognitive development guarantees advanced moral development. C. Advanced cognitive development impedes moral development because it suppresses intuitive, emotional responses. D. Moral development proceeds independently of cognitive development. 55. Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning was based on a A. cross-sectional study of American males of all ages. B. study of 75 boys of ages 10, 13, and 16. C. study of males and females, between ages 10 to 16. D. longitudinal cross-cultural study of females of all ages. 56. According to Kohlberg's theory, people at the level of _____ act under external controls. They obey rules to avoid punishment or reap rewards, or they act out of self-interest. A. subconscious morality B. postconventional morality C. conventional morality D. preconventional morality 57. Austin, age 6, is angry when his 2-year-old sister touches his toy trains. When asked why he should not hit her for doing so, he says, "Because Mommy will scold me." In Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, his response is typical of A. preconventional morality. B. postconventional morality. C. conventional morality. D. subconscious morality. 58. According to Kohlberg, at the level of _____ people have internalized the standards of authority figures. A. preconventional morality B. postconventional morality C. conventional morality D. subconscious morality 59. Which of the following is true about morality of conventional role conformity? A. Children between ages 4 to 10 typically demonstrate this level of moral reasoning. B. People make judgments on the basis of principles of right, fairness, and justice. C. People are concerned about pleasing others and maintaining the social order. D. People generally do not reach this level of moral reasoning until young adulthood. 60. Kristin believes that a person should always tell the truth because that is what a good girl or boy does. She seeks to please others. This type of moral reasoning is characteristic of Kohlberg's level of A. preconventional morality. B. postconventional morality. C. conventional morality. D. subconscious morality. 61. Gene has just been paid in cash for some small home repairs he had undertaken. Gene is displeased with the government's spending priorities and, therefore, is hesitant to report the income on his tax return. He eventually decides to report the money because he feels that obeying the law is essential to the well-being of society. According to Kohlberg, this is an example of _____ morality. A. preconventional B. conventional C. postconventional D. transitional 62. According to Kohlberg, at the level of _____, people recognize conflicts between moral standards and make judgments on the basis of principles of right, fairness, and justice. A. preconventional morality B. postconventional morality C. conventional morality D. subconscious morality 63. Diane disagrees with the government's rules on voter registration. She realizes that the law is written with good intentions, but she disagrees with it and is working to get it changed. According to Kohlberg, Diane falls within which of the following levels of moral development? A. Preconventional morality B. Conventional morality C. Postconventional morality D. Subconscious morality 64. Preconventional morality is characteristic of A. age 21 and above. B. ages 16 to 20. C. ages 11 to 15. D. ages 4 to 10. 65. What is the distinguishing feature of postconventional morality? A. Thinking of morality in terms of pleasing others or obeying the law B. Internalizing the standards of others C. Making one's own judgments based on principles of fairness and justice D. Acting under external controls and influences 66. Four teenagers are talking about euthanasia and give the following responses. Which one demonstrates preconventional moral reasoning? A. Andrea says, "I think it is right, because nothing justifies making people suffer when there is no hope of recovery." B. Christian says, "I'd never kill anyone, not even to end dreadful pain, because I would probably be caught and sentenced to death or life imprisonment." C. Caroline says, "It's absolutely wrong, obviously, because it's against the law." D. Derek says, "I think it is right, every individual has his or her own level of endurance." 67. Ian, a high school junior, is studying day and night in the hope of being admitted to the prestigious university from which his mother graduated. When his friends ask him why he works so hard, Ian responds, "I'd just as soon go to a community college, but it will make my mother really happy if I go to her school." Ian is demonstrating _____ moral reasoning. A. preconventional B. conventional C. postconventional D. subconscious 68. Four teenagers are asked why they do not use drugs. Which statement demonstrates conventional moral reasoning? A. "I couldn't let my parents down by getting into trouble because of drugs." B. "I'm afraid of getting caught and thrown out of school." C. "Actually, I think drugs should be legalized, but I don't take drugs because I think people have a responsibility to keep their minds and bodies in good shape." D. "I was told that drugs are dangerous and I could get arrested." 69. Georgia works part-time in an office where nearly all of the other workers take office supplies home with them. Georgia does not because, even though she is unlikely to get in trouble and no one else seems to think it is wrong, she feels she owes it to her employer and to herself not to cheat. "I'm better than that," Georgia reasons. According to Kohlberg, which level of morality best describes Georgia? A. Postconventional B. Conventional C. Preconventional D. Subconscious 70. According to Kohlberg, in stage 2 of preconventional morality A. people consider universal human rights and follow their conscience. B. notions of reciprocity and mutual satisfaction emerge. C. moral judgments include attention to justice and authority. D. notions of trust, loyalty, and kindness impact one's judgment. 71. Kohlberg asked subjects to respond to moral dilemmas because he wanted to A. determine the prevailing values among different age groups. B. determine the influence of culture in moral education. C. understand the reasoning behind people's solutions to moral dilemmas. D. demonstrate gender differences in moral reasoning. 72. Kohlberg suggested that the majority of adolescents and adults are at which level of moral reasoning? A. Preconventional B. Conventional C. Postconventional D. Subconscious 73. Research on Kohlberg's theory indicates that a person's stage of moral development A. correlates positively with socioeconomic status. B. does not correlate with age. C. correlates negatively with IQ. D. does not correlate with education. 74. Carol Gilligan criticized Kohlberg's theory of moral development on the grounds that A. it did not accurately represent moral reasoning in non-Western cultures. B. it proposed too many stages of development. C. it emphasized cognitive development rather than emotional development. D. it was oriented toward values more important to men than to women. 75. Gilligan claimed women see morality not so much in terms of _____ as in _____. A. justice and fairness; responsibility to show caring and avoid harm B. responsibility to others; justice and fairness C. maintaining friendships; not getting into trouble D. the standards of authority figures; universal human rights 76. Which of the following statements is true about prosocial behavior and volunteer activity in adolescence? A. Students who do volunteer work outside of school tend, as adults, to be less engaged in their communities than those who do not. B. Boys tend to see themselves as more empathic and prosocial and are more likely to volunteer than girls. C. Adolescent volunteers tend to have a high degree of self-understanding and commitment to others. D. Adolescents with low socioeconomic status volunteer more than those with higher socioeconomic status. 77. Which of the following factors does not influence school achievement in adolescence? A. Socioeconomic status B. Parenting practices C. Peer influence D. Level of physical activity 78. Education in Western countries, particularly the United States, is based on which of the following aspects? A. Participation in the community B. Intrinsic motivation C. Submission to authority D. Duty 79. Beginning in adolescence, girls do better than boys A. on creative tasks that involve synthesizing information. B. in activities that involve spatial functions helpful in math. C. on verbal tasks that involve writing and language usage. D. in activities that involve visual functions helpful in science. 80. Which of the following is true about the difference between the male and female brain? A. Girls have more connective white matter and cerebrospinal fluid than boys. B. Girls' brains are more evenly balanced across hemispheres than boys'. C. Boys have more gray matter, neuronal cell bodies, and nearby connections than girls. D. Boys' brains are less specialized, permitting a wider range of cognitive abilities than girls'. 81. Which of the following skills have improved as a result of the increased use of computers and video games by students? A. Critical thinking skills B. Analysis skills C. Visual skills D. Writing skills 82. _____ parents urge adolescents to look at both sides of issues, welcome their participation in family decisions, and admit that children sometimes know more than parents. A. Authoritative B. Authoritarian C. Permissive D. Neglectful 83. Authoritative parents A. strike a balance between making demands and being responsive. B. firmly believe teenagers should be responsible for their own lives. C. seem indifferent to their child's academic performance. D. believe adolescents should not argue with or question adults. 84. Joy's parents allow her to participate in family discussions and they listen to her viewpoints on issues. When Joy's grades are poor, they encourage her to try harder and make suggestions about how she can better manage her homework time. Joy's parents are using a(n) _____ parenting style. A. authoritative B. authoritarian C. permissive D. neglectful 85. _____ parents tell adolescents not to argue with or question adults. Good grades bring admonitions to do even better; poor grades may be punished by reduced allowances or grounding. A. Authoritative B. Authoritarian C. Permissive D. Neglectful 86. Nadine's parents tell her what is right and wrong and expect her to conform to their wishes. They encourage Nadine to do well in school and to obey all the rules. If she does not, she is grounded. Nadine's parents use a(n) _____ parenting style. A. authoritative B. authoritarian C. permissive D. neglectful 87. _____ parents seem indifferent to grades, make no rules about watching television, do not attend school functions, and do not help with or check their children's homework. A. Authoritative B. Authoritarian C. Permissive D. Attachment 88. Ron's parents feel that he should be responsible for his own behavior and his grades. They make few rules and allow Ron to solve his own problems. They care about their son but choose not to get involved in his school activities. This parenting style can be described as A. authoritative. B. authoritarian. C. permissive. D. attachment. 89. Other factors being equal, if you were a parent who wanted to increase the odds of your child's academic success, which parenting style should you choose? A. Authoritative B. Authoritarian C. Permissive D. Neglectful 90. Asian-American students tend to do well in school and tend to have parents who employ a(n) _____ parenting style. A. authoritarian B. authoritative C. neglectful D. indulgent 91. The Archers are looking at different high schools for their daughter Kendra. Good high schools have all but which of the following characteristics? A. Orderly atmosphere B. Positive sense of community C. Opportunities for extracurricular activities D. Differential treatment of minority students 92. _____ are least likely to drop out of high school. A. Native Americans students B. Hispanics students C. Asian American students D. Black students 93. Which of the following statements regarding gender differences in the sciences is false? A. Boys are more likely than girls to pursue social welfare professions. B. Boys are more likely than girls to earn college degrees in engineering. C. Girls are more likely than boys to take teaching courses. D. Girls are more likely than boys to go into nursing. 94. The most successful school-to-work programs offer instruction in all of the following except A. peer support and counseling. B. basic skills and apprenticeship. C. self-motivation and managerial skills. D. job placement and mentoring. 95. What is the major shortcoming of vocational counseling in the United States? A. Vocational counseling is generally oriented toward non-college-bound youth. B. Vocational counseling helps only those students who seek low-level, entry positions. C. Vocational training programs tend to be less closely tied to the needs of businesses and industries. D. Most vocational training programs are not accredited. Essay Questions 96. Briefly explain some of the criticisms that have been leveled against Piaget's theory. Answer: Although adolescents tend to think more abstractly than younger children, there is debate about the precise age at which this advance occurs. Piaget's writings provide many examples of children displaying aspects of scientific thinking well before adolescence. At the same time, Piaget seems to have overestimated some older children's abilities. Many late adolescents and adults—perhaps one-third to one-half—seem incapable of abstract thought as Piaget defined it, and even those who are capable of abstract thinking do not always use it. Piaget, in most of his early writings, paid little attention to individual differences, to variations in the same child's performance on different kinds of tasks, or to social and cultural influences. However, neo-Piagetian research suggests children's cognitive processes are closely tied to specific content, what a child is thinking about, as well as to the context of a problem and the kinds of information and thought a culture considers important. Furthermore, Piaget's theory does not adequately consider such cognitive advances as gains in information-processing capacity, accumulation of knowledge and expertise in specific fields, and the role of metacognition, which is the awareness and monitoring of one's own mental processes and strategies. This ability to "think about what one is thinking about" and, thus, to manage one's mental processes—in other words, enhanced executive function—may be the chief advance of adolescent thought, the result of changes occurring in the adolescent brain. 97. According to Elkind, immaturity of thinking among adolescents manifests itself in six characteristics. Describe these characteristics. Answer: 1. Idealism and criticalness: As adolescents envision an ideal world, they realize how far the real world, for which they hold adults responsible, falls short. They become ultra-conscious of hypocrisy. Convinced they know better than adults how to run the world, they frequently find fault with their parents and other authority figures. 2. Argumentativeness: Adolescents are constantly looking for opportunities to try out their reasoning abilities. They often become argumentative as they build a case for, say, staying out past their curfew. 3. Indecisiveness: Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at the same time yet may lack effective strategies for choosing among them. They may struggle with simple decisions like whether they should go to the mall with a friend or work on a school assignment. 4. Apparent hypocrisy: Young adolescents often do not recognize the difference between expressing an ideal, such as conserving energy, and making the sacrifices necessary to live up to it, such as driving less often. 5. Self-consciousness: Adolescents can think about thinking—their own and other people's. However, in their preoccupation with their own mental state, adolescents often assume everyone else is thinking about the same thing they are thinking about: themselves. Elkind refers to this as the imaginary audience, a conceptualized "observer" who is as concerned with a young person's thoughts and behavior as he or she is. 6. Specialness and invulnerability: Elkind uses the term personal fable to describe a belief by adolescents that they are special, their experience is unique, and they are not subject to the rules that govern the rest of the world. This belief might encourage adolescents to believe they can drive fast and recklessly and not get into an accident. According to Elkind, this form of egocentrism underlies much risky, self-destructive behavior. Like the imaginary audience, the personal fable continues into adulthood. 98. Describe Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning. Answer: On the basis of thought processes shown by responses to his dilemmas, Kohlberg described three levels of moral reasoning and their substages: Level I: Preconventional morality. People act under external controls. They obey rules to avoid punishment or reap rewards, or they act out of self-interest. This level is typical of children ages 4 to 10. Level II: Conventional morality (or morality of conventional role conformity). People have internalized the standards of authority figures. They are concerned about being "good," pleasing others, and maintaining the social order. This level is typically reached after age 10; many people never move beyond it, even in adulthood. Level III: Postconventional morality (or morality of autonomous moral principles). People recognize conflicts between moral standards and make judgments on the basis of principles of right, fairness, and justice. People generally do not reach this level of moral reasoning until at least early adolescence, or more commonly in young adulthood, if ever. 99. Briefly describe prosocial behavior and volunteer activity among adolescents. Answer: Prosocial moral reasoning is reasoning about moral dilemmas in which one person's needs or desires conflict with those of others in situations in which social rules or norms are unclear or non-existent. Prosocial behavior typically increases from childhood through adolescence. Girls tend to show more prosocial behavior than boys, and this difference becomes more pronounced in adolescence. Girls tend to see themselves as more empathic and prosocial than boys do, and parents of girls emphasize social responsibility more than parents of boys. About half of adolescents engage in some sort of community service or volunteer activity. These prosocial activities enable adolescents to become involved in adult society, to explore their potential roles as part of the community, and to link their developing sense of identity to civic involvement. Adolescent volunteers tend to have a high degree of self-understanding and commitment to others. Girls are more likely to volunteer than boys, and adolescents with high socioeconomic status (SES) volunteer more than those with lower SES. Students who do volunteer work outside of school tend, as adults, to be more engaged in their communities than those who do not. 100. How do parenting styles influence school achievement? Answer: In Western cultures, the benefits of authoritative parenting continue to affect school achievement during adolescence. Authoritative parents urge adolescents to look at both sides of issues, welcome their participation in family decisions, and admit that children sometimes know more than parents. These parents strike a balance between making demands and being responsive. Their children receive praise and privileges for good grades; poor grades bring encouragement to try harder and offers of help. Authoritarian parents, in contrast, tell adolescents not to argue with or question adults. Good grades bring admonitions to do even better; poor grades may be punished by reduced allowances or grounding. Permissive parents seem indifferent to grades, make no rules about watching television, do not attend school functions, and do not help with or check their children's homework. These parents may not be neglectful or uncaring; they may, in fact, be nurturant. They may simply believe teenagers should be responsible for their own lives. The academic success of authoritatively raised adolescents can be attributed to authoritative parents' greater involvement in schooling as well as their encouragement of positive attitudes toward work. In addition, parents influence how children frame their schooling. Examination of 50 studies involving more than 50,000 students revealed that parents who emphasize the value of education, connect academic performance to future goals, and discuss learning strategies have a significant impact on student academic achievement. Chapter 16 Psychosocial Development in Adolescence True / False Questions 1. Identity development in adolescence is influenced by gender and not by ethnicity. FALSE 2. According to Erikson, adolescents who resolve their identity crisis satisfactorily develop the virtue of courage. FALSE 3. When middle-aged people look back on their lives, they most commonly trace a path from foreclosure to moratorium to identity achievement. TRUE 4. Awareness of sexuality is an important aspect of identity formation, profoundly affecting self-image and relationships. TRUE 5. Although present in younger children, sexual orientation generally becomes a pressing issue in middle childhood. FALSE 6. Imaging studies have found differences in brain structure between homosexuals and heterosexuals of the other sex. FALSE 7. As U.S. adolescents have become more aware of the risks of sexual activity, the percentage who have ever had intercourse has declined, especially among boys. TRUE 8. The best safeguard for sexually active teens is regular use of contraceptive pills, which give some protection against STIs and pregnancy. FALSE 9. In the United States, the most common STI, affecting 14 to 19 year olds is genital warts, caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV). TRUE 10. By late adolescence, emotionality tends to become less stable than in early adolescence. FALSE 11. Individuation refers to cliquishness and intolerance of differences, which act as defenses against identity confusion. FALSE 12. Both adolescents and parents see personal issues, such as how teens spend their time and money, as least subject to disclosure. TRUE 13. Brothers report more intimacy than sisters or mixed pairs. FALSE 14. Both clique and crowd affiliations become stronger as adolescence progresses. FALSE 15. The increased intimacy of adolescent friendship reflects cognitive as well as emotional development and is related to psychological adjustment and social competence. TRUE 16. Authoritative parenting can help young people internalize standards that may insulate them against negative peer influences and open them to positive influences. TRUE 17. Poor children are no more likely than other children to commit antisocial acts. FALSE 18. Delinquency peaks at about age 15 and then declines as most adolescents and their families come to terms with young people's need to assert independence. TRUE 19. In the minds of many people today, the onset of adulthood is marked not so much by external criteria but rather by a sense of autonomy, self-control, and personal responsibility. TRUE 20. There are only two criteria for adulthood cited by emerging adult Americans: accepting responsibility for oneself and making independent decisions. FALSE Multiple Choice Questions 21. In Erikson's terminology, a coherent conception of the self-made up of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is solidly committed is called _____. A. id B. conscience C. superego D. identity 22. The chief task of adolescence, according to Erikson, is to confront the crisis of _____ in order to become a unique adult with a coherent sense of self and a valued role in society. A. intimacy versus isolation B. identity versus identity confusion C. autonomy versus shame and doubt D. generativity versus stagnation 23. Which of the following is Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development? A. Intimacy versus isolation B. Generativity versus stagnation C. Autonomy versus shame and doubt D. Identity versus identity confusion 24. Which of the following is NOT one of the major issues that is resolved in forming an identity? A. Choice of an occupation B. Adoption of values to live by C. Development of a satisfying sexual identity D. Condition of physical health 25. A period of time that allows young people to search for commitments to which they can be faithful is known as _____. A. the internalization of schemes B. adolescent rebellion C. the latent stage D. the psychosocial moratorium 26. In Erikson's theory, which virtue arises from the crisis of identity versus identity confusion? A. Competence B. Hope C. Fidelity D. Will 27. Teenagers' cliquish behavior and intolerance of differences represent what Erikson refers to as A. defenses against identity confusion. B. individuation. C. foreclosure. D. crisis of generativity. 28. Which of the following most closely matches Erikson's concept of fidelity? A. Identifying with a set of values B. Promoting freedom and self-reliance C. Suppressing negative emotions D. Accepting one's shortcomings 29. Which of the following statements about adolescent males' development of identity and intimacy most closely reflects Erikson's theory? A. Men develop their identities through intimacy, not vice versa. B. A man is not capable of real intimacy until after he has achieved a stable identity. C. Mature intimacy and identity development occur at the same time for men and women. D. The development of identity and mature intimacy are separate processes; the timing of one has no relationship to the timing of the other. 30. Which of the following is NOT one of Marcia's four identity statuses? A. Identity achievement B. Foreclosure C. Moratorium D. Fidelity 31. According to Marcia, _____ is a period of conscious decision making where a young person is actively grappling with an identity issue. A. climax B. centration C. crisis D. corumination 32. Ronald is a high school student trying to decide which college to attend. If he goes to Alfred University, he will major in music and become a teacher. If he goes to Kent State, he will study architecture and become an urban planner. According to James Marcia, Ronald is in a period of A. foreclosure. B. diffusion. C. rebellion. D. crisis. 33. Which of the following terms does Marcia use to describe a personal investment in an occupation or a system of beliefs? A. Crisis B. Constancy C. Commitment D. Closure 34. According to Marcia, the identity status that is characterized by a commitment to choices made following a crisis is known as _____. A. identity diffusion B. identity achievement C. foreclosure D. moratorium 35. Research on identity formation in a number of cultures suggests that people in the _____ category of Marcia's identity statuses tend to be more mature and more competent in relationships than are people in the other three categories. A. moratorium B. identity diffusion C. identity achievement D. foreclosure 36. According to Marcia, the identity status in which a person who has not spent time considering alternatives is committed to other people's plans for his or her life is known as _____. A. moratorium B. foreclosure C. identity diffusion D. identity achievement 37. Shelly has always been told that she is good with children. Both of her parents are teachers, and Shelly has never questioned their expectation that she will also become a teacher. Shelly plans to be a teacher. Which of the following identity statuses reflects Shelly's situation? A. Identity achievement B. Identity diffusion C. Moratorium D. Foreclosure 38. According to Marcia, the identity status in which a person is considering alternatives (in crisis) and seems headed for commitment is known as _____. A. identity achievement B. identity diffusion C. moratorium D. foreclosure 39. Amanda's grandfather was a lawyer who studied at Yale University. Amanda's mother, a lawyer too, went to the same university. It is expected that Amanda will follow in their footsteps, but she is struggling to make a decision. She is no longer certain of what she wants to do and is troubled due to the pressure exerted by her family to decide on her career. According to Marcia, which of the following terms best describes Amanda's identity status? A. Foreclosure B. Identity achievement C. Moratorium D. Identity diffusion 40. According to Marcia, the identity status characterized by an absence of commitment and a lack of serious consideration of alternatives is known as _____. A. identity achievement B. identity diffusion C. moratorium D. foreclosure 41. Russell, age 17, seems to have no real concern for his future. He knows that soon he must decide on college, but he seems unperturbed by this and is rather passive and vague about his goals for the future. Which of the following represents Russell's identity status? A. Identity achievement B. Foreclosure C. Identity diffusion D. Moratorium 42. Which of the following identity statuses is correctly matched with its feature? A. Identity achievement - crisis with no commitment yet B. Identity diffusion - no commitment, no crisis C. Moratorium - commitment without crisis D. Foreclosure - crisis and commitment 43. Carol Gilligan found that females define their identity in terms of A. autonomy. B. relationships. C. competition. D. a separate identity. 44. In the context of gender differences in identity formation, which of the following statements based on the views of different psychological researchers is correct? A. According to Gilligan, girls and women judge themselves on their ability to care for others and themselves. B. According to Erikson, women must achieve identity before they achieve intimacy. C. According to Gilligan, female identity achievement is based on the ability to achieve a separate identity. D. In research on Marcia's identity statuses, several gender differences have appeared. 45. Joshua has done little or no exploration of his ethnicity and does not clearly understand the issues involved. Which of the following is his ethnic identity status? A. Diffused B. Foreclosed C. Moratorium D. Achieved 46. Cathy has done little or no exploration of her ethnicity but has positive feelings about it due to the attitudes she absorbed at home. Which of the following is her ethnic identity status? A. Diffused B. Foreclosed C. Moratorium D. Achieved 47. Isabella has begun to explore her ethnicity but is confused about what it means to her. According to research, which of the following represents Isabella's ethnic identity status? A. Diffused B. Foreclosed C. Moratorium D. Achieved 48. Daniel has explored his identity and understands and accepts his ethnicity. Which ethnic identity status describes Daniel's situation? A. Diffused B. Foreclosed C. Moratorium D. Achieved 49. Sexual orientation generally becomes a pressing issue during A. middle childhood. B. the phallic stage. C. adolescence. D. young adulthood. 50. Todd is sexually attracted to men rather than women. Which of the following terms is used to describe Todd's sexual orientation? A. Heterosexual B. Homosexual C. Bisexual D. Transsexual 51. Which of the following statements is true regarding homosexuality? A. The psychiatric community continues to classify homosexuality as a mental disorder. B. The more older biological brothers a man has, the more likely he is to be gay. C. Imaging studies have found similarities in brain structure between homosexuals and heterosexuals of the same sex. D. Nongenetic factors do not play a part in a person's sexual orientation. 52. Which of the following statements is true of adolescents who openly identify themselves as gay or lesbian? A. They are no longer discriminated against in the United States. B. They are able to disclose their sexual orientation to their peer groups without the fear of backlash. C. The recognition and expression of their sexual identity is more complex than heterosexuals'. D. They find it easy to meet potential same-sex partners due to the increased acceptance of homosexuality in the United States. 53. One of the most important predictors of early sexual activity is A. poor self-esteem. B. desire to start a family of one's own. C. strict religious upbringing. D. peer group norms supporting sexual activity. 54. Which of the following statements is true about sexual behavior among adolescents? A. In the United States, few adolescents engage in noncoital forms of genital sexual activity. B. The best safeguard for sexually active teens is regular use of condoms, which give some protection against STIs and pregnancy. C. The proportion of teens who engage in sexual behavior via electronic sources declines with age due to advances in cognitive development. D. Abstinence-only courses and virginity pledges have been shown to delay sexual activity among adolescents. 55. In the United States, the most common STI affecting 14- to 19-year-olds is genital warts, caused by the _____. A. herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) B. human herpes virus 6 (HHV-6) C. human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) D. human papilloma virus (HPV) 56. The most common curable STIs are A. genital herpes simplex and Hepatitis B. B. HIV and HPV. C. chlamydia and gonorrhea. D. trichomoniasis and AIDS. 57. How is HIV transmitted? A. By sharing eating utensils, such as forks and spoons, with an HIV-infected person B. By using the same toilet used by an HIV-infected person C. By sharing intravenous drug needles with an HIV-infected person D. By coming into casual contact with an HIV-infected person 58. In the United States, more than 4 in 10 adolescent girls have been pregnant at least once before the age of A. 13. B. 15. C. 17. D. 20. 59. In the United States, more than _____ percent of pregnant teenagers have their babies. A. 80 B. 70 C. 60 D. 50 60. Which of the following statements regarding teenage pregnancies is false? A. About two-thirds of all pregnancies in the United States end in abortions. B. Black and Hispanic girls are more likely to have babies than white, Native American, or Asian American girls. C. Birthrates have fallen most sharply among black teenagers. D. U.S. teens are more likely to become pregnant and give birth than teenagers in most other industrialized countries. 61. Approximately what percentage of teenage pregnancies are unintended? A. 90 percent B. 70 percent C. 50 percent D. 30 percent 62. In the United States, birthrates have fallen most sharply among A. Native American girls. B. Asian American girls. C. black girls. D. Hispanic girls. 63. Which of the following statements regarding teenage mothers is false? A. Teenage mothers are likely to drop out of school and have repeated pregnancies. B. Teenage unwed mothers and their families are likely to suffer financial hardship. C. Practically all teenage parents are themselves products of adolescent pregnancy. D. The babies of teenage mothers are at heightened risk of birth complications. 64. Which of the following refers to a pattern of emotional turmoil, characteristic of a minority of adolescents that may involve conflict with family, alienation from adult society, reckless behavior, and rejection of adult values? A. Youth voice B. Generation gap C. Sibling rivalry D. Adolescent rebellion 65. Which of the following, if true, proves that adolescent rebellion is a myth? A. Most young people feel close to and positive about their parents, share similar opinions on major issues, and value their parents' approval. B. Negative emotionality and mood swings are most intense during early adolescence, perhaps due to the stress connected with puberty. C. Arguments among parents and adolescents most often concern control over every day personal matters rather than issues of health and safety or right and wrong. D. The proportion of deeply troubled adolescents tends to be significant and they come from disrupted families and, as adults, continue to have unstable family lives. 66. According to a study cited in the text, middle-class urban eighth graders in the United States spend about _____ percent of their waking hours with their families. A. 33 B. 30 C. 23 D. 13 67. _____ is an adolescent's struggle for autonomy and differentiation, or personal identity. A. Self-help B. Positive disintegration C. Youth voice D. Individuation 68. Which of the following statements regarding adolescents and family relationships is false? A. Adolescents who are given more decision-making opportunities report higher self-esteem than those given fewer such opportunities. B. Family conflict and positive identification with parents are highest at age 17 and then diminish until age 21, when they stabilize or increase somewhat. C. Family relations can affect mental health and negative family interactions are related to adolescent depression. D. Adolescents' relationships with parents are affected by the parents' life situation—their work and marital and socioeconomic status (SES). 69. Everyday living seems like a battle at the Davidson house. With three teenagers at home, what is most likely to be at the root of the conflict between the Davidson adolescents and their parents? A. Safety B. Chores C. Religion D. Health 70. According to research cited in your textbook, which of the following is 16-year-old Kevin and his father most likely to argue about? A. Health B. Dating and friends C. Family politics D. Safety 71. Which of the following is true about authoritative parenting? A. Authoritative parents insist on important rules, norms, and values. B. Authoritative parents are unwilling to listen, explain, and negotiate with their children. C. Authoritative parents exercise control over their child's feelings, beliefs, and sense of self. D. Authoritative parents forego behavioral control over their children in favor of psychological control. 72. As opposed to teenagers whose parents firmly enforce behavioral rules, teenagers who have been subject to psychological control by their parents A. tend to be more self-disciplined. B. tend to have fewer behavioral problems. C. tend to be highly academically competent. D. tend to have lesser psychological autonomy. 73. Which of the following types of adolescent behavior is least subject to disclosure? A. Smoking B. Seeing an R-rated movie C. Swearing D. Spending habits 74. _____ tend to have significantly fewer behavioral problems than those in any other family structure. A. Adolescents in cohabiting families B. Adolescents in married families C. Adolescents in divorced families D. Adolescents in stepfamilies 75. When children enter adolescence, their relationships with their siblings typically change in which of the following ways? A. They spend more time together than before. B. They are less close to siblings than they are to friends. C. They have a greater need for emotional gratification from the sibling bond. D. Their relationships with their siblings become progressively less equal. 76. A structured group of friends who do things together is called a _____. A. mob B. clique C. club D. team 77. Which of the following is true about friendship and peers during adolescence? A. One-to-one peer interactions, cliques, and crowd affiliations can exist simultaneously during adolescence. B. Clique and crowd affiliations become stronger as adolescence progresses. C. The influence of peers normally peaks during late adolescence. D. Adolescents are more likely to take risks alone than in the company of peers. 78. In adolescence, friendships tend to be A. more reciprocal. B. arbitrary. C. more unstable. D. unimportant. 79. Friendships in adolescence are likely to be more intimate and intense than those in middle childhood because A. of the increased effort adolescents put into peer relationships in an attempt to form a clique. B. adolescents find in their friends the intimacy that they lack at home. C. adolescents are more egocentric and hence, better able to understand their friends' feelings and point of view. D. of the advances in cognitive and emotional development that take place during adolescence. 80. Which of the following is true about the intimacy and importance of friendship among the adolescents? A. Girls' friendships tend to be more intimate than boys', with frequent sharing of confidences. B. Intimacy with same-sex friends decreases during early to midadolescence. C. Intimacy with the other sex grows during early to midadolescence. D. Adolescents rely more on siblings than on friends for intimacy and support. 81. Which of the following is a social consequence of online communications? A. Social alienation B. Moral panic C. Self-victimization D. Internet bullying 82. How does online communication improve social connectedness? A. By providing greater feedback mechanisms B. By reducing the level of self-disclosure C. By providing a level of anonymity to the user D. By reducing the importance of non-verbal communication 83. Across adolescence, romantic relationships A. create insecurity in the peer group. B. are considered less important than academics. C. become more intense and intimate. D. tend to be long-term commitments. 84. Which of the following is true with regard to romantic relationships among the adolescents? A. Girls appear to be less confident than boys about these early romantic relationships. B. By age 16, adolescents interact with and think about romantic partners more than they think about parents, friends, or siblings. C. In midadolescence, most young people have had at least three exclusive partners lasting only for few months. D. Interacting with someone of the opposite sex interferes with cognitive processes for both males and females. 85. Emotional dating violence occurs when a partner is _____. A. threatened B. lied to C. cheated on D. forced to have sex 86. _____ dating violence occurs when a partner is hit, pinched, shoved, or kicked. A. Functional B. Physical C. Emotional D. Sexual 87. Which of the following biological factors contribute to antisocial behavior? A. Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) B. Pulmonary infections C. Hereditary diseases D. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 88. Which type of antisocial behavior tends to lead to chronic juvenile delinquency in adolescence? A. Secondary-onset type B. Early-onset type C. Dominant-onset type D. Late-onset type 89. Which of the following is a potential warning sign of the likelihood that an adolescent will commit acts of aggression? A. Refusal to play with other children at school B. Lack of concern for the feelings of the poor and needy C. Early onset of sexual activity D. Parent-child interactions characterized by constant criticism 90. Antisocial adolescents tend to have antisocial friends, and their antisocial behavior increases when they associate with each other, a process referred to as _____. A. free riding B. psychosocial moratorium C. deviancy training D. identity diffusion 91. _____ is the strength of social connections within a neighborhood and the extent to which residents monitor or supervise each other's children. A. Collective efficacy B. Social cohesion C. Psychosocial moratorium D. Foreclosure 92. Adolescents who have taken part in early childhood intervention programs A. are more likely to become introverted. B. have fewer aspirations for the future. C. have lower self-esteem. D. are less likely to get in trouble. 93. The proposed transitional period between adolescence and adulthood, usually extending from the late teens through the mid-20s is referred to as _____. A. emerging adulthood B. the gender revolution C. a mid-life crisis D. late adolescence 94. Which of the following situations characterizes emerging adulthood? A. Janet, a 27-year-old corporate trainer, who is expecting her first baby with her husband, Mike B. Carter, a 17-year-old gymnast, who wants to focus completely on sports but is continuing with his academics because of parental pressure alone C. Michelle, a 20-year-old law intern, is financially independent but continues to stay with her parents. D. Rob, an 18-year-old tennis player, who needs his parents support and approval in taking any decision 95. Which of the following criteria has NOT been mentioned as a marker of emerging adulthood? A. Accepting responsibility for oneself B. Learning to involve others in decision making C. Becoming financially independent D. Making independent decisions Essay Questions 96. Explain the significance of Erikson's crisis of identity versus identity confusion. The search for identity—according to Erikson, a coherent conception of the self-made up of goals, values, and beliefs to which the person is solidly committed—comes into focus during the teenage years. Answer: The chief task of adolescence, said Erikson (1968), is to confront the crisis of identity versus identity confusion in order to become a unique adult with a coherent sense of self and a valued role in society. Identity forms as young people resolve three major issues: the choice of an occupation, the adoption of values to live by, and the development of a satisfying sexual identity. According to Erikson (1982), the psychosocial moratorium, the time-out period that adolescence provides, allows young people to search for commitments to which they can be faithful. Adolescents who resolve the identity crisis satisfactorily develop the virtue of fidelity. Erikson saw the prime danger of the adolescent stage as identity confusion, which can greatly delay reaching psychological adulthood. According to Erikson, the identity confusion typical during this time accounts for the seemingly chaotic nature of much adolescent behavior and for teenagers' painful self-consciousness. Cliquishness and intolerance of differences, both hallmarks of adolescence, are defenses against identity confusion. 97. Explain the factors that lead to sexual activity at an early age. The average girl has her first sexual intercourse at 17, the average boy at 16, and approximately 25 percent of boys and girls report having had intercourse by age 15. By age 20, 77 percent of young people have had sex. Answer: Various factors contribute to adolescents becoming sexually active at an early age. These include early entrance into puberty, poverty, poor school performance, lack of academic and career goals, a history of sexual abuse or parental neglect, and cultural or family patterns of early sexual experience. The absence of a father, especially early in life, is a strong factor. Teenagers who have close, warm relationships with their mothers and who perceive their mothers would disapprove are more likely to delay sexual activity. Other reasons teenagers give for not yet having had sex are that it is against their religion or morals and they do not want to get pregnant. One of the most powerful influences is perception of peer group norms. Young people often feel under pressure to engage in activities they do not feel ready for. 98. Describe adolescent rebellion. Answer: The teenage years have been called a time of adolescent rebellion, involving emotional turmoil, conflict within the family, alienation from adult society, reckless behavior, and rejection of adult values. Adolescence can be a tough time for young people and their parents. Family conflict, depression, and risky behavior are more common than during other parts of the life span. Negative emotionality and mood swings are most intense during early adolescence, perhaps due to the stress connected with puberty. It may also be that some level of rebellious behavior in the teenage years is developmentally normal. By late adolescence, emotionality tends to become more stable. 99. What are some of the biological contributions to antisocial behavior? Answer: Antisocial behavior tends to run in families. Analyses of many studies have concluded that genes influence 40 to 50 percent of the variation in antisocial behavior within a population and 60 to 65 percent of the variation in aggressive antisociality. Genes alone, however, are not predictive of antisocial behavior. Recent research findings suggest that both genes and environment affect the expression of antisocial behavior. Neurobiological deficits, particularly in the portions of the brain that regulate reactions to stress, may help explain why some children become antisocial adolescents. As a result of these neurological deficits, children may not receive or heed normal warning signals to restrain impulsive or reckless behavior. Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are at higher risk for the development of comorbid conduct disorder (CD) and depression that contribute to antisocial behavior. A crucial variable that must be taken into account is the age at which antisocial behavior begins. Researchers have identified two types of antisocial behavior: an early-onset type, beginning by age 11, which tends to lead to chronic juvenile delinquency in adolescence, and a milder, late-onset type, beginning after puberty, which tends to arise temporarily in adolescence. Late-onset adolescents tend to commit relatively minor offenses and tend to come from families with normal family backgrounds. 100. Explain emerging adulthood and the criteria for adulthood cited by emerging adult Americans. Answer: In modern Western societies, entrance into adulthood takes longer and follows more varied routes than in the past. Before the mid-twentieth century, a young man just out of high school could, in short order, obtain a stable job, marry, and start a family. For a young woman, the chief route to adulthood was marriage, which occurred as soon as she could find a suitable mate. Now, the technological revolution has made higher education or specialized training increasingly essential. The gender revolution has brought more women into the workforce and broadened female roles. Today the road to adulthood may be marked by multiple milestones—entering college (full- or part-time), working (full- or part-time), moving away from home, getting married, and having children—and the order and timing of these transitions varies. Thus some developmental scientists suggest that the period from the late teens through the mid- to late 20s has become a distinct period of the life course: emerging adulthood—a time when young people are no longer adolescents but have not yet become fully adult. The top three criteria for adulthood cited by emerging adult Americans are "accepting responsibility for oneself, making independent decisions, and becoming financially independent"—criteria that reflect the U.S. cultural values of individualism and self-sufficiency. Test Bank for Child M-Series: From Birth to Adolescence Gabriela Martorell 9780078035517
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