Chapter 14: Personality Multiple Choice Questions 1. Psychologists believe that personality is largely the result of A. parental and peer influences. B. multiple factors. C. responses to life stressors. D. genetics. Answer: B 2. According to your authors, mass media psychologists and other social commentators are often guilty of A. proposing single-cause explanations of human behaviour. B. assuming that correlation implies causation regarding human behaviour. C. supplying non parsimonious explanations for the causes of various human behaviours. D. offering non falsifiable theories to explain human behaviour. Answer: A 3. Statements made by talk show psychologists, such as “He murdered all of those people because he had an unhappy childhood,” reflect _______________ and fail to acknowledge that personality and behaviour are multiply determined. A. the confirmation bias B. single-cause explanations C. ruling out rival hypotheses D. extraordinary claims Answer: B 4. Relatively enduring predispositions that influence our behaviour across many situations are called _______________. A. personalities B. schemas C. defence mechanisms D. traits Answer: D 5. Our typical ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving correspond to our _______________. A. personality B. schemas C. defence mechanisms D. traits Answer: A 6. Your friend sets you up on a blind date. When you meet this person for coffee, they tell you they are introverted and haven’t had much luck meeting potential dating partners without the help of friends. Your date has given you a description of _______________. A. their personality B. a schemas C. their defence mechanisms D. a trait they possess Answer: D 7. Collective personality characteristics are to _______________ as individual personality characteristics are to _______________. A. an idiographic approach; a nomothetic approach B. a nomothetic approach; an idiographic approach C. Freudian theories; humanistic theories D. humanistic theories; Freudian theories Answer: B 8. Dr. Skeller is conducted a detailed examination of the personality and behaviour his patient “Marvin” to determine how his life shaped his personality and vice versa. In this example, Dr. Skeller is using the _______________ approach to understanding personality. A. nomothetic B. humanistic C. idiographic D. Freudian Answer: C 9. Dr. Cramilton is a researcher that examines how personality features influence study habits in student populations, including techniques they use for memorizing material learned in classes. In this example, Dr. Cramilton is using the _______________ approach to understanding personality and behaviour. A. nomothetic B. humanistic C. idiographic D. Freudian Answer: A 10. If a parent treats one child more affectionately than another, and as a consequence this child ends up with higher self-esteem, the parenting in this case is a _______________ factor. A. genetic B. shared environmental C. psychosocial D. nonshared environmental Answer: D 11. Results of several studies comparing twins that were reared apart or reared together have concluded that A. shared environments play a critical role in accounting for the variance in personalities of twins. B. environmental influences are stronger determinants of the manifestation of personality than genetics. C. nonshared environmental influences alter personality more than shared environmental influences. D. shared environment plays little or no role in adult personality. Answer: D 12. Which personality trait has the lowest correlation for fraternal twins, whether reared together or reared apart? A. Aggression B. Impulse Control C. Achievement Orientation D. Emotional Well-Being Answer: B 13. Which personality trait is associated with similar correlations between identical and fraternal twins, demonstrating a greater influence of nonshared environmental influences? A. Aggression B. Impulse Control C. Traditionalism D. Anxiety Proneness Answer: C 14. What is one of the main conclusions from adoption research concerning the effects of genes and environment on personality? A. Being raised together doesn’t lead to much similarity in personality between parents and offspring. B. The environmental influences of the adoptive home exert a stronger influence on personality than genetic ones. C. Adopted children are more similar to their adoptive parents, but only if they were adopted prior to the age of 2. D. Personality traits of biological parents are unrelated to the personality traits of children they gave up for adoption. Answer: A 15. Some studies have reported that children born later in the birth order (later-borns) are more likely to be _______________. A. Conscientious B. Achievement-oriented C. Traditionalist D. Radical thinkers Answer: D 16. Molecular genetic studies suggest that there may be associations between genes that control various neurotransmitter systems and subsequent personality (i.e., dopamine and novelty seeking). However, these studies suffer from _______________ and should be interpreted with caution. A. the confirmation bias B. a lack of replication C. illusory correlations D. falsifiability Answer: B 17. According to the authors, _______________ is both the most respected and the most widely criticized personality theorist. A. Sigmund Freud B. Gordon Allport C. Abraham Maslow D. B. F. Skinner Answer: A 18. Freud’s early beliefs that mental disorders were physiologically caused stemmed from his training as a _______________. A. neurologist B. psychologist C. psychiatrist D. physiologist Answer: A 19. Initially, Freud believed that mental disorders were due to _______________ causes, but his views changed to reflect _______________ causes for mental disorders following his work with hysteria patients. A. psychogenic; somatogenic B. physiological; psychological C. neurological; physiological D. psychological; neurological Answer: B 20. The Freudian idea of “psychic determinism” implies that A. unconscious desires and urges drive human behaviour. B. any psychological event has an underlying cause. C. childhood experiences determine adult adjustment. D. no action is ever meaningless. Answer: B 21. Miranda is a psychoanalytic theorist who uses this perspective to guide her therapeutic treatment of psychological disorders. As a result, she is most likely to improve her understanding of her clients' A. conscious motivations. B. patterns of thinking and behaving. C. symbolic dream imagery. D. desire for personal growth. Answer: C 22. Which theory of personality is most concerned with understanding people's unconscious motivations? A. Psychoanalytic B. Humanism C. Trait D. Behavioural Answer: A 23. Freud's theory of personality is most interested in understanding the interaction among the three structures of personality within the _______________ mind. A. conscious B. unconscious C. preconscious D. split Answer: B 24. Which of the following is not one of the core assumptions of psychoanalytic theory? A. Unconscious motivations B. Inferiority complexes C. Symbolic meaning D. Psychic determinism Answer: B 25. Which object is commonly used as an analogy for Freud’s view of the mind? A. A triangle B. An inkblot C. An iceberg D. A horoscope Answer: C 26. Many have compared Freud’s idea of the mind to an iceberg. If that were the case and you were standing on the deck of a ship in the Arctic, what part of the mind would you see above the water? A. Ego B. Superego C. Preconscious D. Id Answer: A 27. Which of the following is not one of the three components of the Freudian personality structure? A. Ego B. Superego C. Alter ego D. Id Answer: C 28. For Freud, the mind is divided into _______________ levels. A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5 Answer: B 29. “If it feels good, do it” best describes the A. ego. B. superego. C. alter ego. D. id. Answer: D 30. In Sigmund Freud’s theory, the _______________ operates according to the pleasure principle. A. ego B. superego C. alter ego D. id Answer: D 31. You are quite hungry but don’t have a dime to your name. If you were described as “all id and only id,” what would you do? A. Distract yourself with images of food B. Steal a hot dog from the vendor on the corner C. Run all the way home to get something to eat as soon as possible D. Use the defence mechanism of denial to thwart the hunger pangs until an appropriate meal can be obtained Answer: B 32. Which component of a person’s personality is responsible for the continuing desire to engage in sex? A. Ego B. Superego C. Alter ego D. Id Answer: D 33. The pleasure principle is associated with which element of Freud’s personality theory? A. Ego B. Superego C. Alter ego D. Id Answer: D 34. For Freud, the only personality structure present at birth is the A. ego. B. superego. C. alter ego. D. id. Answer: D 35. For Freud, the seething cauldron of unconscious urges and desires continuously seeking expression is the A. ego. B. superego. C. alter ego. D. id. Answer: D 36. There were three friends. Maybe you’ve heard of them! Harry was rational, logical, and cunning. Hermione was rule oriented, moral, and always ethical. Ron was pleasure seeking, found it hard to delay gratification, and usually just did what he wanted. According to Freud, Ron was mostly A. ego. B. superego. C. alter ego. D. id. Answer: D 37. Jessie becomes furious when her favourite hockey player is intentionally hurt by an opponent. According to Freud’s model of the mind, her id would unconsciously say A. “Thou shalt not kill.” B. “I’m going to tear this program in half!” C. “What, me angry? I never get angry.” D. “I’m so angry I could kill that player.” Answer: D 38. There were three friends. Maybe you’ve heard of them! Harry was rational, logical, and cunning. Hermione was rule oriented, moral, and always ethical. Ron was pleasure seeking, found it hard to delay gratification, and usually just did what he wanted. According to Freud, Harry was mostly _______________. A. ego B. superego C. alter ego D. id Answer: A 39. What is Freud’s term for the executive of the personality that has a realistic plan for obtaining gratification of an individual's desires? A. Ego B. Superego C. Alter ego D. Id Answer: A 40. According to Freud, rationality and logical thinking and reasoning are controlled by the A. ego. B. superego. C. alter ego. D. id. Answer: A 41. The _______________ controls the satisfaction of the id’s drives in the external world. A. ego B. superego C. alter ego D. id Answer: A 42. A personality that consisted of only the ego and the id would be completely A. illogical. B. selfless. C. rational. D. amoral. Answer: D 43. In Freud’s theory, the id is to fun as the superego is to A. guilt. B. pride C. rules. D. freedom. Answer: A 44. There were three friends. Maybe you’ve heard of them! Harry was rational, logical, and cunning. Hermione was rule oriented, moral, and always ethical. Ron was pleasure seeking, found it hard to delay gratification, and usually just did what he wanted. According to Freud, Hermione was mostly _______________. A. ego B. superego C. alter ego D. id Answer: B 45. An individual operating on the reality principle seeks A. immediate gratification. B. perfect accomplishments. C. to reveal unconscious motivations. D. rational means for obtaining gratification. Answer: D 46. The ego operates according to the A. guilt/pride principle. B. reality principle. C. reflex principle. D. pleasure principle. Answer: B 47. The id is motivated by the desire for A. moral perfection. B. social acceptability. C. free will. D. immediate gratification. Answer: D 48. The child is born into the world with a psyche equipped with A. an id. B. an ego. C. a superego. D. an id and ego. Answer: A 49. According to Freud, the reality principle is A. the way in which the ego tries to delay satisfying the id’s desires until it can do so safely and successfully. B. the way in which the id tries to obtain gratification and avoid pain. C. the way in which the ego ideal establishes standards of what one would like to be. D. the way in which young children instinctively seek self-actualization. Answer: A 50. What is Freud’s term for the unconscious efforts by the ego to deny or distort reality for the purpose of protecting itself when conflict becomes too intense? A. False cognitions B. Coping techniques C. Disordered thinking D. Defence mechanisms Answer: D 51. What structure serves as the social component of one's personality? A. Superego B. Ego C. Id D. The actual self Answer: A 52. The _______________ seeks to find a resolution between the competing demands of the _______________. A. ego; id and superego B. superego; id and ego C. superego; alter ego and ego D. id; ego and superego Answer: A 53. As you are preparing for your biology exam, you notice two of your classmates in the library. After going to talk with them you discover they are planning to use a cheat sheet during tomorrow's exam. What part of your personality would cause you to feel ashamed or guilty if you too created a cheat sheet for the exam? A. The superego B. The actual self C. The ego D. The id Answer: A 54. In the metaphor the angel, the devil, and me, the devil is the A. superego. B. ego. C. alter ego. D. id. Answer: D 55. In the metaphor the angel, the devil, and me, the angel is the A. superego. B. ego. C. alter ego. D. id. Answer: A 56. What personality structure(s) is/are tasked with the responsibility of keeping the id's impulsive and destructive actions in check? A. The superego B. The ego C. The actual self and the ideal self D. The ego and the superego Answer: D 57. According to Freudian theories, the purpose of dreaming is for _______________ and involves the expressions of the _______________. A. wish fulfillment; id B. catharsis; superego C. wish fulfillment; ego D. catharsis; ego Answer: A 58. According to Freud, defence mechanisms are a(n) _______________ part of being a psychologically healthy and well-adjusted individual. A. unsafe B. inevitable C. necessary D. unnecessary Answer: C 59. According to Freud, the result of conflict between the id and superego is A. anxiety. B. psychosis. C. depression. D. paranoia. Answer: A 60. Which of the following is not one of Freud’s defence mechanisms? A. Projection B. Suppression C. Rationalization D. Regression Answer: B 61. Freud argued that childhood amnesia was evidence that _______________ was a defence mechanism that we all experience. A. sublimation B. displacement C. repression D. projection Answer: C Objective: 14.4 62. Dakota is trying to deal with the death of her infant daughter due to an illness, and keeps telling others that she must just be sleeping and she will be feeling better in no time. This is an example of what Freudian defence mechanism? A. Projection B. Displacement C. Rationalization D. Denial Answer: D 63. Every time she is afraid or nervous (but is not necessarily consciously aware of these feelings), Brandy starts to laugh and has difficulty controlling her laughter. This is an example of what Freudian defence mechanism? A. Displacement B. Reaction-formation C. Denial D. Sublimation Answer: B 64. _______________ refers to the unconscious attribution of our negative characteristics to others. A. Displacement B. Sublimation C. Projection D. Reaction-formation Answer: C 65. _______________ involves the motivated forgetting of distressing external experiences. A. Denial B. Sublimation C. Repression D. Displacement Answer: A 66. _______________ provides a reasonable-sounding explanation for our unreasonable behaviours or failures. A. Sublimation B. Intellectualization C. Rationalization D. Reaction formation Answer: C 67. Allison finds that when she is stressed out, she is most comfortable curled up in her bed with laying with her favourite soft blanket that she had as a child. This is an example of what Freudian defence mechanism? A. Repression B. Displacement C. Sublimation D. Regression Answer: D 68. _______________ forms a socially unacceptable impulse into an admired goal. A. Displacement B. Sublimation C. Projection D. Denial Answer: B 69. Alexander just finished the most difficult statistics exam he has ever taken. When asked the next day by his mother how the exam went, Alexander tells her that he cannot remember a single thing from the previous two days. This experience is most similar to what Freudian defence mechanism? A. Repression B. Denial C. Projection D. Displacement Answer: A 70. Whenever Olivia feels badly about an exam performance she visits the professor and breaks down into tears. As the professor attempts to console her, she is reminded of her childhood. Sigmund Freud would say that Olivia is using _______________ to alleviate her anxieties about her academic abilities. A. displacement B. regression C. sublimation D. projection Answer: B 71. Concerned with his own academic flaws and weaknesses, Preston often aggressively lashes out at his instructors via his evaluations of their teaching ability on RateMyProfessor.com and during class teaching evaluations. This is an example of what Freudian defence mechanism? A. Reaction formation B. Projection C. Intellectualization D. Displacement Answer: B 72. In one of Aesop's fables, a fox is unable to obtain some grapes that he truly wishes to have. However, after failing to obtain them, he downplays their importance. This behaviour is most consistent with the defence mechanism of A. rationalization. B. sublimation. C. displacement. D. intellectualization. Answer: A 73. Shaylyn is a toll-booth operator. She nearly always has an hourly encounter with a motorist who berates and belittles her because they are upset about traffic, they don't have enough change, or they are just unhappy that day. As a result, when she gets home Shaylyn often yells at her roommates and slams cabinet doors closed when she can't find what she wants. She is displaying classic symptoms of A. regression. B. displacement. C. sublimation. D. projection. Answer: B 74. Geoffrey is a clinical psychologist who is separated from his wife and is in the process of filing for divorce. Whenever his friends or colleagues ask Geoffrey to talk about it or attempt to cheer him up, he focuses on the statistical evidence about the likelihood of divorce, clinical experience he has had, and anything but his emotions and the pain of the marriage ending. Freud would say that Geoffrey is displaying a living, breathing example of A. projection. B. displacement. C. intellectualization. D. repression. Answer: C 75. Oscar redirects his aggressive urges to beat up and dominate others into a lucrative career as a professional boxer. This is an example of what Freudian defence mechanism? A. Displacement B. Rationalization C. Sublimation D. Projection Answer: C 76. A newborn baby is in what stage of psychosexual development? A. Latency stage B. Anal stage C. Oral stage D. Phallic stage Answer: C 77. Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stages focus on several parts of the body identified as A. focal zones. B. erogenous zones. C. pleasure zones. D. unconscious zones. Answer: B 78. What did Sigmund Freud believe could happen if our needs were delayed at a particular psychosexual stage? A. We would become fixated at that stage. B. We would revert to our biological predispositions. C. We would be more capable of overcoming the obstacle in adulthood. D. We could become overly dependent on the superego for future guidance. Answer: A 79. According to Freud, during the first 18 months of life, the dominant source of sensual pleasure is the A. genitals. B. hands. C. mouth. D. anus. Answer: C 80. The age at which a baby was weaned would have most impact on the _______________ stage. A. latency B. anal C. oral D. phallic Answer: C 81. According to Freud, personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages. During infancy, the psychosexual stage is called the A. latency stage. B. anal stage. C. oral stage. D. phallic stage. Answer: C 82. Dan plays the trumpet, is on the debate team, bites his nails, and chews gum. Freud might say Dan was fixated in the _______________ stage. A. latency B. anal C. oral D. phallic Answer: C 83. A Freudian psychotherapist would assert that an alcoholic or a chain-smoker is stuck in what stage of development? A. Anal stage B. Oral stage C. Latency stage D. Genital stage Answer: B 84. Conflicts over toilet-training and other attempts by a 2-year-old to exert control over his or her environment are most evident during the _______________ stage of psychosexual development. A. phallic B. oral C. latency D. anal Answer: D 85. According to Freud, when individuals engage in regression as a defence mechanism in adulthood, they are prone to regressing to which stage of psychosexual development? A. Oral B. Anal C. Phallic D. Latency Answer: A 86. The Electra complex is to _______________ as the Oedipus complex is to _______________. A. phallic stage; latency stage B. latency stage; phallic stage C. boys; girls D. girls; boys Answer: D 87. What is the correct sequence of Freud’s psychosexual stages? A. Phallic, genital, latency, oral, anal B. Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital C. Oral, anal, latency, phallic, genital D. Anal, oral, phallic, latency, genital Answer: B 88. According to Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, there are _______________ stages that each person must pass through. A. 3 B. 5 C. 7 D. 8 Answer: B 89. Toilet training takes place during which of Freud’s psychosexual stages? A. Phallic stage B. Oral stage C. Latency stage D. Anal stage Answer: D 90. In the classic sitcom The Odd Couple, it was amazing that Oscar and Felix got along because Oscar was such a slob and Felix was so obsessively neat. From a Freudian perspective, what could be said about the way these two men made it through the anal stage of development? A. Oscar was anally fixated, but Felix was not. B. Oscar and Felix were both anally fixated, but in different ways. C. Neither Oscar nor Felix were anally fixated. They just had different personalities. D. Felix was anally fixated, but Oscar was not. Answer: B 91. Steve is extremely uptight and compulsively neat and orderly. According to Freudian theory, he became fixated at the _______________ stage of psychosexual development. A. phallic B. oral C. latency D. anal Answer: D 92. According to Freud and his followers, what is the most significant event that occurs during the anal stage of psychosexual development? A. Toilet training B. Discovery of the genitals C. Development of sexual feelings for the same-sex parent D. Development of sexual feelings for the opposite-sex parent Answer: A 93. The Freudian stage in which boys must resolve the Oedipus complex is the _______________ stage. A. phallic B. oral C. latency D. anal Answer: A 94. According to Freud, the stage in which children develop a marked attachment to the parent of the opposite sex and become jealous of the same-sex parent is the _______________ stage. A. phallic B. oral C. genital D. anal Answer: A 95. Sigmund Freud proposed that little boys’ fears that their fathers may retaliate against them for forbidden sexual and aggressive impulses may lead to A. penis envy. B. penis anxiety. C. castration phobia. D. castration anxiety. Answer: D 96. Four-year-old Larry squeezes between his Mommy and Daddy as they sit together on the couch. He cuddles with Mommy and pushes Daddy away. This illustrates which Freudian concept? A. The Oedipal complex B. The Electra complex C. Transference D. Countertransference Answer: A 97. According to Freud, a boy’s sexual attachment to his mother and jealousy of his father is called A. the Oedipal complex. B. the Electra complex. C. transference. D. countertransference. Answer: A 98. What did Freud perceive as the outcome of successful resolution of the Oedipus complex? A. Attraction to the opposite-sex parent B. Identification to the opposite-sex parent C. Attraction to the same-sex parent D. Identification with the same-sex parent Answer: D 99. Stewie has developed strong feelings for his mother and views his father as a rival for her attention. However, he is afraid that his father will find out and interfere with these plans. Stewie is clearly immersed in the _______________ stage. A. anal B. genital C. phallic D. oral Answer: C 100. During the phallic stage, penis envy is experienced by _______________ and is accompanied by a sense of inferiority. A. young boys B. young girls C. teenage girls D. teenage boys Answer: B 101. Freud argued that during the _______________ stage, from the ages of 6 to 12, sexual urges are _______________ into scholastic abilities. A. latency; displaced B. phallic; repressed C. latency; sublimated D. genital; rationalized Answer: C 102. According to Freud, appropriate sexual and romantic relationships are only possible when an individual has attained the _______________ stage of psychosexual development. A. phallic B. genital C. oral D. anal Answer: B 103. Jill is an 8-year-old girl who is having a birthday party. According to Freud, since Jill is in the latency period, whom would you expect to be at her party? A. Mostly girls B. Mostly boys C. Mostly male parents who look like her father D. Mostly parents Answer: A 104. Young Bart says to his friend, “What do you want to play at recess today, war or forts?” His comrade, Yevgeni, replies “Why don’t we try something different today and play with the girls?” Completely aghast, Bart yells back, “Are you crazy?? Girls have COOTIES!” Which stage of personality development is Bart likely in, according to Freud? A. Phallic B. Latency C. Oral D. Anal Answer: B 105. In which psychosexual stage do sexual interests reawaken and become stronger? A. Phallic B. Genital C. Oral D. Anal Answer: B 106. Which of the Freudian stages of personality development begins around puberty? A. Phallic B. Genital C. Oral D. Anal Answer: B 107. According to Freud, personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages. The last stage is called the _______________ stage. A. phallic B. genital C. oral D. anal Answer: B 108. When reviewing Freud's theory of personality development, a critical thinker would be most concerned about the A. high level of support for many key aspects. B. lack of falsifiable hypotheses for key aspects. C. lack of extraordinary evidence for extraordinary claims. D. confusing correlation with causation. Answer: B 109. Freudian theories assume that _______________ play(s) a key role in shaping adult personality, which has been contradicted by recent behaviour-genetic studies. A. defence mechanisms B. our sexual and aggressive drives C. shared environment D. our cognitive development Answer: C 110. Freud’s studies are limited in _______________ because the samples of patients that he studied were unrepresentative of the general population. A. external validity B. internal validity C. demand characteristics D. experimenter bias Answer: A 111. Which of the following is not one of criticisms of psychoanalytic theory? A. Failed predictions B. Lack of evidence for defence mechanisms C. Unfalsifiability D. Assumption of nonshared environmental influence Answer: D 112. A major issue that many people have with Freud's theory is A. the generalization of his ideas from an unrepresentative sample. B. that our awareness of the causes for our behaviours is quite good. C. that he overemphasized the importance of the conscious mind. D. that he underemphasized the importance of shared environmental influences in personality development. Answer: A 113. A common criticism of Adler, Freud, and Jung's theories of personality development is that A. they are filled with unfalsifiable claims. B. they underestimate the human capacity for engaging in selfish and destructive actions. C. they place too much importance on adolescence and not enough on early childhood experiences. D. they overestimate the importance of the conscious mind in personality development. Answer: A 113. The neo-Freudians agreed with Freud's ideas on A. the importance of later adult experiences influencing personality development. B. the important roles of sexuality and aggression in personality development. C. the unconscious influences on behaviour. D. our inborn, basic destructive impulses. Answer: C 114. Which term was given to psychoanalysts who broke away from strict interpretation of Freud’s theory and developed theories of their own that were based upon Freud’s work? A. Anti-Freudian B. Pseudo-Freudian C. Neo-Freudian D. Retro-Freudian Answer: C 115. What neo-Freudian introduced the concept of the inferiority complex into discussions of psychological adjustment? A. Fromm B. Horney C. Adler D. Jung Answer: C 116. Which neo-Freudian viewed personality disturbances as resulting from the feelings of inferiority all people share? A. Fromm B. Horney C. Adler D. Jung Answer: C 117. Which defence mechanism figured prominently in the theory of Alfred Adler? A. Sublimation B. Regression C. Compensation D. Repression Answer: C 118. What neo-Freudian is recognized as inspiring the term “inferiority complex”? A. Rogers B. Jung C. Adler D. Horney Answer: C 119. What neo-Freudian emphasized the importance of the collective unconscious in personality development? A. Adler B. Horney C. Fromm D. Jung Answer: D 120. Jung believed that there were two levels to the unconscious mind, the personal and the A. preconscious. B. anima. C. animus. D. collective. Answer: D 121. According to Jung, each person’s own repressed thoughts, undeveloped ideas, and forgotten experiences are contained in the A. archetype. B. persona. C. collective unconscious. D. personal unconscious. Answer: D 122. Carl Jung’s term for the part of our personality that Freud referred to as the unconscious was the A. primordial unconscious. B. primitive unconscious. C. collective unconscious. D. personal unconscious. Answer: D 123. The neo-Freudian, Carl Jung, suggested the existence of a collective unconscious that contains images shared by all people called A. schemas. B. the mandala. C. the persona. D. archetypes. Answer: D 124. To Jung, the memories and behaviour patterns inherited from past generations are part of the A. preconscious. B. archetypes. C. personal unconscious. D. collective unconscious. Answer: D 125. Carl Jung’s term for recurring themes that have been important to humans in many cultures and settings since prehistoric times, such as the concepts of mother, hero, or villain, is A. psychic themes. B. preconscious thoughts. C. preconscious memories. D. archetypes. Answer: D 126. Jungian sandplay therapy is used by some therapists to examine emotional conflicts in children, and is based upon the assumption that _______________ is/are reflected in the shapes that children draw in the sand. A. the collective unconscious B. sexual and aggressive drives C. archetypes D. a child’s inferiority complex Answer: C 127. What theorist strongly disagreed with Freud's ideas about women and their feelings of inferiority and the Oedipus complex? A. Jung B. Horney C. Klein D. Adler Answer: B 128. According to Karen Horney, the Oedipus complex was A. the deeply-rooted unconscious cause of psychological disorders. B. a symptom rather than a cause of psychological problems. C. a blockage that prevented humans from striving for superiority. D. a symbol of the clash between our increasing independence and our need for others. Answer: B 129. You and your friend Elaine are both taking the same psychology class and realize you have very different theoretical views when studying personality unit. Elaine believes that personality is reflected in (or consists of) our behaviours, whereas you believe that personality plays a role in causing behaviour. Elaine’s view reflects which perspective within psychology? A. Social learning B. Radical behaviourism C. Psychoanalytic D. Humanistic Answer: B 130. What perspective on personality development is most concerned with how one's learning history influences who they later become? A. Trait B. Humanism-existential C. Behavioural D. Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic Answer: C 131. According to a behavioural view of the causes of personality, both _______________ and _______________ together explain why our personalities differ. A. biological factors; reciprocal determinism B. the personal unconscious; the collective unconscious C. genetic factors; environmental contingencies D. the pleasure principle; the reality principle Answer: C 132. An area of agreement between the psychodynamic and behaviourist perspectives is A. their focus on the unconscious mind as it was conceptualized by Sigmund Freud. B. the belief that free will is an illusion. C. the importance of the conscious mind. D. the importance of sexuality and aggression as human motives that drive personality. Answer: B 133. Marley believes that she did poorly on her psychology exam because the test was too hard and her teacher is mean, whereas Jeff thinks that he did poorly on his psychology exam because he did not study hard enough. Based on this example, Jeff has an _______________ locus of control and Marley has an _______________ locus of control. A. internal; internal B. internal; external C. external; internal D. external; external Answer: B 134. Which one of the following statements reflects an internal locus of control? A. One can climb the professional ladder just by being around at the right time. B. Many people lead miserable lives because of their parents. C. If you set realistic goals, you can succeed no matter what. D. No matter how hard I study, I cannot pass my exam. Answer: C 135. What is Albert Bandura’s term for the relationship among the three factors that influence personality? A. Reciprocal determinism B. Learned responses C. Feedback loops D. External expectancies Answer: A 136. Which of the following was not a facet of Bandura’s theory of reciprocal determinism? A. Feelings of inferiority B. Environment C. Cognition D. Behaviours Answer: A 137. The role of reciprocal determinism was highlighted by the A. behaviourists. B. trait theorists. C. social learning theorists. D. humanists. Answer: C 138. Albert Bandura’s notion that people are affected by their environment but can also influence that environment is known as A. reciprocal determinism. B. locus of control. C. phenomenology. D. self-efficacy. Answer: A 139. The role of one's thought patterns in personality development was emphasized by A. humanistic theorists. B. social learning theorists. C. classical conditioning theorists. D. operant conditioning theorists. Answer: B 140. According to Julian Rotter, individuals with a(n) _______________ locus of control are less prone to emotional upset following life stressors because they are more likely to believe they can remedy problems on their own. A. internal B. external C. inferior D. superior Answer: A 141. B. F. Skinner's approach is most open to criticism about its neglect of the importance of _______________ in personality development. A. thinking B. the self C. environmental contingencies D. other people's behaviour Answer: A 142. What evidence argues most strongly against social learning theorists' claims that observational learning is a key causal factor in personality development? A. The effects of shared environment on adult personality is weak at best. B. Researchers consistently find that adult personality is stable rather than changing. C. Conscious processing occurs more infrequently than unconscious processing. D. It is difficult to show how reciprocal determinism would exist in daily life. Answer: A 143. The first major force in the field of personality psychology was A. psychoanalytic/psychodynamic. B. the trait approach. C. behaviourism. D. humanism. Answer: A 144. What was the third, and some would say final, major force in the field of personality psychology? A. Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic B. Humanism C. Social learning D. Behaviourism Answer: B 145. A major difference between the humanists and both the behaviourists and psychodynamic theorists is that the humanists focus on A. free will. B. the destructive side of human nature. C. unconscious information processing. D. the scientific method. Answer: A 146. _______________ theory is called the third force in personality theory. A. Psychoanalytic B. Neo-psychoanalytic C. Behaviourist D. Humanistic Answer: D 147. Maslow and Rogers would likely disagree with Freud's focus on A. determinism. B. the unconscious mind. C. the positive effects of society on our behaviour. D. all of the above. Answer: D 148. What do Abraham Maslow’s and Carl Rogers’s theories have in common? A. They focus on unconscious motivation. B. They both fit in the learning/cognitive perspective. C. They are both stage theories. D. They believe that each human being is free to choose his or her own destiny. Answer: D 149. _______________ refers to the drive to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent. A. The superiority complex B. The reality principle C. Self-actualization D. Locus of control Answer: C 150. Humanistic psychology is to _______________ as Neo-Freudian psychology is to _______________. A. inferiority complex; unconscious drives B. locus of control; psychosexual stages C. defence mechanisms; the Oedipus complex D. self-actualization; the collective unconscious Answer: D 151. Which theorist and theory is correctly matched? A. Adler – Object Relations Theory B. Rogers – Humanistic Model C. Jung – Psychoanalytic Theory D. Bandura – Trait Theory Answer: B 152. According to the humanists, a key motive in human personality development was A. achieving desired behavioural contingencies. B. resolving internal motivational conflict. C. personal fulfillment and growth. D. conditional acceptance. Answer: C 153. A focus on the self was of most direct interest to the _______________ perspective on personality development. A. trait B. psychoanalytic/psychodynamic C. humanistic D. behavioural Answer: C 154. The key difference between Maslow and Rogers's work was the former's focus on _______________ and the latter's focus on _______________. A. free will; reciprocal determinism B. self-actualized individuals; how self-actualization was thwarted C. determinism; free will D. self-actualized individuals; unconscious mental processing Answer: B 155. Gordon is concerned that his parenting will lead his son and two daughters to feel that they are only loved and accepted when they do things that he approves of and values. This is most similar to A. Freud's notion of the id, ego, and superego. B. Bandura's notion of reciprocal determinism. C. Skinner's notion of reinforcers and punishers. D. Rogers's notion of conditions of worth. Answer: D 156. Jeff has to get up early to go to school, but he wants to stay up late and watch television. His parents disapprove of him staying up late, but when they go out for the evening he disregards their wishes and stays up late anyway. The next day he feels extremely guilty. How would Carl Rogers explain Jeff’s guilt? A. It results from Jeff’s inferiority complex, which has been enlarged by Jeff’s adoption of his parents’ value judgments. B. It results from the conflict between Jeff’s need to seek pleasure and his desire to do well in school. C. It results from a psychological conflict between Jeff’s personal desire to stay up late and the opinion adopted from his parents that it is wrong to stay up late. D. It results from an overactive superego, which is punishing Jeff’s id for gratifying his desires. Answer: C 157. According to Maslow, a self-actualized person is someone who is A. extroverted and outgoing. B. creative and problem-focused. C. concerned with developing friendships with others. D. self-centred. Answer: B 158. One path for achieving self-actualization was through attainment of A. gratification of the superego. B. peak experiences. C. gratification of the id. D. desired reinforcers. Answer: B 159. According to Carl Rogers, when do conditions of worth arise in our development? A. Infancy B. Childhood C. Adolescence D. Adulthood Answer: B 160. The expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate behaviour are called _______________. A. conditions of worth B. our superego C. self-actualization D. reciprocal determinism Answer: A 161. Jamie’s father scoffs at him when he chooses to go into nursing as a profession, and says he is less of a man. According to Rogers, Jamie’s father is applying _______________ to his love and approval. A. conditions of worth B. his superego C. self-actualization D. reciprocal determinism Answer: A 162. Which of the following personality theorists is associated with the development of the modern field of positive psychology? A. Alfred Adler B. Carl Rogers C. Abraham Maslow D. Walter Mischel Answer: C 163. A key criticism of the humanistic perspective on personality is that it is A. overly optimistic about the basic goodness of human nature. B. missing a discussion on the influence of selfless motives in personality development. C. underestimating the influence of external factors in personality development. D. easy to falsify. Answer: A 164. Which of the following statements is criticism that one might legitimately make about the humanistic perspective of personality? A. It paints too rosy a picture of humanity, ignoring negative aspects of human nature. B. It is missing a discussion on the influence of selfless motives in personality development. C. It underestimates the influence of external factors in personality development. D. It is easy to falsify. Answer: A 165. Ramon is a psychotherapist whose therapeutic orientation follows that of Maslow and Rogers. He readily has an explanation for why his depressed and anxious clients improve with treatment (“They have removed the conditions inhibiting a sense of worth from their lives”) as well as why some of his patients fail to improve with treatment—“Important people in his/her life continue to thwart the development of self-actualization.” A critical thinker would recognize that Ramon's approach A. cannot be falsified. B. lacks extraordinary evidence for his extraordinary claims. C. reflects his own personal biases and therefore cannot be trusted. D. fails to rule out rival hypotheses. Answer: A 166. What technique is used by trait theorists to reduce the diversity of traits to as few as three or five underlying traits? A. Factor analysis B. Illusory correlations C. Behavioural inconsistencies D. Lexical approach Answer: A 167. _______________ is a statistical technique that analyzes the correlations among responses on personality inventories and other measures. A. Scatterplotting B. Meta-analysis C. Factor analysis D. Lexical approach Answer: C 168. If you surveyed 100 trait theorists, you would expect to see many of them argue that personality is structured on _______________ different dimensions. A. 5 B. 7 C. 2 D. 4 Answer: A 169. Research on the Big Five personality traits has suggested that individuals with _______________ are higher in extroversion and openness to experience, and lower in neuroticism. A. firm handshakes B. muscular physiques C. an internal locus of control D. advanced academic degrees Answer: A 170. Which of the following is not one of the dimensions of the Big Five? A. Openness to experience B. Conscientiousness C. Extraversion D. Sociability Answer: D 171. Name the Big Five Personality traits. A. Openness, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, agreeableness B. Conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, extraversion, dominance C. Sensation seeking, conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, dominance D. Neuroticism, psychoticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness Answer: A 172. An investigation of students’ housing preferences would probably show that single rooms are preferred by _______________, whereas suites are preferred by _______________. A. introverts; extraverts B. extraverts; introverts C. poor students; good students D. good students; poor students Answer: A 173. Which of these is an acronym that could help you remember the Big Five traits? A. CANOE B. BEGIN C. START D. DUNES Answer: A 174. Ellen has been described as creative, imaginative, curious, artistic, and nonconforming. She is likely to obtain an elevated score on a questionnaire designed to measure A. openness. B. extraversion. C. neuroticism. D. agreeableness. Answer: A 175. Travis is a participant in the X-games every year, which features events that are high flying and exhilarating to watch or participate in, but also very dangerous to the competitors. Because Travis is willing to take chances with his health to get the adrenaline rush from these sorts of events, Costa and McCrae would argue that he ranks high on which of the five factors? A. Openness B. Extraversion C. Neuroticism D. Agreeableness Answer: A 176. Ted is friendly, loves to tells jokes at parties, and is perceived by others as warm and considerate. On which two of the Big Five traits would you expect Ted to obtain high scores? A. Extraversion and agreeableness B. Openness and extraversion C. Openness and agreeableness D. Conscientiousness and agreeableness Answer: A 177. The _______________ assumes that the most crucial features of personality are embedded in our language. A. trait approach B. lexical approach C. linguistic approach D. humanistic approach Answer: B 178. Monica is described by her friends as very organized, careful and responsible. Monica is likely to obtain an elevated score on which of the following Big Five traits? A. Openness B. Neuroticism C. Extraversion D. Conscientiousness Answer: D 179. Ursula tends to be moody, where she seems happy and excited one day, and very sad and anxious the next. Ursula is likely to obtain an elevated score on which of the following Big Five traits? A. Agreeableness B. Neuroticism C. Extraversion D. Conscientiousness Answer: B 180. Which of the following is an important criticism of the Big Five model of personality? A. People may not be consciously aware of all aspects of personality. B. People's attitudes are seldom useful as a means for predicting their aggregated behaviour. C. It fails to correlate with important real-world behaviours. D. It focuses too little on conscious processing of information. Answer: A 181. A concern with personal goals and increased individual self-esteem is most characteristic of those from _______________ cultures. A. selfish B. individualistic C. narcissistic D. collectivistic Answer: B 182. Personal achievement and individual self-esteem is most likely to guide the behaviour of a college student in A. Morocco. B. Argentina. C. China. D. Canada. Answer: D 183. A key point from the research on individualism-collectivism is that A. there are consistently differences between and within cultures on these personality styles. B. persons from collectivistic cultures are more emotionally and socially well- adjusted than those from more individualistic cultures. C. there are consistently differences between cultures on these personality styles and seldom any differences within cultures. D. persons from individualistic cultures are more emotionally and socially well- adjusted than those from more collectivistic cultures. Answer: A 184. Personality traits may be less predictive of behaviour in _______________ cultures. A. collectivistic B. individualistic C. narcissistic D. selfish Answer: A 185. According to personality theorists such as Eysenck, Tellegen, and Cloninger, the Big Five dimensions of _______________ combine to form a larger dimension called impulse control or fearfulness along with the dimensions of extroversion and neuroticism. A. openness to experience, neuroticism, and agreeableness B. conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience C. extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism D. neuroticism, agreeableness, and conscientiousness Answer: B 186. One criticism of the Big Five personality theory is that there is no factor that corresponds to a person’s _______________. A. impulse control B. morality C. sociability D. impulsivity Answer: B 187. A key point of agreement between contemporary psychologists and the ideas of Sigmund Freud is that adult personality A. is relatively stable across time. B. emerges from the motivational conflicts between the id, ego, and superego. C. relies more on conscious processing than unconscious processing. D. emerges from childhood experience to a large extent. Answer: A 188. _______________ refers to the idea that medications may be able to produce long-term alterations in personality. A. Cosmetic psychopharmacology B. Self-actualization C. Psychic neurology D. Behaviour modification Answer: A 189. An important shortcoming of trait models as explanations for personality development is that they do not A. address the issue of why such differences in personality development originate. B. consider the importance of conscious information processing. C. predict actual differences in observed behaviours. D. adequately describe differences in personality development. Answer: A 190. A key criticism of the trait perspective on personality development is that it A. fails to explain the cause of the differences in the various trait dimensions. B. ignores the evil and selfishness that humans are capable of. C. focuses too much on the role of unconscious forces in personality development. D. lacks supportive evidence for existence of multiple trait dimensions. Answer: A 191. Roberta has collected data on students' attitudes toward cheating. According to Walter Mischel, the students' attitudes will likely _______________ predict whether or not they cheat on an upcoming exam. A. fail to B. strongly C. weakly D. moderately Answer: C 192. Based on trait theorists' response to Mischel's critique, how would you expect Donovan's prejudiced attitude toward Latinos to impact his behaviour as a waiter at a restaurant? A. If one looks at his aggregated behaviours, they will see a relationship between his attitude and his behaviour. B. His general attitude will have no direct impact on his behaviour. C. If one looks at his aggregated behaviours, they will not see a relationship between his attitude and his behaviour. D. His behaviour will be the opposite of his attitude because of the training he received in appreciating diversity. Answer: A 193. A theorist who believes that individuals of lower intelligence can be identified by a low brow line and protruding forehead is likely to endorse what method of personality assessment? A. Graphology B. Phrenology C. Physiognomy D. Projection Answer: C 194. According to William Sheldon’s view that personality is linked to body type, individuals that are introverted and intellectual belong to which category? A. Ectomorph B. Mesomorph C. Endomorph D. Minomorph Answer: A 195. According to the authors, the key criteria for evaluating personality assessments are A. objectivity and reliability. B. reliability and validity. C. objectivity and validity. D. reliability and objectivity. Answer: B 196. Cramer and Imaike’s study of personality and blood type found that participants with a(n) _______________ blood type were more likely to be extraverted. A. O B. B C. AB D. None of the above Answer: D 197. The NEO-PI-R assesses personality traits in the _______________ range, and the MMPI assesses personality traits in the _______________ range. A. disordered; disordered B. disordered; normal C. normal; disordered D. normal; normal Answer: C 198. The MMPI-1 and MMPI-2 are personality tests that are designed to A. detect relationships between body types and personality patterns. B. detect individual differences in personality patterns. C. detect differences in interpretation of ambiguous stimuli. D. detect symptoms of mental disorders. Answer: D 199. High scores on what MMPI-2 validity scales can be indicative of malingering (i.e., making oneself appear psychologically disturbed)? A. L (Lie) Scale B. F (Frequency) Scale C. K (Correction) Scale D. R (Response Set) Scale Answer: B 200. Many people are familiar with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. However, few students are knowledgeable about the fact that this popular personality assessment instrument has A. high reliability and high validity. B. low reliability and low validity. C. low reliability and high validity. D. high reliability and low validity. Answer: B 201. The empirical method of test construction is to _______________ as the rational/theoretical method of test construction is to _______________. A. MMPI; Myers-Briggs Type Indicator B. NEO-PI-R; MMPI C. MBTI; NEO-PI-R D. MMPI; TAT Answer: A 202. The method of test construction that requires test developers to begin with a clear- cut conceptualization of a trait and write items to assess that conceptualization is the _______________ method. A. empirical B. projective C. rational/theoretical D. data-based Answer: C 203. Genie is completing a personality test her psychologist gave her, and wants to appear as if she is traumatized (even though she feels fine) following an accident at work. What type of response set is Genie engaging in? A. Impression management B. Defensive C. Malingering D. Denial Answer: C 204. The MMPI-2 contains all of the following scales except A. hypochondriasis. B. hypomania. C. sociability. D. masculinity/femininity. Answer: C 205. The _______________ hypothesis assumes that in the process of interpreting ambiguous stimuli, people inevitably project aspects of their personality onto the stimulus. A. repression B. rationalization C. sublimation D. projection Answer: D 206. Which of the following is not an example of a projective test? A. Rorschach Inkblot Test B. Thematic Apperception Test C. Draw-A-Person Test D. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Answer: D 207. What method of personality assessment is considered the most controversial in psychology today? A. Projective tests B. Blood type C. Graphology D. Structured personality tests Answer: A 208. Many projective assessment tools are often lacking in A. subjectivity. B. standardization. C. validity and reliability D. validation Answer: C 209. According to the authors, persons who employ the assessment technique of graphology are often more influenced by the _______________ than they are by the actual differences in people's writing styles. A. hindsight bias B. availability heuristic C. representativeness heuristic D. confirmation bias Answer: C 210. _______________ is a technique that involves the psychological interpretation of handwriting. A. Morphology B. Physiognomy C. Graphology D. Phrenology Answer: C 211. Which projective test involves creating a story based on interpersonal images? A. Graphology B. Thematic Apperception Test C. Draw-A-Person Test D. Rorschach Inkblot Test Answer: B 212. What characteristic of personality is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) moderately valid for assessing? A. Object relations B. Clinical depression C. Extraversion D. Bipolar disorder Answer: A 213. The fact that a general statement can be seen by five different individuals as being an insightful analysis of their personality is most likely due to the A. P. T. Barnum effect. B. reliability and validity of personality assessment tools. C. information given by the individuals. D. skills of the assessor. Answer: A 214. One concern for your authors was that A. personality assessments rarely allow psychologists to differentiate abnormal from normal behaviour or to predict real-world behaviours. B. all personality assessment tools are severely lacking in adequate reliability and validity evidence. C. well-supported projective tests are used much less frequently than their less reliable and valid counterparts. D. criminal profilers and others are as susceptible to the illusory correlation as any other person is. Answer: C 215. According to the authors, criminal profilers A. are more accurate and insightful than college students but not any more accurate than clinical psychologists in their judgments. B. are less accurate and insightful than both college students and clinical psychologists in their judgments. C. are much more accurate and insightful than college students with no training in criminology. D. are no more accurate and insightful than college students with no training in criminology. Answer: D 216. Which of the following provides the best example of the P.T. Barnum effect? A. Inkblots B. Horoscopes C. Graphology D. Physiognomy Answer: B Critical Thinking Questions 1. Contrast the important differences between persons with an internal locus of control and an external locus of control. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. • Students should identify that internals believe that life outcomes are under their direct control, either through their efforts or through their personal characteristics. Externals perceive life outcomes as the result of environmental or situational factors, such as luck, fate, chance, or others' whims. • Students should note at least one research finding mentioned in the text (internals experience less emotional upset in the face of stressors than do externals, externals are more likely to be diagnosed with stress-related psychological disorders such as anxiety or depression than internals; or mention the results of the nursing home resident study—or any other examples given in class). Individuals with an internal locus of control believe they have control over their outcomes through their own actions and decisions. They tend to be proactive and take responsibility for their successes and failures. In contrast, individuals with an external locus of control attribute outcomes to external factors such as luck, fate, or powerful others, feeling less in control of their lives and more prone to passivity or dependency on external circumstances. 2. Using Carl Rogers' idea of conditions of worth, explain how an interest you had as a child was either stifled or enhanced by the responses you received from your parents and closest friends. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. • The student should clearly identify a specific interest and whether he or she will discuss how it was stifled or enhanced by others' responses. • The student should make the point, either directly or indirectly, that important others' responses influenced his or her own acceptance of his or her ability or inability with regard to that interest. • The student should note that the conditions of worth might lead to incongruence between his or her actual/true self and his or her genuine or idealized self. Conditions of worth, as per Carl Rogers, refer to the conditions under which a person receives positive regard from others, influencing their self-concept. If my interest as a child was met with encouragement and support from parents and friends, it would likely be enhanced, fostering confidence and intrinsic motivation. Conversely, if met with criticism or indifference, my interest may have been stifled, leading to self-doubt or reluctance to pursue it further. A friend once received a personalized astrology reading that seemed remarkably accurate and specific. Despite knowing the general statements could apply to anyone, they felt a strong personal connection to the reading, believing it accurately described their personality traits and life experiences. This situation exemplifies the P.T. Barnum effect, where vague and general statements are perceived as highly relevant and individualized. 3. Identify a situation in which you or a friend fell victim to the P.T. Barnum effect. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. • Should demonstrate a correct understanding of the definition or description of the P. T. Barnum effect. • Example should highlight the presentation of general information to the person (either the student or the friend) and describe how that information was perceived as credible, accurate, and specific to the person—even when it really wasn't. • Example needs to be a correct example of the P. T. Barnum effect and not some other idea from the chapter. I once attended a personality assessment workshop where the facilitator used broad descriptions that could apply to almost anyone. Despite the generic nature of the feedback, many participants, including myself, felt the descriptions were accurate and insightful about our personalities. This experience highlighted how easily individuals can be misled by vague statements that seem tailored to their personal characteristics, illustrating the P.T. Barnum effect in action. Essay Questions 1. What is the difference between a nomothetic approach and an idiographic approach to studying personality? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. There are two major approaches to studying personality. These approaches differ in emphasis, and each has its strengths and weaknesses. A nomothetic approach strives to understand personality by identifying general laws that govern the behaviour of all individuals. Most modern personality research, including almost all of the research we’ll examine in this chapter, is nomothetic because it attempts to derive principles that explain the thinking, emotions, and behaviours of all people. This approach typically allows for generalisation across individuals, but limited insight into the unique patterning of attributes within one person. In contrast, an idiographic approach (think of “idiosyncratic”) strives to understand personality by identifying the unique configuration of characteristics and life history experiences within a person. It harbours simply the assumption that we aren’t all alike. Most case studies are idiographic. The idiographic approach reveals the richly detailed tapestry of one person’s life but allows limited generalizability to other people. Moreover, it generates hypotheses that are often difficult to falsify, because these hypotheses are frequently post hoc (“after the fact”) explanations about events that have already occurred. The nomothetic approach to studying personality focuses on identifying general laws and traits that apply to large groups, emphasizing commonalities and statistical analysis. In contrast, the idiographic approach emphasizes the unique aspects of an individual's personality, using in-depth case studies and qualitative methods to understand personal nuances and specific life histories. 2. What are the core assumptions of psychoanalytic theory? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Core Assumption 1: Psychic Determinism. Freudians believe in psychic determinism: the assumption that all psychological events have a cause. We aren’t free to choose our actions, they claim, because we’re at the mercy of powerful forces that lie outside of our awareness. Dreams, neurotic symptoms, and “Freudian slips” of the tongue (see Prologue) are all reflections of deep psychological conflict bubbling up to the surface (Table 14.3). Core Assumption 2: Symbolic Meaning. For Freudians, no action, no matter how seemingly trivial, is meaningless. All are attributable to preceding mental causes, even if we can’t always figure out what these causes are. If, while teaching a class, your male professor manages to crack a long piece of chalk in two, some might be inclined to disregard this action as uninteresting. Rest assured, however, that most Freudians would find an explanation for it. Specifically, they’d be likely to argue that this piece of chalk is symbolic of something else; perhaps something sexual in nature. Core Assumption 3: Unconscious Motivation. Freudians argue for the crucial importance of unconscious motivation. According to Freud (1933), we rarely understand why we do what we do, although we quite readily cook up explanations for our actions after the fact. Some authors have likened the Freudian view of the mind (Freud, 1923) to an iceberg, with the unconscious being the vast and largely uncharted area of the psyche submerged entirely underwater (see Figure 14.2). The conscious component of the mind is merely the “tip of the iceberg,” barely visible above the water’s surface. For Freud, the unconscious is of immensely greater importance in the causes of our personality than the conscious. The core assumptions of psychoanalytic theory include the influence of unconscious processes on behavior, the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality, the presence of internal conflicts between different parts of the psyche (id, ego, and superego), and the use of defense mechanisms to manage anxiety and conflict. 3. Identify and describe any four of Freud’s defence mechanisms. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Repression is the most critical defence mechanism in psychoanalytic theory. It’s the motivated forgetting of emotionally threatening memories or impulses. Unlike the types of forgetting we discussed in Chapter 7, repression is presumably triggered by anxiety: We forget because we want to forget. According to Freud, we repress unhappy childhood memories to avoid the pain they engender. This repression leads all of us to experience childhood amnesia (Chapter 7), the inability to remember anything prior to about age three and a half (Fivush & Hudson, 1990). Early childhood, Freud contended, is too anxiety provoking for us to remember fully In contrast to repression, which is the motivated forgetting of distressing internal experiences, denial is the motivated forgetting of distressing external experiences. We most often observe denial in people with psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia (see Chapter 15), although normal individuals undergoing extreme stress may occasionally engage in denial too. It’s not uncommon, for example, for the relatives of individuals who have recently died in a tragic accident to insist that their loved ones must somehow, somewhere, be alive. Regression is the act of returning psychologically to a younger age, typically early childhood, when life was simpler and safer. Older children who’ve long since stopped sucking their thumbs sometimes suddenly resume thumb sucking under stress. Reaction-formation is the transformation of an anxiety-provoking emotion into its opposite. The observable emotion we see actually reflects the opposite emotion the person feels unconsciously. Freud contended that we can infer the presence of reaction-formation by the intensity with which the person expresses the emotion, as this emotion displays an exaggerated or “phony” quality. When watching the “play within a play” in Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the queen observed “The lady doth protest too much,” in response to a woman whose expressed love to her husband seemed insincere. The queen was perceptive, as the woman later poisoned her husband. Projection is the unconscious attribution of our negative characteristics to others. According to psychoanalysts, people with paranoia are projecting their unconscious hostility onto others. Deep down they wish to harm others, but because they can’t accept these impulses they perceive others as wanting to harm them. Closely related to projection is displacement, in which we direct an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer and more socially acceptable target. After a frustrating day at work, we may pound our fist against the punching bag at the gym rather than into the faces of our annoying coworkers. Rationalization provides a reasonable-sounding explanation for our unreasonable behaviours or failures. Some people who receive posthypnotic suggestions (see Chapter 5) to perform bizarre actions engage in rationalizations to explain these actions. For example, a subject given a posthypnotic suggestion to bark like a dog after emerging from hypnosis may do so. When the hypnotist asks him why he barked for no apparent reason, he may rationalize his behaviour: “Hmmm... I was just thinking about how much I missed my dog, so I felt like barking” (see Figure 14.4). By using intellectualization, we avoid the emotions associated with anxiety- provoking experiences by focusing on abstract and impersonal thoughts. A husband whose wife leaves him may resort to ruminating about statistics regarding the divorce rate (“Almost a third of marriages in Canada end in divorce”; “Because we’d only been married a few years, we were at high risk for divorce”) as a means of buffering himself against emotional pain. Sublimation transforms a socially unacceptable impulse into an admired goal. George Vaillant’s (1977) book Adaptation to Life, which is a 40-year longitudinal study of Harvard University graduates, features several examples of sublimation. Among them is the story of a man who set fires in childhood and went on to become chief of his local fire department. 1. Repression: Unconsciously blocking uncomfortable thoughts or memories from conscious awareness. 2. Denial: Refusing to accept reality or facts, thus avoiding a painful event or situation. 3. Projection: Attributing one's own unacceptable feelings or thoughts to others. 4. Displacement: Redirecting emotions or impulses from the original source to a safer, substitute target. 4. Identify and describe four of the five major criticisms of psychoanalytic theory. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. (1) Unfalsifiability. Critics have noted that many features of Freudian theory are unfalsifiable. For example, the concept of reaction-formation offers a convenient escape hatch that allows many psychoanalytic hypotheses to evade falsification. If we were to find evidence that most 5-year-old boys report being sexually repulsed by their mothers, would this observation refute the existence of the Oedipus complex? Superficially, the answer would seem to be yes, but Freudians could maintain that these boys are engaging in reaction-formation and are attracted to their mothers at an unconscious level. (2) Failed Predictions. Although much of Freudian theory is difficult to falsify, those portions of the theory that can be falsified often have been (Grunbaum, 1984). For example, Freud claimed that children exposed to overly harsh toilet training would grow up to be rigid and perfectionistic. Yet most investigators have found no association between toilet training practices and adult personality (Fisher & Greenberg, 1996). (3) Questionable Conception of the Unconscious. There’s increasing reason to doubt the existence of the unconscious as Freud conceived of it. On the one hand, there’s growing research evidence that we’re often unaware of why we do things. We often convince ourselves that we behave for reasons that are plausible, but incorrect. Recent evidence suggests that subliminally presented stimuli (see Chapters 4 and 11), that is, stimuli presented below the threshold for awareness, can affect people’s behaviour. Other evidence comes from priming paradigms, in which researchers observe the effects of subtle stimuli on people’s behaviour (Chapter 7). The findings we’ve reviewed may seem to support Freudian theory because they suggest that factors of which we’re unaware influence our behaviour (Westen, 1998). Yet they don’t provide evidence for the unconscious: a massive reservoir of impulses and memories submerged beneath awareness (Wilson, 2002). Freud viewed the unconscious as a “place” where sexual and aggressive energies, along with repressed memories, are housed. Nevertheless, research doesn’t support the existence of this place, let alone tell us where it’s located (Kihlstrom, 1987). (4) Reliance on Unrepresentative Samples. Many critics have charged that Freud based his theories on atypical samples and generalised them to the rest of humanity. Most of Freud’s patients were upper-class, neurotic Viennese women, a far cry from the average Nigerian man or Malaysian woman. Freud’s theories may therefore possess limited external validity, that is, generalizability (see Chapter 2), for people from other cultural backgrounds. Moreover, although Freud’s methods of inquiry were idiographic, his theory was nomothetic. That is, he studied a relatively small number of individuals in depth but applied his theories to most or all people. (5) Flawed Assumption of Shared Environmental Influence. Many Freudian hypotheses presume that shared environment plays a key role in moulding personality. For example, Freudians claim that the child emerging from the phallic stage assumes the personality characteristics of the same-sex parent. Nevertheless, as behaviour-genetic studies have shown, shared environment plays little or no role in adult personality. These findings contradict a key proposition of Freudian theory. 1. Lack of Empirical Support: Psychoanalytic concepts are difficult to test scientifically and lack robust empirical evidence. 2. Overemphasis on Sexuality: Critics argue that Freud's focus on sexual drives is excessive and not representative of all human motivation. 3. Determinism: The theory's emphasis on early childhood experiences as determinative can overlook the influence of later life events and personal agency. 4. Gender Bias: Freud's theories have been criticized for their male-centric perspective and for perpetuating stereotypes about women. 5. Describe how Neo-Freudian theories are similar to and different from Freudian theories. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Neo-Freudian Theories: Core Features. Most neo-Freudian theories share with Freudian theory an emphasis on (a) unconscious influences on behaviour and (b) the importance of early experience in shaping personality. Nevertheless, neo-Freudian theories differ from Freudian theory in two key ways: (1) Neo-Freudian theories place less emphasis than does Freudian theory on sexuality as a driving force in personality, and more emphasis on social drives, such as the need for approval. (2) Most neo- Freudian theories are more optimistic than Freudian theory concerning the prospects for personality growth throughout the life span. Freud was notoriously pessimistic about the possibility of personality change after childhood; he once wrote that the goal of psychoanalysis was to turn neurotic misery into ordinary, everyday unhappiness Neo-Freudian theories are similar to Freudian theories in their emphasis on the unconscious mind and the significance of early childhood experiences. However, they differ by placing less emphasis on sexual drives and more on social and cultural factors, interpersonal relationships, and conscious thought processes in shaping personality. 6. Compare and contrast the views of Sigmund Freud with those of B.F. Skinner as they apply to a discussion of personality development. Answer: Answers will vary but should include the following ideas for full credit. • Both theorists superficially agree on the issues of determinism and unconscious processing. • Needs to distinguish between how this determinism occurs between Freud's and Skinner's views. Freud would focus on this from arising within the individual while Skinner would see this in our passive responses to external contingencies. • Needs to distinguish between how each discusses the unconscious. Freud thought of the unconscious as something that the individual could not access. Skinner talks about the unconscious in our inability to determine the immediate influences on our behaviours. As a result we assume free will because we cannot identify our responding to causally determined influences in the environment around us. Freud's view on personality development focuses on unconscious processes, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts among the id, ego, and superego. In contrast, B.F. Skinner's perspective emphasizes observable behavior, external reinforcement, and environmental influences, viewing personality as a result of learned behaviors through operant conditioning. 7. Contrast Freud's theory of personality with that of the humanists' theory of personality. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. • Freud's psychoanalytic theory assumed psychic determinism, focused on the unconscious level of the mind and assumed that people were naturally destructive (the id and the pleasure principle). The humanists asserted that individuals had free will, focused on conscious level of the mind, and sought constructive personal growth. • Freud argued for the importance of society in constraining one's biologically based, destructive urges. Rogers argued that others set conditions of worth on us and being too concerned about what we should/ought to do stifled our tendency toward our fullest potential. Freud's theory of personality emphasizes unconscious conflicts, early childhood experiences, and deterministic drives, often focusing on negative aspects of human nature. Humanist theories, such as those proposed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, highlight conscious experiences, personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherently positive aspects of human potential. 8. What is self-actualization? Describe and discuss both Rogers and Maslow’s approach to self-actualisation and understanding personality. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Most humanistic psychologists propose that the core motive in personality is self actualization: the drive to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent. Rogers’s Model of Personality. According to Rogers (1947), our personalities consist of three major components: organism, self, and conditions of worth. (1) The organism is our innate genetic blueprint. Rogers viewed the organism as inherently positive and helpful toward others. (2) The self is our self-concept, the set of beliefs about who we are. (3) Conditions of worth are the expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate behaviour. Like the Freudian superego, they emanate from our parents and society, and eventually we internalise them. Conditions of worth arise when others make their acceptance of us conditional—dependent—only on certain behaviours but not others. As a result, we accept ourselves only if we act in specific ways. For Rogers, individual differences in personality stem largely from differences in the conditions of worth that others impose on us. Conditions of worth result in incongruence between self and organism. Incongruence means that our personalities are inconsistent with our innate dispositions: We’re not our true selves. Maslow: The Characteristics of Self-Actualized People. Whereas Rogers focused largely on pathological individuals whose tendencies toward self-actualisation were thwarted, Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) focused on individuals who were self- actualized, especially historical figures. According to Maslow (1970), self-actualised people tend to be creative, spontaneous, and accepting of themselves and others. They’re self-confident but not self-centred. They focus on real-world and intellectual problems and have a few deep friendships rather than many superficial ones. Self- actualized individuals typically crave privacy and can come off as introverted, aloof, or even difficult to deal with because they’ve outgrown the need to be popular. As a consequence, they’re not afraid to “rock the boat” when necessary or express unpopular opinions. They’re also prone to peak experiences—transcendent moments of intense excitement and tranquility marked by a profound sense of connection to the world. Self-actualization is the realization of one's full potential and the pursuit of personal growth and fulfillment. Maslow viewed it as the highest level of his hierarchy of needs, achievable after satisfying more basic needs. Rogers saw self-actualization as an ongoing process facilitated by an environment of unconditional positive regard, enabling individuals to become their true selves. 9. Categorize the similarities and differences between the psychoanalytic, behavioural, and humanistic perspectives on personality. Answer: Answers will vary but all should address the following issues for full credit. A student should discuss the following ideas within their answer: • Basic view of human nature (Psychoanalytic—basically bad; Behavioural— neutral/neither good nor bad; Humanistic—basically good). • Basic view of culture/society (Psychoanalytic—basically good; Behavioural— neutral/neither good nor bad; Humanistic—basically bad/controlling and stifling). • Important factor in personality development (Psychoanalytic—early experiences and unconscious motivational conflict; Behavioural—experiences with external contingencies and modelling; Humanistic—the self and opportunity to have congruency in personality). • Differing levels of research support (Behavioural perspective has the firmest grounding of the three; many concerns about the falsifiability of keys ideas with Psychoanalytic and Humanistic perspectives). Similarities: • All three perspectives aim to explain personality development and behavior. • Each acknowledges the role of environmental influences to varying extents. Differences: • Psychoanalytic: Focuses on unconscious processes and early childhood experiences. • Behavioral: Emphasizes observable behavior and external reinforcement. • Humanistic: Highlights conscious experiences, personal growth, and self-actualization. 10. Demonstrate that Walter Mischel is correct in his assertion that general personality traits are not accurate predictors of specific behaviours while the trait theorists are also correct in their assertion that personality traits are accurate predictors of a person's behaviour. Use examples from your own life or a friend's life to support your position(s). Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following points for full credit. • Mischel is correct in saying that a general personality trait is not a good/an accurate predictor of what a person will do in a particular situation. (Student should give an example of this from his or her own life or a friend's life to demonstrate this.) • Through the principle of aggregation, the student should show that the personality trait is a better predictor across time and/or situations than for any single incident. (Students should give an example from their own life or a friend's life to demonstrate this. It does not have to follow from the above, but that would be best). Walter Mischel is correct in asserting that general personality traits may not predict specific behaviors consistently; for instance, a typically outgoing friend may still feel shy giving a speech. However, trait theorists are also right as personality traits can predict overall behavior patterns; for example, the same outgoing friend is generally sociable and enjoys group activities. This duality shows that while traits guide behavior, situational factors also play a crucial role. 11. Describe how an empirical method of test construction differs from the rational/theoretical method of test construction, and use an example to illustrate both. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. The MMPI-2, like its predecessor, consists of ten basic scales, most of which assess mental disorders, such as paranoia, depression, and schizophrenia (see Chapter 15). Hathaway and McKinley developed these scales by means of an empirical (or data- based) method of test construction. Using this approach, researchers begin with two or more criterion groups, such as people with and without a specific psychological disorder, and examine which items best distinguish them. For example, the items on the MMPI depression scale are those that best differentiate patients with clinical depression from nondepressed people. Psychologists have also developed many structured personality measures using a rational/theoretical method of test construction. In contrast to an empirical approach, this approach requires test developers to begin with a clear-cut conceptualisation of a trait and then write items to assess that conceptualisation. Auke Tellegen (1982) adopted a rational/theoretical approach in constructing the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) and later used factor analysis to select the best items for this test. The MPQ assesses three major self-reported personality traits related to (1) positive emotions (such as happiness and social intimacy), (2) negative emotions (such as anxiety and anger), and (3) impulse control (Tellegen et al., 1988). Studies show that the MPQ validly assesses these personality traits; scores on its scales correlate highly with ratings of the same traits by peers. Empirical method of test construction involves gathering data through observation and experimentation to identify items that statistically correlate with the trait being measured. For example, in creating a test for extraversion, items might be selected based on how well they discriminate between extraverted and introverted individuals. Rational/theoretical method of test construction relies on theoretical principles and expert judgment to create test items that theoretically should measure the construct of interest. For instance, a test for intelligence might include items that theoretically tap into problem-solving abilities based on established cognitive theories. 12. Illustrate the acceptable and dubious forms of personality assessment that have existed or exist today in the field of personality psychology. Your discussion needs to identify at least one acceptable and two dubious forms of personality assessment. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. • Student identifies and mentions information about reliability and validity evidence for MMPI 1 or 2, CPI, or Big 5 test. • Student identifies limitations of above. • Student identifies and mentions the lack of reliability and/or validity evidence for phrenology, physiognomy, blood type, MBTI, Rorschach, TAT, or graphology. (Needs to identify problems with at least two.) An acceptable form of personality assessment is the use of well-established psychometric tests like the Big Five Inventory (BFI), which have been rigorously validated and standardized with robust reliability and validity measures. Dubious forms include graphology (handwriting analysis), which lacks empirical support and scientific validation, and unstructured interviews, which can introduce bias and inconsistency in evaluating personality traits due to subjective interpretations. Fill in the Blank Questions 1. An examination of a single person's unique characteristics is at the heart of the _______________ approach to studying personality. Answer: idiographic 2. According to Freud, the _______________ is the part of personality that enables us to feel guilt and shame when we fail to live up to our internal standards of appropriate behaviour. Answer: superego 3. Defence mechanisms, according to Sigmund Freud, are unconscious attempts to reduce our feelings of _______________, and are used in such a manner by the ego. Answer: anxiety 4. The Freudian defence mechanism of denial involves the motivated forgetting of distressing _______________ experiences. Answer: external 5. Emilio had an important presentation at work that did not go well. As a result, he spent nearly two and a half hours getting scolded and reprimanded by his immediate boss and the company owner. After getting home, he yelled at his children to “Clean up this mess” after they left a couple of toys in the living room. Emilio has engaged the defence mechanism of _______________ to attempt to relieve his stress and anxiety. Answer: displacement 6. Clyde is a 30-month-old toddler who is in the middle of the _______________ stage of development. Answer: anal 7. Ethan and Eva are fraternal twins who were born about two months ago. According to Freud's theory of personality development, they will experience the Oedipus and Electra complex respectively during the _______________ stage. Answer: phallic 8. _______________ is the theorist who has had the widest sphere of influence in how people think about the topic of personality development. Answer: Sigmund Freud (or Freud) 9. In contrast to Freud's theory, the neo-Freudians placed more importance on the role of social _______________ in achieving healthy personality development. Answer: drives 10. Alfred Adler was most interested in understanding how the _______________ led to differences in psychological adjustment for psychologically healthy individuals versus those who developed a mental illness. Answer: inferiority complex 11. The biased assumption that females were inferior to males was a major point of contention between Freud's ideas and those of the neo-Freudian theorist _____________ Answer: Karen Horney. 12. The role of environmental contingencies in producing different personality patterns was a key idea of the _______________. Answer: behavioural view (or Behaviourism). 13. The personality approach offered by the _______________ focused on how we influence and are influenced by our differing social environments. Answer: social learning theorists 14. The _______________ perspective on personality has the strongest scientific footing of the three major forces in the history of personality psychology. Answer: behavioural (or behaviourist or behavioural and social learning) 15. The major force in personality psychology that asserted that people were free to choose either adaptive or self-defeating patterns was called the _______________. Answer: humanistic model. 16. According to humanistic psychologists, the ultimate human motivator is the pursuit of _______________. Answer: self- actualization. 17. A common criticism of many psychoanalytic and humanistic perspectives on personality development is that they are _______________. Answer: unfalsifiable (or difficult to falsify). 18. The statistical tool of _______________ is most important to the trait theory of personality. Answer: factor analysis 19. Social psychological research has consistently demonstrated that general personality traits are often poor predictors of whether a person will engage in a specific behaviour. However, social psychological research has also shown that general personality traits are highly predictive when we _______________ specific behaviours across many different situations where they may occur. Answer: aggregate (or add/sum or average) 20. A concern with one's self-image and achieving personal goals is most important for people in _______________. Answer: individualistic cultures. 21. Donnell tells his friend Marques that he has noticed that people with different body types fall into neat, discrete categories associated with very different patterns of personality traits. Marques, who is a psychology major, would be wise to warn Donnell of the _______________. Answer: confirmation bias. 22. One concern with the use of structured personality tests, like the MMPI, is that certain questions do not appear to be relevant to the psychological dimensions they supposedly measure. A psychologist would say such questions have a low degree of _______________. Answer: face validity. 23. Darnell is a psychotherapist who asks his clients to describe what is going on in ambiguous situations that are presented one at a time on different cards. His use of __________________ is one method to attempt the assessment of an individual's personality. Answer: projective tests (or thematic apperception tests) 24. Lyle Crane is a motivational speaker who gives seminars to parents of teenagers. During his talks he mentions that on the basis of questionnaires, the individuals on stage with him are anxious about their responsibilities as parents, have serious doubts about whether their discipline methods are effective in instilling desired values to their children, and worry about what the future holds in their relationship with their kids. Those on stage, and many in the audience, nod in agreement. Lyle tells them that with his Parenting Kit (which can be theirs today for a low price of $249) he can help them to become more effective parents. He is quickly inundated with cash, cheques, and credit card information. Many of these parents are falling victim to the _______________. Answer: P. T. Barnum effect. 25. According to your authors, criminal profiles seem to be examples of the _____________ Answer: P. T. Barnum effect (or Barnum statements or obvious general guesses). Test Bank for Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven J. Lynn, Laura L. Namy, Nancy J. Woolf, Kenneth M. Cramer, Rodney Schmaltz 9780205896110, 9780133793048, 9780133870282
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