CH-14 Cognitive Development in Adolescence – The World of Children : Exam Guide

Chapter 14 Cognitive Development in Adolescence 14.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. All of the following are higher-level cognitive abilities that occur during formal operations EXCEPT A) hypothetico-deductive reasoning. B) logical thinking about tangible objects. C) reasoning logically about abstract concepts. D) thinking about one's own thinking. Answer: B) logical thinking about tangible objects. Children develop the capacity for logical thinking about tangible objects during concrete operations, the stage of development that occurs before formal operations. 2. The ability to engage in abstract reasoning about hypothetical events that are not directly experienced develops in which of Piaget's stages of cognitive development? A) concrete operations B) formal operations C) sensorimotor D) preoperational Answer: B) formal operations Formal operational thought is characterized by five important higher-level cognitive abilities: hypothetico-deductive reasoning; reasoning logically about abstract concepts; separating reality from possibilities; considering all logical possible combinations; and thinking about one’s own thinking. 3. Piaget's classic "pendulum problem" was used to assess adolescents' A) egocentrism. B) deductive reasoning skills. C) level of concrete operations. D) intuitive thinking ability. Answer: B) deductive reasoning skills. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is the use of deductive reasoning (reasoning from general principles to particular conclusions) to systematically manipulate several variables, test hypotheses about their effects in a systematic way, and reach correct conclusions. 4. When presented with tasks like the pendulum problem, in contrast to adolescents, children in the ______________ stage are not good at systematically testing all of the factors; they tend to report whatever answer seems to be correct after conducting only a few tests. A) sensorimotor B) preoperational C) concrete operational D) formal operational Answer: C) concrete operational 5. Which type of reasoning involves reaching a particular conclusion on the basis of general principles? A) abstract B) combinatorial C) reflective D) deductive Answer: D) deductive Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is the use of deductive reasoning (reasoning from general principles to particular conclusions) to systematically manipulate several variables, test hypotheses about their effects in a systematic way, and reach correct conclusions. 6. Frank has been asked to complete Piaget's pendulum problem. He comes up with some hypotheses and then systematically tests each variable. First, he holds the length of the string and the amount of weight constant and varies the height at which oscillation is started then he moves on to examining the other variables. Frank is in which stage of Piaget's cognitive developmental theory? A) sensorimotor stage B) preoperations C) concrete operations D) formal operations Answer: D) formal operations Adolescents using formal operations, however, start by considering all of the variables and all of their possible combinations, reasoning that any single factor could be responsible for the pendulum’s rate of swing. They then systematically test each factor one at a time, holding the other factors constant, until they arrive at the correct solution. 7. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning, which develops in Piaget’s stage of formal operations, shares the same set of logical skills as A) intuitive reasoning. B) formal scientific reasoning. C) reasoning based on mental imagery, but not verbal concepts. D) sensorimotor reasoning. Answer: B) formal scientific reasoning. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning, or formal scientific reasoning—is the ability to plan systematic tests to explore multiple variables. 8. The ability to think about concepts and ideas that are not concrete and tangible is called A) hypothetico-deductive reasoning. B) combinational logic. C) abstract thought. D) reflective thinking. Answer: C) abstract thought. 9. If you ask a child what she would do if she had a "third eye," she might respond by saying things like "spy on my older brother" or "put it on the top of my foot so I could see under things." These answers indicate that the child is capable of A) transitive thinking. B) perspective-taking. C) abstract thought. D) reversibility. Answer: C) abstract thought. Abstract thought is the ability to think about things that are not concrete or tangible, such as general concepts or ideas. 10. Sixteen-year-old Carmen is extremely interested in learning about the justice system. She loves to discuss topics such as minority and women's rights in her government class. According to Piaget's theory, Carmen enjoys engaging in A) abstract thought. B) hypothetico-deductive reasoning. C) combinational logic. D) reflective thinking. Answer: A) abstract thought. Abstract thought is the ability to think about things that are not concrete or tangible, such as general concepts or ideas. 11. Which aspect of formal operational thought helps adolescents to become idealistic about the possibilities for their own lives, the environment, or for those in difficult and unfair situations around the world? A) abstract thought B) separating reality from possibilities C) combinatorial logic D) reflective thinking Answer: B) separating reality from possibilities The capacity to think not about how the world is, but also how it might be emerges during formal operations, and allows the adolescent to imagine alternative possibilities for themselves and others. 12. Elise has been asked to complete Piaget's pendulum problem. She takes an approach where she systematically examines all of the possible combinations of the elements. For example, she considers what would happen if she had a short length of string with a light weight swung from a high height. This is most likely an example of A) abstract thought. B) reflective thinking. C) combinational logic. D) logical comparisons. Answer: C) combinational logic. Combinational logic is the ability to generate and systematically consider all possible combinations of a set of elements. 13. LaShondra, a high school student, is contemplating running for class president. As she imagines herself giving a speech, she notices that she begins to feel nervous and self-conscious. According to Piaget, LaShondra’s ability to observe her own thoughts is called A) reflective thinking. B) hypothetico-deductive reasoning. C) abstract thought. D) combinatorial logic. Answer: A) reflective thinking. As a result of many of the developing abilities we have just described, adolescents are able to think about their own thinking, a skill that Piaget called reflective thinking. 14. Piaget’s notion of reflective thinking is closely related to the concept of ____________ studied by information-processing theorists. A) working memory B) long-term store C) metacognition D) internalization Answer: C) metacognition Information-processing psychologists call the ability to analyze one’s own thoughts metacognition and, like Piaget, believe it plays an important role in mature thinking. 15. On a whim, 16-year-old Bre decided to get a short haircut. When she walks into school the next day, she feels as if everyone in the entire school is watching her. This is most likely an example of A) personal fable. B) abstract thought. C) reflective thinking. D) imaginary audience. Answer: D) imaginary audience. The imaginary audience is the belief that other people are just as concerned with one’s behavior, feelings, thoughts, and appearance as they are themselves. This leads to a sometimes excruciating degree of self-consciousness. Many adolescents feel “on stage,” as if everyone else were noticing every embarrassing thing they do. 16. The inability to distinguish between your own thoughts and the thoughts of others is called A) a personal fable. B) adolescent egocentrism. C) reflective thinking. D) abstract thought. Answer: B) adolescent egocentrism. 17. All of the following are aspects of the personal fable EXCEPT A) personal uniqueness. B) reflective thinking. C) omnipotence. D) invulnerability. Answer: B) reflective thinking. The personal fable includes a sense of personal uniqueness, omnipotence, and invulnerability. 18. 15-year-old Tyler is failing his chemistry class. When his parents ask him what the problem is, he tells them that it is all his teacher's fault—her exams are hard. His father refuses to accept this explanation and asks Tyler if he needs a tutor. Tyler loudly responds, "I don't need a tutor! You have no idea how hard high school is! You don't know how I feel!" This is most likely an example of a(n) A) imaginary audience. B) guided participation. C) personal fable. D) situated cognition. Answer: C) personal fable. Tyler has constructed a personal fable in which he perceives himself as unfairly suffering under an instructor who has unreasonable expectations. 19. Risky behaviors such as having unprotected sex and drinking and driving may be a result of A) the personal fable. B) the imaginary audience. C) abstract thought. D) combinational logic. Answer: A) the personal fable. 20. Which of the following statements is consistent with a personal fable that includes the feeling of invulnerability? A) “I have to dress well, or my friends will tell me that I am sloppy.” B) “I can drink and drive; I’m sure I’ll never have an accident.” C) “Whenever I make a choice, I have to carefully consider each option.” D) “There is no one at school who likes the same music that I do.” Answer: B) “I can drink and drive; I’m sure I’ll never have an accident.” The perception that one can drink and drive is part of the personal fable that “other people have car accidents, but I am a better driver.” 21. The theory that there is a stage of development beyond Piaget’s formal operations, which is reached by older adolescents and adults is called A) post-formal reasoning. B) metasensorimotor cognition. C) ultraconcrete thinking. D) super operational thought. Answer: A) post-formal reasoning. According to the theory of post-formal reasoning, older adolescents and adults continue to develop after reaching the stage of formal operations. 22. All of the following are aspects of post-formal reasoning EXCEPT A) acceptance of contradictions in the world. B) relativistic reasoning. C) hypothetico-deductive reasoning. D) understanding that you have to be practical within a given situation. Answer: C) hypothetico-deductive reasoning. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is an aspect of Piaget’s stage of formal operations. 23. As Josiah approaches his 30th birthday, he imagines the kind of advice he might give the teenage version of himself. He concludes, though, that through making mistakes he has learned many valuable lessons, and that those experiences have helped him to develop a sense of wisdom. Which aspect of post-formal reasoning has Josiah begun to develop? A) understanding that you have to be practical within a given situation B) judgments and decisions based on increasing wisdom C) relativistic reasoning D) acceptance of contradictions in the world Answer: B) judgments and decisions based on increasing wisdom The concept of increasing wisdom with age is an aspect of the post-formal stage of development. 24. Many studies over many years have replicated Piaget’s results on tasks such as object permanence and conservation, under the condition that A) the instructions are presented in English. B) the child’s parent is present during testing. C) the experimenters conduct the tasks in the same ways as Piaget conducted them. D) only firstborn children are tested. Answer: C) the experimenters conduct the tasks in the same ways as Piaget conducted them. 25. What percentage of 18- to 20-year-olds is able to consistently use formal operational thought? A) 20 to 30% B) 50 to 60% C) 80 to 90% D) 100% Answer: B) 50 to 60% 26. Research examining Piaget's theory in a number of different cultures indicates that A) children seem to pass through Piaget's stages in the same order and at the same ages world-wide. B) children seem to pass through Piaget's stages in the same order but not necessarily at the same ages world-wide. C) all children regardless of cultural background or educational level eventually attain formal operations. D) the rates at which individuals achieve formal operations are the same in industrialized and non-industrialized countries. Answer: B) children seem to pass through Piaget's stages in the same order but not necessarily at the same ages world-wide. 27. Although Kendra, a 16-year-old, occasionally shows signs of ______________, it may be more an indication of her attempt to develop an identity, and to psychologically separate from her family, than a sign of general cognitive immaturity. A) reflective thinking B) adolescent egocentrism C) combinatorial logic D) abstract thought Answer: B) adolescent egocentrism Recent studies have called into question the idea that adolescent egocentrism stems from an inability to consider other people’s perspective, but may instead reflect the development of a stable sense of self during adolescence. 28. Which of the following statements regarding evaluations of Piaget's theory is FALSE? A) Piaget tended to overestimate the cognitive abilities of adolescents and young adults. B) Adolescents may not consistently show adolescent egocentrism. C) Children and adolescents often show evidence of being in more than one stage of cognitive development at a time. D) Piaget's ideas concerning the cognitive construction have not been supported by research. Answer: D) Piaget's ideas concerning the cognitive construction have not been supported by research. Piaget’s constructivist view of development is a well-accepted aspect of his theory. Children do seem to be active participants in their own learning and development, assimilating new information into their existing cognitive structures, and modifying or reorganizing their structures when necessary to fit new information. 29. Piaget’s theory implies that as children reorganize their cognitive structures, they rise to a higher and qualitatively different level of logical thought. Once achieved, these new structures and organizations A) apply across all contexts. B) are temporary, and often “regress” to a lower stage of development. C) influence thinking only within a particular context or domain of knowledge. D) depend on the child’s age, rather than on their level of experience. Answer: A) apply across all contexts. Piaget’s theory is domain-general: this means that the cognitive structures that children develop should be available to any type of cognitive activity or domain. 30. A well-accepted aspect of Piaget’s theory is his _______________ view of development. Children do seem to be active participants in their own learning and development, assimilating new information into their existing cognitive structures, and modifying or reorganizing their structures when necessary to fit new information. A) information-processing B) biological C) constructivist D) environmental Answer: C) constructivist Piaget’s constructivist view of development is a well-accepted aspect of his theory. Children do seem to be active participants in their own learning and development, assimilating new information into their existing cognitive structures, and modifying or reorganizing their structures when necessary to fit new information. 31. Which of the following statements regarding the application of Piaget's theory to human development is FALSE? A) Piaget changed the view of children from one of passivity to one of activity. B) Piaget's theory has many applications to the field of education. C) Piaget's theory sparked researchers to conduct studies attempting to support or refute his claims. D) Piaget himself did not collect much data about child cognitive development. Answer: D) Piaget himself did not collect much data about child cognitive development. Piaget based his theory on extensive, long-term observations of his own children’s development. Later in his career, he also supervised numerous studies. 32. A major distinction between Vygotsky's theory of development and Piaget's theory is that Vygotsky's theory focused more directly on A) social interaction's contribution to cognitive growth. B) cognitive assessment through standardized tasks. C) different stages of language development. D) the universality and invariance of cognitive development. Answer: A) social interaction's contribution to cognitive growth. Vygotsky’s theory served as the foundation for several more recent views of cognitive development. These views emphasize the important influence of social interaction and the larger cultural context on cognitive development. 33. The idea that you cannot understand cognition without examining the context in which the thought takes place is called A) guided participation. B) personal fable. C) situated cognition. D) abstract thinking. Answer: C) situated cognition. 34. Paolo has been working in his uncle's bakery since he was able to walk and he can double or halve recipes with ease. In the classroom, however, he tends to have difficulty with word problems and equations containing fractions. This is an example of A) stunted interaction. B) collaborative learning. C) situated cognition. D) a phenomenological variant. Answer: C) situated cognition. The situated cognition view of cognitive development holds that thinking always takes place within a specific context, and always in relation to a particular problem, situation, or interaction. According to this view you cannot really understand thought or its quality or level without also examining the context in which the thought takes place. 35. An implication of situated cognition for educators is that they strive to teach A) skills within contexts that are meaningful and relevant to the student. B) basic abilities such as memorization of facts. C) understanding and respect for students from other parts of the world. D) the importance of solving a problem with assistance from others. Answer: A) skills within contexts that are meaningful and relevant to the student. Educators who include the perspective of situated cognition as part of their teaching philosophy emphasize how specific skills are related to the student’s own social and cultural experiences. 36. Sean finds that when he tries to learn algebra by himself it is impossible. However, when he works with his tutor, algebra seems so much easier—she gradually gets him to understand the material by himself. According to Vygotsky's theory, Sean is able to master algebra because of the concept of A) guided participation. B) abstract thinking. C) situated cognition. D) socially shared cognition. Answer: A) guided participation. The concept of guided participation means that development consists of a person’s gradually increasing participation in sociocultural activity—with gradually decreasing guidance and support from those around them. 37. According to sociocultural theory, guided participation occurs within _____________, which refers to the people, activities, and social interactions that take place as people work together to learn and accomplish goals. A) the psychometric approach B) fluid ability C) the adolescent register D) a community of practice Answer: D) a community of practice Guided participation relies on structured interactions between students and teachers or mentors, who form a community of practice and enable the student to gradually develop the appropriate skills. 38. Which of the following would be the best example of development according to the guided participation perspective? A) Amos can play the piano beautifully at home but has problems playing in front of his peers at school. B) Tammy moves from watching her family dig clams to digging in the sand with her older brother to actually finding clams on her own. C) Marcus and Colin work together to solve a math problem that neither of them could solve individually. D) Enrique moves from talking out loud to whispering to himself to silently moving his lips as he ties his shoes. Answer: B) Tammy moves from watching her family dig clams to digging in the sand with her older brother to actually finding clams on her own. The concept of guided participation means that development consists of a person’s gradually increasing participation in sociocultural activity—with gradually decreasing guidance and support from those around them. 39. In Jeffry's high school, the science club is set up to use guided participation. He helps to clean all of the beakers and organize the chemicals and watches one of the more experienced students, Uli, create chemical compounds. In this situation, Jeffry is the ________ and Uli is the ________. A) central participant; junior participant B) legitimate peripheral participant; central participant C) legitimate peripheral participant, experienced participant D) central participant; legitimate peripheral participant Answer: B) legitimate peripheral participant; central participant While the legitimate peripheral participant is involved in the activity to the degree that his current skill allows, the central participant is able to do a great deal of the work himself and even teach the basics to others. 40.In contrast to the legitimate peripheral participant, the ___________ is able to do a great deal of the work by him or herself and even teach the basics to other participants. A) project leader B) gifted child C) dialect speaker D) central participant Answer: D) central participant. While the legitimate peripheral participant is involved in the activity to the degree that his current skill allows, the central participant is able to do a great deal of the work himself and even teach the basics to others. 41. An important difference between Vygotksy’s view and guided participation is that guided participation emphasizes A) maturation of brain structures. B) the importance of positive feedback and punishment on behavior. C) how a person’s social roles or interactions with others change as the person develops. D) equilibration of internal dynamic processes. Answer: C) how a person’s social roles or interactions with others change as the person develops. While Vygotsky emphasized how learners internalize the psychological tools represented in their cultures, the guided participation view instead emphasizes how a person’s social roles or shared interactions with other people change as the person develops. 42. Diane, Rory, and Linda are working on a research project for the science fair. They have discussed many ideas and have finally come up with an interesting study. Their teacher, Ms. Peterson, asks them who came up with the idea for their project. Diane answers, "No one person came up with the idea—we all had the idea!" This is an example of A) socially shared cognition. B) intelligence. C) the psychometric approach. D) situated cognition. Answer: A) socially shared cognition. Socially shared cognition is the idea that thought is the culmination of many others’ input. Thinking resides in the dynamic interactions between individuals within the group, not solely inside the head of any individual. 43. According to the idea of "socially shared cognition," A) thinking extends beyond the individual and includes that of dyads and groups. B) thinking must revert to the question of "whose idea is it?" C) individuals are unable to think independently. D) individuals share information unconsciously through body language. Answer: A) thinking extends beyond the individual and includes that of dyads and groups. Socially shared cognition is the idea that thought is the culmination of many others’ input. Thinking resides in the dynamic interactions between individuals within the group, not solely inside the head of any individual. 44. Most psychological research conceptualizes intelligence as being similar to whose views of formal operational thought? A) Vygotsky B) Kohlberg C) Piaget D) Chall Answer: C) Piaget. Most of the psychological research on intelligence comes from the Western, industrialized perspective of Europe and the United States. Theorists within this perspective generally define intelligence as the ability to learn, think logically about abstract concepts, and adapt to the environment—very similar to Piaget’s views of formal operational thought. 45. Most psychologists conceptualize intelligence as A) post-formal thought. B) the ability to make competent decisions. C) being similar to hypothetico-deductive reasoning. D) the ability to think logically about abstract concepts. Answer: D) the ability to think logically about abstract concepts. Most of the psychological research on intelligence comes from the Western, industrialized perspective of Europe and the United States. Theorists within this perspective generally define intelligence as the ability to learn, think logically about abstract concepts, and adapt to the environment—very similar to Piaget’s views of formal operational thought. 46. Which approach to studying intelligence uses paper-and-pencil measurements? A) triarchic theory B) psychometric C) analytical D) componential Answer: B) psychometric With the psychometric approach to studying intelligence, researchers use paper-and-pencil tests and/or physical measurements in an attempt to quantify people’s psychological skills and abilities. 47. The two factors in Spearman's theory of intelligence are A) musical intelligence and specific intelligence. B) experiential intelligence and contextual intelligence. C) general intelligence and specific intelligence. D) componential intelligence and general intelligence. Answer: C) general intelligence and specific intelligence. In Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence, the first factor is called general intelligence (g) and is a broad ability that applies to some extent to all intellectual tasks. The second factor is called specific intelligence (s), and refers to the abilities people have in particular areas, such as reading, verbal, and spatial skills. 48. The letters "g" and "s" were used within A) Galton's two-factor theory of intelligence. B) Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence. C) Guilford's five-factor theory of intelligence. D) Thurstone's seven-factor theory of intelligence. Answer: B) Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence. In Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence, the first factor is called general intelligence (g) and is a broad ability that applies to some extent to all intellectual tasks. The second factor is called specific intelligence (s), and refers to the abilities people have in particular areas, such as reading, verbal, and spatial skills. 49. Which aspect of intelligence did Spearman believe to be neurologically based? A) contextual B) specific C) experiential D) general Answer: D) general Spearman believed that g was neurologically based, and he saw it as providing the driving force behind most intellectual accomplishments. 50. While Stephanie normally earns good grades, she is struggling in geometry. According to Spearman, which type of intelligence is limiting Stephanie’s ability to learn geometry? A) spatial intelligence B) specific intelligence (s) C) fluid intelligence D) general intelligence (g) Answer: B) specific intelligence (s) Specific intelligence determines the abilities that people have in particular areas, such as reading, verbal, and spatial skills. 51. Which of the following statements regarding Horn and Cattell's theory of crystallized and fluid intelligence is FALSE? A) Fluid intelligence peaks at approximately age 18. B) Crystallized intelligence consists of vocabulary and number abilities. C) Crystallized intelligence increases throughout adulthood. D) Fluid intelligence consists of mechanical skills. Answer: D) Fluid intelligence consists of mechanical skills. Fluid ability is a biologically based ability to think. It essentially involves the ability to perceive relations among elements, and it peaks by around age 18. 52. The type of intelligence that includes number ability, mechanical skills, and vocabulary is called A) general intelligence. B) fluid intelligence. C) crystallized intelligence. D) specific intelligence. Answer: C) crystallized intelligence. 53. What school of thought does Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence support? A) information-processing B) psychoanalysis C) behaviorism D) Gestalt Answer: A) information-processing Sternberg’s theory embraces the information-processing concept. 54. Sternberg's componential subtheory is also referred to as A) creative intelligence. B) practical intelligence. C) analytical intelligence. D) crystallized intelligence. Answer: C) analytical intelligence. The componential sub theory describes how mental processes work together to give us intellectual thought. In this sub theory a “component” is a mental process (such as planning, reading, or remembering) that gathers or works with information. Because these mental components enable us to analyze information, they are sometimes called analytical intelligence. 55. Eighteen-year-old Alita is writing a paper for her history class. The project requires her to use at least three references and integrate all of the information she gathers into a comprehensive time line of a particular decade in the twentieth century. According to Sternberg's triarchic theory, which aspect of intelligence is Alita using? A) contextual B) experiential C) componential D) specific Answer: C) componential The componential sub theory describes how mental processes work together to give us intellectual thought. In this sub theory a “component” is a mental process (such as planning, reading, or remembering) that gathers or works with information. Because these mental components enable us to analyze information, they are sometimes called analytical intelligence. 56. Sternberg's componential sub theory of intelligence includes all of the following components EXCEPT A) automaticity. B) knowledge-acquisition. C) meta component. D) performance. Answer: A) automaticity. Sternberg described three types of components. Knowledge-acquisition components selectively encode, combine, and compare information, allowing us to acquire new knowledge. Performance components perform tasks such as sorting, classifying, remembering, and otherwise processing information. Meta components “supervise” and evaluate the functioning of the other two types. 57. "As we learn new tasks and then how to perform them automatically, we become more intelligent." This statement is the foundation of which of Sternberg's three sub theories? A) componential B) analytical C) experiential D) contextual Answer: C) experiential The experiential sub theory addresses the role of novelty and experience in intelligence. According to this sub theory, we become more intelligent as we master new tasks and learn how to perform them more automatically. 58. Which sub theory of Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence involves mastering new tasks and figuring out new ways to solve problems? A) componential B) experiential C) contextual D) crystallized Answer: B) experiential. The experiential sub theory ties in with what is typically called creative intelligence. That is, some people are quick at figuring out new tasks—they see new patterns easily and find creative new ways to solve problems. 59. Which sub theory of Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence is related to the concepts of common sense, street smarts, and practical intelligence? A) componential B) experiential C) contextual D) intrapersonnel Answer: C) contextual. The contextual sub theory describes individuals’ abilities to show intelligent behavior in real-life contexts. It involves adapting to, selecting, and shaping real-life situations. 60. All of the following are criticisms of Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence EXCEPT A) it is unclear how the three sub theories related to one another. B) it is unclear why other aspects of intelligence are not included in the theory. C) he does not discuss how each aspect of intelligence relates to biological and brain functioning. D) the theory has not been supported by empirical research studies. Answer: D) the theory has not been supported by empirical research studies. Critics charge that although the theory is comprehensive, it is not clear how the three sub theories relate to one another. Nor is it clear why some elements are included but other possible elements are not. Finally, Sternberg does not link his components and processes to the biology of intelligence or to what is known about how the brain functions. 61. Gardner believed that intelligence has a(n) ________, meaning that it has an underlying biological and/or genetic aspect. A) evolutionary cause B) biopsychological potential C) sociological potential D) hormonal cause Answer: B) biopsychological potential 62. Which of the following statements concerning Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is FALSE? A) Everyone has a different profile of intelligences. B) There is an underlying biological component to intelligence. C) The eight types of intelligence are independent from one another. D) Environmental factors such as culture do not influence intelligence. Answer: D) Environmental factors such as culture do not influence intelligence. According to Gardner, the biopsychological potential depends on environmental factors, including culture. 63. An important feature of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is that it is supported by not only psychometric findings, but also A) isolating a specific intelligence by brain damage. B) an evolutionary account or explanation. C) the existence of exceptional people (with either strengths or weaknesses). D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above 64. Which of the following is a criticism of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences? A) It does not further our understanding of brain development. B) Gardner’s measures of the intelligences are not correlated with one another. C) It is not clear how separate intelligences are coordinated on a given task. D) The theory is not supported by psychometric tests. Answer: C) It is not clear how separate intelligences are coordinated on a given task. Critics argue that Gardner’s theory does not explain how the intelligences are coordinated when they work together on a given task. Gardner says that the intrapersonal intelligence may play this role; but critics claim that such coordination necessarily implies a g factor—the very concept that Gardner was reacting against. 65. All of the following are types of intelligence in Gardner's theory EXCEPT A) spatial intelligence. B) naturalist intelligence. C) creative intelligence. D) musical intelligence. Answer: C) creative intelligence. Gardner’s theory includes several types of intelligence. While there is no specific type or component called “creative” intelligence, creativity is expressed in a number of intelligence types, including musical and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. 66. Simon is a highly successful biologist who studies and classifies different species of butterflies. According to Gardner's theory, Simon most likely displays a high level of ________ intelligence. A) naturalist B) spatial C) bodily-kinesthetic D) intrapersonal Answer: A) naturalist Naturalist intelligence involves skill in recognizing and classifying plants and animals, including an ability to distinguish among species and chart relations among species. 67. When Shevaun was four years old, she liked to watch Sesame Street in both English and Spanish. When she was seven years old, she could transcribe nursery rhymes from one language to the other. When she grows up, she wants to work for the United Nations as an interpreter. Shevaun would likely score high in Gardner's A) interpersonal intelligence. B) linguistic intelligence. C) naturalist intelligence. D) intrapersonal intelligence. Answer: B) linguistic intelligence. Linguistic intelligence involves an acute sensitivity to spoken and written language; it includes abilities to learn languages and use language effectively to achieve specific goals. 68. Homer keeps a journal and writes honestly and deeply about his own intentions, feelings, and fears. He started meditating as a teenager and attended a retreat to learn more about his reactions to solitude. Homer would likely score high in A) intrapersonal intelligence. B) interpersonal intelligence. C) linguistic intelligence. D) naturalist intelligence. Answer: A) intrapersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence involves the ability to understand and regulate your own emotions; it also involves sensitivity to and understanding of own desires, fears, intentions, and capacities. 69. Janice is a highly successful brain surgeon. According to Gardner's theory, which two types of intelligence does Janice most likely have? A) intrapersonal; linguistic B) bodily-kinesthetic; spatial C) intrapersonal; logical-mathematical D) musical; naturalist Answer: B) bodily-kinesthetic; spatial Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves the ability to use the whole body, or parts of it, to solve problems or make products; it involves a high degree of control over fine- and gross-motor skills. Spatial intelligence involves the abilities to perceive, transform, and re-create spatial information for large-scale or small-scale projects. 70. What popularized the term intelligence quotient or "IQ"? A) Binet-Simon Scale B) Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences C) Spearman’s two-factor theory D) Sternberg’s triarchic theory Answer: A) Binet-Simon Scale 71. The formula used to calculate a person's intelligence quotient (IQ) is: A) Chronological age / Mental age B) (Mental age / Chronological age) x 100 C) 100 x Chronological age x Mental age D) Mental age / Chronological age Answer: B) (Mental age / Chronological age) x 100 72. Roberto is 14 years old, but his performance on an intelligence test reveals a mental age of 18. His IQ is A) above 100. B) equal to 40. C) below 75. D) equal to 100. Answer: A) above 100. 73. Who created the first practically used intelligence scale in 1905? A) Binet and Simon B) Terman and Gardner C) Terman and Binet D) Gardner and Sternberg Answer: A) Binet and Simon 74. Cass was given an assessment test by his school psychologist that measured his progress in achieving the goals of a curriculum. Most likely, Cass was given a(n) A) aptitude test. B) personality inventory. C) curriculum-based measurement. D) intelligence test.. Answer: C) curriculum-based measurement. Curriculum-based assessment (CBA) and curriculum-based measurement (CBM) both assess students’ progress in achieving the goals of a curriculum. 75. In checking your weight on Monday, you find that you weigh 180 pounds at 10:00 am, 203 pounds at 11:00 am, and 160 pounds at noon. Your scale does not appear to be A) valid. B) standardized. C) reliable. D) stabilized. Answer: C) reliable. The term reliability refers to the consistency of scores when a test is repeated under the same or similar conditions. 76. _____ are used as a way to identify students with learning disabilities. A) Aptitude tests B) Personality inventories C) Curriculum-based measurements D) Intelligence tests Answer: C) Curriculum-based measurements 77. Robin has exceptional math skills and is determined to become an engineer. According to Gardner’s theory, which type of intelligence does Robin have? A) spatial B) logical-mathematical C) interpersonal D) intrapersonal Answer: B) logical-mathematical 78. The first practical intelligence scale was A) the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale B) the Terman Scale C) the Gardner Intelligence Scale D) the Wechsler Scale. Answer: A) The Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale 79. Current assessment procedures emphasize a child’s ____ for future learning A) aptitude B) motivation C) potential D) ability Answer: C) potential 80. Amy is given an intelligence test by her school psychologist as she has learning disabilities and is unable to pay attention in class. The results of the test will be more useful when A) considered by themselves. B) considered in combination with results from personality tests. C) combined with results from clinical tests, including blood work. D) combined with interviews, physical examinations, results from other psychological tests, and other observations. Answer: D) combined with interviews, physical examinations, results from other psychological tests, and other observations. 81. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is defined as MA/CA X 100, where MA is the acronym for A) moral age. B) mother’s age. C) mental age. D) morbid age. Answer: C) mental age. 82. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is defined as MA/CA X 100, where CA is the acronym for A) child’s age. B) chronological age. C) concrete age. D) critical age. Answer: B) chronological age. 83. _________________ procedures use a test-teach-test format, which measures how much a child’s performance improves after receiving instruction. A) Dynamic assessment B) The Wechsler C) Stanford-Binet D) Gardner’s Multiple-Intelligence Answer: A) Dynamic assessment Dynamic assessment (DA) procedures attempt to assess learning potential by using a test-teach-test format, measuring how much a child’s performance improves after receiving instruction. 84. Dynamic assessment procedures for measuring intelligence are based on __________ concept of the zone of proximal development. A) Chomsky’s B) Skinner’s C) Vygotsky’s D) Piaget’s Answer: C) Vygotsky’s. Dynamic assessment procedures are designed to measure not just what a child is capable of doing independently (or the bottom boundary of the zone, and what traditional intelligence tests assess), but also what she or he is capable of achieving when given help (or the top boundary of the zone). 85. What percentage of the U.S. population has been diagnosed with intellectual disability? A) 2 to 3% B) 5 to 6% C) 8 to 9% D) 10% Answer: A) 2 to 3% 86. Which of the following statements concerning individuals with moderate levels of intellectual disability is FALSE? A) With adequate support, they can learn to care for themselves. B) They tend to have low grades in school. C) They tend to have difficulty making friends and participating in social activities. D) Most adolescents with intellectual disability do not attend regular school classrooms. Answer: D) Most adolescents with intellectual disability do not attend regular school classrooms. 87. All of the following are criteria in the formal definition of intellectual disability except? A) an onset before the age of 18 B) deficits in daily activities required for social and personal independence C) a genetic cause D) an IQ score lower than 70 or 75 Answer: C) a genetic cause 88. What is the leading known cause of intellectual disability in the United States? A) fragile-X syndrome B) Down syndrome C) alcohol exposure D) oxygen deprivation during birth Answer: C) alcohol exposure 89. All of the following are environmental factors that can lead to intellectual disability EXCEPT A) lead exposure. B) poor nutrition. C) lack of stimulation. D) allergic reactions to immunizations. Answer: D) allergic reactions to immunizations. 90. In “Career Focus: Meet a School Psychologist,” Dr. Sandy Roland notes that intelligence tests are useful to A) measure a child’s general level of functioning. B) determine if a child has an intellectual or learning disability. C) screen or evaluate a child for ADHD. D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above. Intelligence tests are used to acquire a general level of functioning of the child when considering what strategies may help the child progress in learning. Mainly, we use intelligence tests when determining if a child has intellectual disability or a learning disability. Intelligence scores are also sometimes helpful when a child is being screened or evaluated for ADHD. 91. If the most appropriate test is not available for a particular child, Dr. Roland recommends A) using the next appropriate test with some precautions. B) using the most difficult and challenging test available. C) relying on observational methods alone. D) using conventional school performance as an alternative measure. Answer: A) using the next appropriate test with some precautions. 92. Cultural-familial retardation refers to intellectual disability caused by A) a recessive gene found within certain ethnic minority groups. B) the lack of educational support and stimulation. C) chromosome abnormalities identified within certain family constellations. D) environmental toxins highly concentrated in certain regions of the country. Answer: B) the lack of educational support and stimulation. 93. When both parents have intellectual disability, what are the odds that their children will also have this condition? A) 25% B) 30% C) 40% D) 50% Answer: C) 40% 94. When only one parent has intellectual disability, what are the odds that their children will also have this condition? A) 10% B) 15 C) 20% D) 25% Answer: C) 20% 95. 12-year-old Simone recently completed an intelligence test and had a score of 60. What level of intellectual disability does Simone have? A) giftedness B) above normal/average C) normal D) below normal Answer: D) below normal An IQ below 70 or 75 usually indicates below-normal intellectual functioning. 96. What is the functional level of individuals with profound intellectual disability? A) They require intense care as children, but become self-sufficient by adolescence. B) They need considerable training to learn to perform self-care activities (e.g., eating, dressing). C) They require only moderate supervision throughout their life. D) Their functional level is superior to normal or typical children. Answer: B) They need considerable training to learn to perform self-care activities (e.g., eating, dressing). 97. Harrison's parents are concerned that the school will not offer him the services that he needs. In order to qualify, Harrison needs to be categorized as having below-normal intellectual functioning. What IQ score will Harrison most likely need to qualify for services? A) 50 to 75 B) 35 to 50 C) 20 to 40 D) below 20 Answer: A) 50 to 75. An IQ below 70 or 75 usually indicates below-normal intellectual functioning. 98. One of the things that family members and others can do to help children with intellectual disability improve the quality of their lives is A) encourage children with intellectual disabilities to explore the environment. B) work with them on basic learning skills such as labeling, sorting, and comparing objects. C) celebrate their achievements and developmental milestones. D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above. Encouragement, assistance with basic skills, and celebrating achievements are all important things that family members can do to help children with intellectual disability. 99. Children who show exceptional talent in one or two areas but are at or below average in all other areas of intelligence are referred to as A) globally gifted. B) unevenly gifted. C) multi-gifted. D) specifically gifted. Answer: B) unevenly gifted. 100. Ramon is one of those very special children who excel at just about everything. He is the captain of his baseball team, a National Merit finalist, an award-winning poet, and a volunteer with hospice. Ramon would probably be described as A) having splinter skills. B) globally gifted. C) evenly gifted. D) precocious. Answer: B) globally gifted. Children who are globally gifted show exceptional talent in all areas. 101. Becca has a beautiful singing voice and excels at both piano and flute. However, she struggles with reading, spelling, and science. Becca would probably be described as A) having splinter skills. B) unevenly gifted. C) precocious. D) gifted. Answer: B) unevenly gifted. Children who are unevenly gifted are exceptional in one or two areas but are at (or below) average levels in others. 102. Tong spends at least four or five hours a day practicing his cello. When he's not practicing, he's creating impressionistic murals with colored glass. His parents are sometimes concerned about Tong's intense focus and motivation, but Winner (1996) would argue that Tong A) is precocious. B) has a rage to master. C) is obsessive-compulsive. D) is autistic. Answer: B) has a rage to master. Gifted children have a rage to master—an intense craving for information and an obsessive need to make sense out of their favorite topics. They devour information, spend endless hours on their chosen subjects, and rarely engage in any other pursuits. 103. Marcus loves world geography. He spends four or five hours every day on the internet researching and learning about different places around the world. His mother has tried to help him organize all of the information he gathers, but he has his own way of learning the material - he puts every piece of information on sticky notes that he places throughout the house. Winner (1996) would argue that Marcus A) is precocious. B) marches to his own drummer. C) is obsessive-compulsive. D) has an anxiety disorder. Answer: B) marches to his own drummer. Gifted children march to their own drummer. They don’t need much assistance to master information in their favorite subjects. They often teach themselves, have their own way of learning and unique ways of organizing and sorting information, and they don’t always conform to the conventional learning methods of schools. 104. O’Boyle et al. (2005) studied mathematically gifted male adolescents as they performed a mental rotation task and found A) no differences between gifted and normal males in brain activation patterns. B) that gifted males activate a larger number of brain areas than normal males. C) normal males activate a larger number of brain areas than gifted males. D) gifted males activate the temporal and occipital cortex more than normal males. Answer: B) that gifted males activate a larger number of brain areas than normal males. 105. Terman's (1921) longitudinal study found that gifted children are A) generally more well-adjusted than the average child. B) often neurotic. C) very eccentric in their thinking. D) emotionally sensitive in most social situations. Answer: A) generally more well-adjusted than the average child. 106. Recent research with gifted and talented adolescents shows that they A) are more focused in school. B) spend much of their free time working in their talent areas. C) spend more time alone than their “average” peers. D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above 107. Which of the following is true of the families of gifted and talented adolescents? A) Their parents tend to have less education. B) Their families have higher incomes. C) The family environments are less supportive and more negative. D) The family interactions are rated as less affectionate. Answer: B) Their families have higher incomes. 108. Typically, non-Hispanic white individuals score approximately ________ points on an IQ measure whereas African Americans score approximately ________ points lower. A) 180; 50 B) 100; 2 C) 150; 10 D) 100; 15 Answer: D) 100; 15 109. While there are systematic differences in mean intelligence scores across ethnic groups, it is important to remember that these scores vary much more ____________ than ___________. A) on spatial subtests; verbal subtests B) for males; females C) during paper-and-pencil tests; other test formats D) within these groups; among them Answer: D) within these groups; among them 110. The authors of the controversial book The Bell Curve state each of the following EXCEPT A) differences in levels of intelligence contribute to crime and unemployment. B) growing up in poor neighborhoods has an impact on individuals' scores on IQ tests. C) we need to create policies that recognize the importance of intelligence in our society. D) differences in IQ scores between majority and minority individuals are not due to test bias. Answer: B) growing up in poor neighborhoods has an impact on individuals' scores on IQ tests. 111. In The Bell Curve, Hernstein and Murray (1994) argue that differences in the average IQ scores of different ethnic groups is due to A) poverty. B) education. C) test bias. D) cognitive abilities. Answer: D) cognitive abilities. While most experts agree that there are consistent differences in the average IQ scores of different ethnic groups, there is heated disagreement as to why. Herrnstein and Murray argue that the differences are not due to poverty, education, or test bias, but to real differences in cognitive abilities. 112. All of the following are arguments against using IQ tests EXCEPT A) “minority group members often have more skill at paper-and-pencil exams.” B) “minority group members often have less experience with standardized tests.” C) “test results often lead to inadequate educational service placements.” D) “most individuals who administer tests are white.” Answer: A) “minority group members often have more skill at paper-and-pencil exams.” 113. Taylor & Richards (1991) investigated the hypothesis that nonverbal subscales of IQ tests should be less culturally-biased than verbal subtests and found A) African American children scored higher on the verbal than the nonverbal subscales of the WISC-R. B) African American children scored lower than white children on the verbal subscale of the WISC-R. C) no differences between African American and white children on the verbal subscale of the WISC-R. D) African American children scored higher than white children on the nonverbal subscale of the WISC-R. Answer: A) African American children scored higher on the verbal than the nonverbal subscales of the WISC-R. 114. When socioeconomic status (SES) and other living conditions are matched across non-Hispanic whites and African Americans, differences in IQ scores are A) not influenced. B) far smaller. C) increased by a small amount. D) significantly increased. Answer: B) far smaller. 115. Which of the following was proposed by Sattler (1992, 2001) as a reason for using intelligence tests with minority students? A) Tests do not evaluate present functioning. B) Tests prevent students from getting access to special programs. C) Tests do not help educators evaluate programs. D) Tests are useful in indicating future functioning. Answer: D) Tests are useful in indicating future functioning. Because IQ tests correlate with academic success, they are useful for predicting future functioning. 116. One of Sattler’s (1992, 2001) justifications for the use of intelligence tests with minority students is that they are useful for evaluating present functioning. This means that A) they can identify a student’s strengths and weaknesses. B) some subscales may suggest brain damage or psychological difficulties. C) a significant drop in IQ may signal the need for follow-up and additional testing. D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above. The subscales of intelligence tests can help educators identify students’ cognitive strengths and weaknesses. Some subscale profiles may suggest brain damage or psychological difficulties; more specific tests can then follow up on these potential problems. A significant drop in IQ score can signal the need for follow-up. 117. Sixteen-year-old Madeleine's father is listening to her talk on the phone to her best friend; he laughs at how little he understands of their conversation. Madeleine says, "I can't believe it, he's such a poser!" Her father wonders, "What's a poser?" Madeleine's father is having difficulty because of A) adolescent phonemic awareness. B) metalinguistic awareness. C) the adolescent register. D) the personal fable. Answer: C) the adolescent register. During adolescence children begin to use language as a tool for identifying peer groups and for excluding those outside their peer group. The adolescent register is a special form of speech that adolescents use to identify themselves as belonging to a particular social, cultural, or generational group. 118. The words groovy, awesome, phat, nerd, and poser are all used in your text as examples of A) the adolescent register. B) metalinguistic awareness. C) adolescent phonemic awareness. D) syntactic bootstrapping. Answer: A) the adolescent register. During adolescence children begin to use language as a tool for identifying peer groups and for excluding those outside their peer group. The adolescent register is a special form of speech that adolescents use to identify themselves as belonging to a particular social, cultural, or generational group. 119. The adolescent register is one of the language tools that teens use to A) better understand their homework assignments. B) identify with a peer group, while excluding those outside their peer group. C) promote situated cognition. D) increase the validity of their interactions. Answer: B) identify with a peer group, while excluding those outside their peer group. During adolescence children begin to use language as a tool for identifying peer groups and for excluding those outside their peer group. The adolescent register is a special form of speech that adolescents use to identify themselves as belonging to a particular social, cultural, or generational group. 120. What is the consistent difference in language construction that is shared by certain subgroups of individuals called? A) dialect B) genderlects C) the adolescent register D) accent Answer: A) dialect 121. Fifteen-year-old Harry calls his friend to let him know that he will be coming over his house later to play video games and says "I be going to come over later." This is an example of which dialect? A) Hispanic English B) African-American English C) Asian English D) Southern English Answer: B) African-American English. The most studied social dialect of Standard American English is African American English (AAE), also known as Black English or Ebonics. AAE is a distinct dialect of English, complete with its own linguistic rules and vocabulary, not a simplistic or incorrect form of Standard American English. 122. Which is the most studied social dialect of standard American English? A) Hispanic English B) Northern English C) Asian English D) African American English Answer: D) African American English 123. Which of the following provides evidence that people often make negative judgments about those who speak a dialect other than their own? A) Dialect speakers are rated as higher in competence, intelligence, and education. B) Speaking a dialect in work settings may bring reprimands or punishments. C) Dialect speakers are more likely to receive a raise or promotion. D) Children of dialect speakers prefer to use the same dialect used by their friends. Answer: B) Speaking a dialect in work settings may bring reprimands or punishments. 124. Decision making is complex because it involves the coordination of a number of cognitive skills, including A) recognizing that there is a decision to be made. B) generating alternatives and identifying possible problems or biases with each. C) evaluating the likelihood that an alternative will produce the results you want. D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above. Decision making is a complex process. It involves the coordination of a number of cognitive skills, including recognizing that there is a decision to be made; generating alternatives and identifying possible problems or biases with each; objectively evaluating the likelihood that an alternative will produce the results you want, and the likely consequences whether it does or does not; and taking into consideration the social, personal, and emotional contexts at each step in the process. 125. An important step in the development of decision making is learning to inhibit A) advice from people with less experience. B) the first impulses one has about how to behave in a given situation. C) the tendency to consider each option carefully. D) the preference for choices which offer the most benefit to others. Answer: B) the first impulses one has about how to behave in a given situation. Decision making involves inhibiting the first impulses one has about how to behave in a given situation, and knowing whether you know enough about the situation to trust your first instinct. 126. When trying to make a decision, younger adolescents compared to older adolescents A) use more of the information available to them. B) have decision-making skills that are just as a good. C) are better at determining the source of information. D) are more susceptible to the influences of peer pressure on their decisions. Answer: D) are more susceptible to the influences of peer pressure on their decisions. 127. A criticism of traditional judgment and decision-making studies is that they A) involve personally relevant issues in emotional, real-world contexts. B) require the participant to risk items of real value (e.g., money, property). C) involve reasoning about hypothetical dilemmas in laboratory settings. D) do not allow participants to interact while testing. Answer: C) involve reasoning about hypothetical dilemmas in laboratory settings. Most of the studies comparing adolescent and adult decision-making processes involve hypothetical dilemmas in laboratory settings, with plenty of time for considering options and evaluating available information. The differences in decision making may be greater than we realize when the choices involve personally relevant issues in emotional, real-world contexts. 128. The two-process model of decision making suggests that one process is analytical and rational, and involves thoughtful consideration of the risks and benefits, while the second process A) is much faster, intuitive, and based on experience, emotion, and whether the behavior “feels right” in the moment. B) requires carefully visualizing each choice before selecting an option. C) involves asking for advice from someone with appropriate skill or experience. D) is a type of blind or random guessing. Answer: A) is much faster, intuitive, and based on experience, emotion, and whether the behavior “feels right” in the moment. The second process of decision making is rapid and based on an intuitive feel for the situation. 129. Compared to adolescents, adults are better at _____________ because they have greater life experience, and are better able to override this system when necessary. A) speaking in dialect B) dynamic assessment C) personal fable D) intuitive decision-making Answer: D) intuitive decision-making 130. Work by Hartung et al. (2005) suggests that the foundations for making choices about vocations begins A) in early childhood. B) during high school. C) in the college years. D) in early adulthood. Answer: A) in early childhood. 131. What does John Holland (1997) suggest is key to a successful career choice? A) a good match between one’s interests and the demands of their occupational environment B) choosing the same career as one’s parents C) selecting a career based on geographical preferences D) following the advice of friends and peers Answer: A) A good match between one’s interests and the demands of their occupational environment. Holland proposed an “interest-based” model in which the match between an individual’s particular interests and the specific tasks or demands of the occupation is used to assess career choice. 132. A particular challenge faced by members of minority groups is that they may have the interests, desire, and talents to succeed in a specific career but have to contend with A) poorly-trained guidance counselors. B) transferring academic skills to the work environment. C) discrimination or other barriers in educational or job opportunities. D) the temptation to change careers several times. Answer: C) discrimination or other barriers in educational or job opportunities. 133. Researchers who criticize Holland's theory of vocational choice assert that ________ have more importance than personality characteristics and interests. A) vocational rewards B) work values C) work environments D) job aspirations Answer: B) work values 134. All of the following are occupational categories in Holland's (1997) theory of vocation choice EXCEPT A) artistic. B) enterprising. C) creative. D) social. Answer: C) creative. Holland’s six occupational categories include: conventional, realistic, enterprising, social, artistic, and investigative. 135. Imaginative, expressive, and impulsive are personality characteristics included in which of Holland's general occupational categories? A) artistic B) social C) investigative D) conventional Answer: A) artistic Holland’s occupational category for artistic individuals includes qualities such as imaginative and expressive, as well as open and impulsive. 136. Concrete, reserved, and conforming are personality characteristics included in which of Holland's general occupational categories? A) investigative B) enterprising C) realistic D) social Answer: C) realistic. Holland’s occupational category for realistic individuals includes qualities such as concrete and reserved, as well as practical and materialistic. 137. Xena completes a career interest survey through her high school's counseling office. Based on her answers, the career counselor tells her that she is in the investigative vocational category. According to Holland, what types of careers would she be happiest with? A) teaching or counseling fields B) scientific or technical fields C) mechanics or drafting fields D) business or accounting fields Answer: B) scientific or technical fields According to Holland’s interest-based model, an individual who matches with the occupational category of investigative would be a good match for the scientific or technical fields. 138. Ambitious, assertive, and optimistic are personality characteristics included in which of Holland's general occupational categories? A) enterprising B) social C) investigative D) conventional Answer: A) enterprising Holland’s occupational category for enterprising individuals includes qualities such as ambitious and assertive, as well as domineering and sociable. 139. When working with adolescents, a difficulty with interest-based or work-based models is that A) the adolescent register can interfere with the assessment. B) values and interests often change during early adulthood. C) general and specific intelligence are highly correlated. D) teens’ responses may be influenced by an imaginary audience. Answer: B) values and interests often change during early adulthood. 140. Vocational decisions are based not only an individual’s characteristics, but also A) socioeconomic status. B) the expectations of their family. C) cultural values. D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above 141. In 1988, a national report by the William T. Grant Foundation Commission on Work, Family, and Citizenship reported that ________ of adolescents did not attend college. A) less than 10 percent B) almost 50 percent C) more than 75 percent D) around 20 percent Answer: B) almost 50 percent 142. The “forgotten third” are the roughly one-third of U.S. adolescents who do not attend college, but who are not adequately prepared for the ______________ transition. A) school-to-work B) midlife C) parenthood D) marriage Answer: A) school-to-work 143. Since 1971, graduation rates from college have A) decreased. B) stayed the same. C) increased only slightly. D) increased drastically. Answer: C) increased only slightly. 144. Gregory is taking a class through his high school in which he leaves campus the last two periods of the day and works with a mechanic at a local repair shop. Gregory is most likely participating in a(n) A) internship. B) youth apprenticeship. C) service-learning experience. D) cooperative educational program. Answer: D) cooperative educational program. In cooperative educational programs, schools and work places cooperate to provide paid work experience with specific skill goals as part of the student’s schooling. These programs are often offered as part of a school’s vocational educational curriculum. 145. Which type of school-to-work transition program combines opportunities to learn with community service expectations? A) cooperative educational programs B) youth apprenticeships C) service-learning experiences D) internships Answer: C) service-learning experiences 146. When adults in a work setting take responsibility for teaching and advising students it is called A) mentoring. B) service-learning. C) internships. D) apprenticeships. Answer: A) mentoring. 147. Heather's high school requires that she spend at least 20 hours a semester working at either a retirement community or as a tutor at an elementary school. Heather is most likely participating in a(n) A) internship. B) youth apprenticeship. C) service-learning experience. D) cooperative educational program. Answer: C) service-learning experience. Service-learning experiences combine the opportunity to learn skills while performing a service for others. They are unpaid and short-term activities, but may be required as part of a school’s community service expectations. 148. ______________ are formal, structured, systematic programs with the explicit goal of teaching the skills of a specific trade to a certain standard. A) Cooperative educational programs B) Youth apprenticeships C) Service-learning experiences D) Internships Answer: B) Youth apprenticeships 149. What is one of the most important factors related to positive or negative outcomes from teenage work experiences? A) socioeconomic status B) number of hours working C) grade point average D) parental support Answer: B) number of hours working 150. Research suggests that adolescents should not work more than ________ hours per week. A) 5 B) 10 C) 20 D) 30 Answer: C) 20 14.2 True/False Questions 1. Piaget tended to underestimate the cognitive abilities of infants and toddlers and overestimate the cognitive abilities of adolescents and adults. Answer: True 2. Piaget's theory of cognitive development has been more influential to the field than any other theory. Answer: True 3. Vygotsky believed that cognition could not be studied without also examining cultural and social contexts. Answer: True 4. Situated cognition is based on the theory that we cannot fully understand a child's thinking without examining the context in which it occurs. Answer: True 5. The major disagreement among psychometric theorists involves the number of abilities to be included in the concept of intelligence. Answer: True 6. Crystallized intelligence peaks at around 18 years of age. Answer: False 7. Sternberg's theory contains eight different types of intelligence. Answer: False 8. The contextual sub theory of Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence is sometimes likened to common sense. Answer: True 9. Binet and Simon developed the first intelligence test used in a practical setting to examine the intelligence of employees entering the work force. Answer: False 10. Intelligence tests alone can determine whether someone has a cognitive deficit or a learning disability. Answer: False 11. Dynamic assessment procedures are based on Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development. Answer: True 12. The leading cause of intellectual disability in the United States is Down Syndrome. Answer: False 13. Below-normal intellectual functioning is usually indicated by an IQ of less than 50 or 55. Answer: False 14. Most intelligence tests have been developed by middle-class White people. Answer: True 15. If you know an individual's ethnic identity, you will be able to predict their IQ score. Answer: False 16. Socioeconomic status is highly correlated with IQ scores. Answer: True 17. Scores on IQ tests do not correlate with academic achievement and success. Answer: False 18. All individuals who speak Hispanic English or Black English have the exact same dialect. Answer: False 19. Most of the studies examining adolescent decision making have used real-world situations. Answer: False 20. Working more than 20 hours per week during adolescence has been associated with poorer grades in school. Answer: True 14.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Using deductive reasoning in order to systematically manipulate variables in order to test hypotheses is called ________. Answer: hypothetico-deductive reasoning 2. According to Piaget, the ability to think about your own thinking is called ________. Answer: reflective thinking 3. Understanding that knowledge is subjective and depends on individual perspectives is called ________. Answer: relativistic reasoning 4. Whose theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cultural context on cognitive development? Answer: Vygotsky 5. The idea that cognition is not solely an individual's thoughts, but includes the dynamic interactions between individuals within a group is called ________. Answer: socially shared cognition 6. Which approach to studying intelligence uses paper-and-pencil measurements to measure psychological skills and abilities? Answer: psychometric approach 7. Spearman labeled his two factors as ________ intelligence and ________ intelligence. Answer: general; specific 8. The experiential sub theory is also referred to as which type of intelligence? Answer: creative 9. Which sub theory of Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence is sometimes referred to as "street smarts"? Answer: contextual 10. What is the formula used to calculate a person's intelligence quotient (IQ)? Answer: mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100 11. An approach which assesses learning potential by measuring the degree of performance after receiving instruction is known as ________. Answer: dynamic assessment 12. Students’ progress in achieving the goals of a curriculum is measured using __________ measurement. Answer: curriculum-based 14.4 Essay Questions 1. What are the four major criteria of post-formal thought? Answer: Adolescents are using post-formal reasoning when they are able to understand that, in real-world situations, you have to be pragmatic and use practical thought within a given situation. It is the understanding that there are many contradictions in the world and that sometimes hypothetico-deductive reasoning does not give you all of the available options in real life. It is also understood that knowledge is subjective and often depends on individual perceptions and experiences (relativistic reasoning). Lastly, it is understood that decisions increasingly depend on an individual's wisdom. 2. Which aspects of Piaget's cognitive developmental theory have been supported by recent research? What are the major criticisms of Piaget's theory? Answer: Supported by research: Children do seem to move from being more egocentric to less egocentric, they also move from being less systematic to more systematic in their logical reasoning. Cross-cultural research has shown that children pass through Piaget's stages at roughly the same ages. Major criticisms: Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of infants, preschoolers, and children. Also, Piaget may have overestimated the abilities of adolescents and adults. Piaget's conceptualization of qualitatively different cognitive stages has been criticized. Research has shown that there are broad stages of cognition and that individuals can be in two different stages at the same time. 3. List the three sub theories in Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence? How do the sub theories differ from one another? Answer: The componential sub theory describes how we acquire knowledge, perform tasks, and supervise functioning. It is also referred to as analytical intelligence. The experiential sub theory is also referred to as creative intelligence; we use our experiences to master new tasks and increase the automaticity of thought. The contextual sub theory is sometimes referred to as practical intelligence and deals with how we adapt to, select for, and shape real-life situations. 4. Describe the characteristics associated with four out of the eight types of intelligence in Gardner's theory of intelligence. Give at least 2 professions that are associated with each type of intelligence. Answer: Refer to Table 14.1 on page 463. The eight types of intelligence are linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Students should be able to list the professions associated with each type of intelligence they discuss. 1. Linguistic Intelligence: Skill in using language effectively for communication, including reading, writing, and speaking. Professions: Writer, Journalist 2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Ability to analyze problems logically, perform mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. Professions: Mathematician, Engineer 3. Musical Intelligence: Talent in performing, composing, and appreciating musical patterns. Professions: Musician, Composer 4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Capacity to use one’s physical body skillfully and handle objects adeptly. Professions: Athlete, Dancer 5. Compare and contrast three different theories of intelligence. Using examples, discuss how intelligence is defined in each theory. Answer: Students could compare and contrast Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence, Horn and Cattell's ideas concerning fluid and crystallized intelligence, Sternberg's triarchic theory, and Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Here's a comparison of three different theories of intelligence: 1. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences: • Definition of Intelligence: Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single entity, but rather a set of distinct abilities or intelligences, each relatively independent of the others. • Examples: Linguistic intelligence (ability to use language effectively), logical-mathematical intelligence (ability to reason logically and solve mathematical problems), bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (ability to control body movements and handle objects skillfully). 2. Spearman's Two-Factor Theory: • Definition of Intelligence: Spearman posited that intelligence comprises a general factor (g-factor) that underlies all cognitive abilities, as well as specific factors (s-factors) that are unique to particular tasks. • Examples: The g-factor represents overall cognitive ability, while s-factors represent specific abilities like verbal or spatial reasoning. 3. Cattell's Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence: • Definition of Intelligence: Cattell distinguished between fluid intelligence (Gf), which involves reasoning ability and solving new problems independent of acquired knowledge, and crystallized intelligence (Gc), which involves knowledge and skills gained through experience and education. • Examples: Fluid intelligence is used in tasks requiring reasoning and problem-solving under novel conditions, while crystallized intelligence is applied in tasks involving accumulated knowledge and skills, such as vocabulary tests or cultural practices. Comparison: • Gardner's theory emphasizes diverse intelligences, each contributing uniquely to human abilities, whereas Spearman and Cattell focus on a more hierarchical view of intelligence with general and specific factors. • Gardner's theory allows for a broader range of talents and skills beyond traditional academic measures, while Spearman and Cattell emphasize cognitive abilities and their measurement through tests. Contrast: • Gardner's theory proposes multiple intelligences as relatively independent, whereas Spearman and Cattell emphasize a more unified view of intelligence (general factor in Spearman's theory and interaction between fluid and crystallized intelligence in Cattell's theory). • Gardner's theory includes non-cognitive aspects like musical or bodily-kinesthetic intelligences, whereas Spearman and Cattell focus primarily on cognitive abilities. In summary, these theories offer different perspectives on what constitutes intelligence, from multiple, distinct abilities in Gardner's theory to a more unified, hierarchical structure in Spearman's and Cattell's theories. Each theory provides unique insights into how intelligence can be defined and understood across different domains and contexts. 6. What are the genetic, prenatal, and environmental causes of intellectual disability? Answer: The genetic causes of intellectual disability are Down syndrome and fragile-X syndrome. Prenatal causes of intellectual disability are alcohol or drug exposure, oxygen deprivation, trauma during birth, and being born prematurely. Environmental causes of intellectual disability are lead poisoning, poor nutrition, lack of stimulation, and poor educational opportunities. 7. Describe three arguments for and against the use of intelligence tests with ethnic minority children. Answer: Students should be able to articulate at least three of the following arguments against the use of intelligence tests with minority children: 1. Intelligence tests are culturally biased because most of them have been developed by middle-class White people who bring their own experiences into the creation of the tests. Some test items require knowledge about White middle-class culture that minority students may be less likely to possess. 2. Students from minority backgrounds may have less experience in test-taking situations and less developed test-taking skills. They also may be less clear on the perceived importance of these tests. 3. Most test examiners are White individuals who may have difficulty developing rapport and communication with students from minority backgrounds. 4. Students' test results may lead to inferior educational tracking. 5. Students may be affected by stereotype threat. Students should be able to articulate at least three of the following arguments in favor of the use of intelligence tests with minority children: 1. Tests can be useful in evaluating students' current level of functioning, including children's relative strengths and weaknesses. 2. Test results can be used as important justification for the need for special programs. 3. Test scores can be helpful in evaluating the outcomes of entire programs or school districts by documenting changes in scores over time and differences among ethnic groups. 4. Test scores can be helpful indicators of likely future functioning. 8. List the six vocational categories in Holland's (1997) theory. For each vocational category, give at least three personality characteristics or interests that are associated with the category. Answer: Refer to Figure 14.3 on page 477. Realistic includes concrete, conforming, materialistic, practical, reserved, skilled at mechanics, hands-on, and insightful. Investigative includes agreeable, cooperative, empathetic, helpful, idealistic, responsible, tactful, and generous. Conventional includes ambitious, conforming, efficient, inflexible, obedient, persistent, practical, and thrifty. Artistic includes imaginative, independent, open, original, disorderly, expressive, impractical, and impulsive. Enterprising includes ambitious, assertive, domineering, excitement-seeking, optimistic, resourceful, self-confidence, and sociable. Social includes analytical, critical, curious, independent, intellectual, pessimistic, radical, and seeks challenge. Holland's (1997) theory of vocational personalities categorizes individuals into six types, often referred to as RIASEC: 1. Realistic (R): • Personality characteristics: Practical, physical, mechanical • Interests: Working with hands, outdoor activities, machinery 2. Investigative (I): • Personality characteristics: Analytical, intellectual, scientific • Interests: Research, problem-solving, conducting experiments 3. Artistic (A): • Personality characteristics: Creative, imaginative, expressive • Interests: Performing arts, visual arts, writing 4. Social (S): • Personality characteristics: Helping, teaching, empathetic • Interests: Social interactions, counseling, healthcare 5. Enterprising (E): • Personality characteristics: Ambitious, persuasive, leadership-oriented • Interests: Sales, business management, entrepreneurship 6. Conventional (C): • Personality characteristics: Organized, detail-oriented, conforming • Interests: Administrative tasks, accounting, data analysis These categories reflect how individuals' personalities and interests align with different occupational environments and tasks. 14.5 MyDevelopmentLab Questions 1. Describe the concepts of situated cognition and socially-shared cognition. Answer: Situated cognition is closely related to Vygotsky’s theory of development, and proposes that thinking always takes place in a concrete setting and in relation to a specific problem or situation. It is also strongly influenced by the social environment, including not only the individual’s specific family or school, but also their language, geographical region, cultural and religious practices, etc. Socially shared cognition is also closely related, and highlights the idea that thinking extends “beyond the skin.” In other words, thinking is a social behavior that is influenced and shaped by the presence and activities of the people around us. 2. Deductive reasoning develops during which of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development? A) sensorimotor B) preoperational C) concrete operational D) formal operational Answer: D) formal operational 3. Which type of reasoning involves reaching a conclusion based on logic, rather than one’s personal experience? A) intuitive B) transitive C) deductive D) concrete Answer: C) deductive 4. Name each of Gardner’s multiple intelligences, and provide an example of a career that might build on that particular type of intelligence. Answer: Gardner proposes eight types of intelligence: (1) bodily-kinesthetic: a dancer, actor, or surgeon; (2) interpersonal: salesperson, teacher, or clinician; (3) intrapersonal: writer, therapist, or community adviser; (4) linguistic: lawyer, writer, or poet; (5) logical-mathematical: mathematician, accountant, or scientist; (6) musical: composer, conductor, or audio engineer; (7) naturalist: biologist, hunter, or gardener; (8) spatial: pilot, engineer, or a sculptor. Test Bank for The World of Children Joan Littlefield Cook, Greg Cook 9780205953738