CH-13-15 The Family and Human Sexuality – Sociology in Modules : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 13 to 15 Chapter 13 The Family and Human Sexuality ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the nuclear versus extended family. Answer: The nuclear family, consisting of two parents and their children, offers advantages such as greater privacy, independence, and flexibility in decision-making. It often allows for more focused and efficient parenting. However, it may lack the broader support system that extended families provide. The extended family, which includes relatives beyond the immediate family, offers a wider support network, shared responsibilities, and a stronger sense of family heritage. However, it may involve complex dynamics and less privacy, potentially leading to conflicts and a lack of autonomy. 2. Cite various examples of how the family system varies in other cultures around the world. Answer: Family systems vary widely across cultures. For example, in many African societies, the extended family system is common, with multiple generations living together and sharing responsibilities. In contrast, Japanese families may emphasize filial piety and respect for elders, often including grandparents in the household. In some Indigenous cultures, extended kin networks and clan affiliations play a central role in family structure. These variations reflect differing cultural values regarding family roles, responsibilities, and support systems. 3. How does the family vary in terms of marital form? Answer: Marital forms vary globally in terms of structure and norms. For instance, monogamy is the most common marital form in Western societies, where individuals are legally bound to one partner. In contrast, polygamy, where an individual has multiple spouses, is practiced in some African and Middle Eastern cultures. Additionally, polyandry, where a woman has multiple husbands, is practiced in parts of Tibet and Nepal. These variations highlight different cultural and legal frameworks surrounding marriage and family formation. 4. Discuss the accuracy of television’s presentation of American family life. Answer: Television often portrays American family life in a simplified and idealized manner, emphasizing harmonious relationships and financial stability. Shows like “Leave It to Beaver” or “Modern Family” often depict families in unrealistic, stereotype-driven scenarios. In reality, American families face a range of issues including economic hardship, diverse family structures, and complex interpersonal dynamics that are often glossed over or idealized in media representations. 5. Describe the ways in which descent is traced in different cultures. Answer: Descent can be traced in various ways depending on cultural norms. In patrilineal societies, such as many in Africa and Asia, lineage and inheritance are traced through the father’s side. In matrilineal societies, like those in parts of the Pacific Islands, descent is traced through the mother’s side. Bilateral descent, where lineage is traced through both parents, is common in Western cultures. These systems influence inheritance, family roles, and social organization within different societies. 6. How is family authority determined in different cultures? Answer: Family authority varies widely across cultures. In patriarchal societies, authority is typically held by the eldest male, such as in many Middle Eastern and South Asian cultures. In matriarchal societies, authority may reside with the eldest female or maternal figures, as seen in some Indigenous cultures in the Americas. In more egalitarian cultures, family authority is often shared between partners, reflecting equal decision-making power and collaborative parenting roles. 7. What have sociologists identified as the six basic functions of the family? Answer: Sociologists have identified several key functions of the family: (1) Socialization – teaching children cultural norms and values; (2) Emotional Support – providing affection and security; (3) Economic Support – contributing to the financial well-being of family members; (4) Reproduction – producing and nurturing offspring; (5) Regulation of Sexual Behavior – establishing norms for sexual conduct; and (6) Social Placement – assigning social status and identity within society. These functions contribute to the stability and continuity of society. 8. Compare and contrast the functionalist and conflict views of the family. Answer: The functionalist perspective views the family as a vital social institution that performs essential functions for society, including socialization, emotional support, economic provision, reproduction, and regulation of sexual behavior. It emphasizes the family’s role in maintaining social stability and continuity. In contrast, the conflict perspective focuses on the power dynamics and inequalities within family structures. It argues that the family perpetuates social inequality by reinforcing class and gender roles, often benefiting certain groups (e.g., men or the wealthy) while subordinating others. While functionalists see the family as a cohesive unit contributing to social harmony, conflict theorists highlight its role in perpetuating social divisions and power imbalances. 9. What are the foci of the interactionist analysis of the family? Answer: The interactionist perspective on the family focuses on the daily interactions and subjective experiences of family members. It examines how individuals create and interpret meanings through their interactions, emphasizing the importance of communication and shared symbols in family life. Interactionists explore how family roles and relationships are constructed and negotiated through everyday interactions, including rituals, routines, and the emotional exchanges between members. They study how family members develop identities and social roles through their interactions, and how these roles impact family dynamics and personal relationships. 10. Explain the ways in which exogamy and endogamy operate within the United States. Answer: Exogamy and endogamy are marriage practices that dictate how individuals choose their partners. Exogamy refers to marrying outside a certain social group, such as race, ethnicity, or religion. In the U.S., exogamous marriages are increasingly common, reflecting greater social integration and diversity. Endogamy, on the other hand, involves marrying within a specific social group. In the U.S., endogamous practices may occur within ethnic or religious communities, where there is a preference for maintaining cultural or religious continuity. Both practices reflect different cultural values and norms regarding family and social boundaries. 11. What role does “love” play in the United States as compared with its role in other cultures? Answer: In the United States, "love" is often considered a primary basis for marriage and family formation, emphasizing romantic affection and personal choice. This contrasts with many other cultures where marriage may be arranged or based on social, economic, or familial considerations rather than individual romantic love. In some cultures, love may develop over time within an arranged marriage framework, while in the U.S., love is frequently seen as a prerequisite for entering into marriage. This difference highlights varying cultural attitudes toward the role of romantic feelings in family relationships. 12. How does family life in the United States vary by social class? Answer: Family life in the United States varies significantly by social class. Higher social classes often experience greater financial stability, access to resources, and opportunities for educational and recreational activities, contributing to more stable and enriched family environments. Conversely, lower social classes may face economic hardship, limited access to quality education and healthcare, and increased stress, impacting family dynamics and stability. Social class differences also influence family structure, parenting styles, and expectations, with wealthier families often having more resources to invest in child development compared to lower-income families. 13. How does family life in the United States vary in terms of racial and ethnic groups? Answer: Family life in the United States varies widely across racial and ethnic groups. For instance, African-American families often exhibit strong kinship networks and extended family support systems, influenced by historical and socioeconomic factors. Mexican-American families may place high value on family cohesion and traditional gender roles, with a strong emphasis on family obligations. In contrast, European-American families might emphasize nuclear family structures and individualism. These variations reflect diverse cultural values, experiences, and historical contexts that shape family roles, practices, and dynamics within different racial and ethnic groups. 14. Distinguish between the characteristics of the African-American family and the Mexican- American family. Answer: African-American families often display a matrifocal structure, where women frequently take on central roles in family life due to historical and socioeconomic factors. Extended kin networks are common, providing support and resources. Mexican-American families typically emphasize close-knit family structures, with strong connections to extended family and adherence to traditional gender roles. Both family types reflect adaptations to their unique social and economic circumstances, with African-American families historically coping with systemic inequalities and Mexican-American families maintaining cultural traditions and values within a U.S. context. 15. What are the functionalist and interactionist views of adoption? Answer: From a functionalist perspective, adoption is seen as a mechanism for fulfilling societal needs and maintaining social stability. It provides a solution for childless couples, helps integrate children into stable family environments, and supports the continuity of family roles and norms. Adoption reinforces social cohesion by ensuring that all children have a chance to be raised within a family structure. Interactionists, however, focus on the subjective experiences and relationships formed through adoption. They examine how adoptive families interact and develop bonds, and how adopted children negotiate their identities and relationships with biological and adoptive family members. Interactionists emphasize the significance of personal and familial narratives in shaping the adoption experience. 16. What are the implications of dual-income families? Answer: Dual-income families, where both partners work outside the home, have significant implications for family life and societal structures. Economically, dual incomes can provide increased financial stability and opportunities, allowing for a higher standard of living and better access to resources. Socially, these families often face challenges balancing work and family responsibilities, leading to changes in traditional gender roles and expectations. The rise of dual-income households has also influenced workplace policies, such as the need for flexible work arrangements and parental leave. Additionally, it has implications for child care, as families may rely more on external child care services or support systems. 17. What are the trends in single parenthood in the United States? Answer: Single parenthood in the United States has been rising steadily over the past few decades. Contributing factors include increasing rates of divorce, delayed marriage, and higher rates of childbirth outside of marriage. Single-parent families are more common among younger adults and are often headed by women. This trend reflects broader societal changes, including evolving attitudes toward marriage and family structure. The rise in single parenthood has led to increased discussions about the challenges single parents face, such as financial difficulties, work-life balance, and access to social support. Additionally, policies and programs addressing the needs of single-parent families have gained importance. 18. Why are stepfamilies considered to be complex institutions? Answer: Stepfamilies are considered complex institutions due to the multiple and often conflicting roles, relationships, and dynamics involved. They bring together individuals from previous family structures, creating blended households with varied emotional and practical challenges. Stepfamilies must navigate issues related to integration, loyalty, and identity, as members work to build new relationships while managing existing ties with biological relatives. The complexity is further compounded by legal considerations, financial arrangements, and the differing expectations and traditions of each family member. This complexity requires stepfamilies to establish new norms and communication strategies to foster cohesion and stability. 19. Summarize the statistical trends in divorce. Answer: Statistical trends in divorce show that the divorce rate in the United States has fluctuated over time, generally increasing from the mid-20th century to the early 1980s before stabilizing or slightly declining in recent years. Factors contributing to divorce trends include changing social norms, increased acceptance of divorce, and shifts in gender roles and expectations. The rate of divorce is higher among younger couples and those with lower socioeconomic status. Additionally, the rising prevalence of second marriages has led to a higher likelihood of divorce among these unions. Recent trends also indicate that divorce rates are more stable among older adults and those with higher levels of education. 20. Discuss the factors associated with higher probability of divorce. Answer: Several factors are associated with a higher probability of divorce. These include younger age at marriage, lower levels of education, and lower socioeconomic status. Marriages where partners have different educational or income levels are more likely to end in divorce. Additionally, prior marital history, such as having experienced a previous divorce, increases the likelihood of future divorces. Other factors include poor communication, unresolved conflicts, and dissatisfaction with the relationship. External pressures, such as financial strain or lack of social support, can also contribute to marital instability and increase the probability of divorce. 21. What is the impact of divorce on children? Answer: Divorce can have a range of impacts on children, often depending on factors such as the child’s age, the nature of the divorce, and the quality of parental relationships post-divorce. Common effects include emotional distress, such as feelings of sadness, anger, or confusion, and behavioral issues, such as difficulties in school or changes in social relationships. Children may also experience economic hardship if the divorce leads to a decrease in household income. Long-term impacts can include challenges in their own future relationships and attitudes towards marriage. However, children’s adjustment to divorce can be mitigated by effective co-parenting, emotional support, and stability provided by both parents. 22. What are the trends in cohabitation in the United States and worldwide? Answer: In the United States, cohabitation has become increasingly common and socially accepted. The number of couples choosing to live together without marriage has risen significantly over recent decades, driven by changing attitudes toward marriage, increased focus on personal freedom, and economic considerations. Cohabitation is often seen as a step before marriage or an alternative to it. Globally, trends vary: in many Western countries, cohabitation is widely accepted and legally recognized, while in more conservative regions, it may face social stigma or legal restrictions. Overall, cohabitation reflects broader shifts in family dynamics and societal norms around the world. 23. Explain how “remaining single” is becoming an alternative family pattern in the United States. Answer: Remaining single is increasingly recognized as a viable family pattern in the United States, reflecting changing social attitudes and evolving life priorities. More individuals are choosing to delay marriage or forgo it entirely due to personal preferences, career focus, or financial considerations. This trend is supported by greater social acceptance of singlehood and the availability of alternative social support systems. The rise in single-person households and the prominence of single individuals in various life domains highlight the growing acceptance of remaining single as a legitimate and fulfilling lifestyle choice. 24. Consider the implications of the terms child-free and childless. Answer: The terms "child-free" and "childless" carry different implications. "Child-free" refers to individuals or couples who actively choose not to have children, often due to personal preference or lifestyle choices. This term reflects a deliberate decision and can be associated with positive connotations, emphasizing autonomy and fulfillment in other areas of life. "Childless," on the other hand, often implies a lack of children due to circumstances beyond one's control, such as infertility or involuntary delay. This term can carry negative connotations and may be associated with societal pressures or personal regret. The distinction between these terms affects how individuals are perceived and their experiences within society. 25. Compare the functionalist and conflict views of same-sex marriage. Answer: From a functionalist perspective, same-sex marriage can be seen as an extension of societal norms that emphasize stability and social cohesion. Functionalists argue that marriage, including same-sex marriage, contributes to the stability of family life and provides emotional and economic support. By integrating same-sex couples into the institution of marriage, society can promote inclusivity and strengthen social bonds. Conflict theorists, however, view same-sex marriage through the lens of power dynamics and social inequality. They argue that the struggle for same-sex marriage reflects broader conflicts over resources and rights, highlighting issues of privilege and marginalization. Conflict theorists emphasize the role of societal power structures in shaping attitudes toward same-sex marriage and the ongoing struggles for equality. 26. Explain the concept of a domestic partnership. Answer: A domestic partnership is a legal or personal relationship between two individuals who live together and share an intimate and committed partnership. Unlike marriage, domestic partnerships may offer varying degrees of legal recognition and benefits depending on the jurisdiction. Domestic partnerships often grant couples rights related to health care, inheritance, and legal decision-making, though these rights may be more limited compared to those afforded by marriage. The concept aims to provide legal and social recognition for couples who choose not to marry or are unable to do so, reflecting a commitment to ensuring equitable treatment for diverse family arrangements. 27. What is the status of domestic partnership legislation in the United States? Answer: In the United States, the status of domestic partnership legislation varies widely by state. Some states, such as California and New Jersey, offer comprehensive domestic partnership laws that provide many of the same legal rights and responsibilities as marriage. Other states offer more limited domestic partnership benefits or none at all. Federal recognition of domestic partnerships is inconsistent, as it generally does not grant the same legal standing or benefits as marriage. The evolving landscape reflects broader trends in family law and ongoing debates about equality and recognition for non-marital relationships. 28. Summarize recent policies on same-sex marriages. Answer: Recent policies on same-sex marriage in the United States have undergone significant changes. The landmark Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) legalized same-sex marriage nationwide, ensuring that same-sex couples have the same legal rights and recognition as opposite-sex couples. This ruling marked a major victory for LGBTQ+ rights activists and represented a shift towards greater legal and social acceptance of same-sex relationships. Despite this federal recognition, debates and policy changes continue at state and local levels, addressing issues such as adoption rights, discrimination protections, and family law. The ongoing evolution of policies reflects the dynamic nature of societal attitudes toward same-sex marriage and LGBTQ+ rights. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss which function(s) of the family could not adequately be supplied by another outside source or social institution. Answer: The family provides emotional support and socialization in a uniquely intimate and personalized manner. While institutions like schools and social services can offer support, they lack the depth of emotional connection and daily interaction that families provide. The family also plays a crucial role in nurturing and developing individual identities and values, which cannot be fully replicated by external institutions. 2. Identify and describe any elements of a marriage ceremony that may reinforce domination by males in our society and encourage the subordination of females. Answer: Elements such as the giving away of the bride by her father and the traditional vows where the bride promises to "love, honor, and obey" can reinforce male dominance. These practices historically symbolize the transfer of authority from the father to the husband, highlighting the subordinate role of the bride within the marital union. 3. Discuss why children of interracial unions may often portray themselves as being of one race or the other due to endogamous restrictions in marriage. Answer: Children of interracial unions may identify with one race due to societal pressures and endogamous restrictions that emphasize racial purity and identity. These pressures can lead individuals to align with the racial group that offers greater social acceptance or opportunities, simplifying their social interactions in a context where mixed-race identities may face ambiguity or prejudice. 4. Using the various sociological perspectives, analyze the paradox of conservative politicians who discourage abortion and divorce, yet refuse to vote for increases in minimum-wage standards and increases in welfare assistance for low-income groups. Answer: From a functionalist perspective, conservative policies may aim to uphold traditional family structures and values, believing that social stability is maintained through adherence to these norms. Conflict theorists might argue that these policies reflect the interests of higher socioeconomic groups who benefit from maintaining economic disparities. Feminist perspectives could critique this paradox as neglecting the socioeconomic support needed for families, particularly those led by women, thus perpetuating gender inequalities. Interactionist views might focus on how these policies affect daily family interactions and personal relationships within the constraints of economic hardship. 5. Discuss the utility of lesbian and gay domestic partnerships in terms of strengthening family bonds or weakening family attachments among parents and children. Answer: Lesbian and gay domestic partnerships can strengthen family bonds by providing legal and social recognition to same-sex couples, thereby reinforcing commitment and stability in family relationships. They can also offer supportive environments for children, helping to build strong family units. Conversely, some argue that such partnerships might weaken traditional family structures and attachments, though this perspective often reflects more conservative viewpoints. Overall, the impact depends on societal acceptance and legal recognition, which influence how these partnerships are integrated into broader family dynamics. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Contemporary Fiction: Cosbey develops a research project through which students utilize concepts about marriage and family to analyze a selection of contemporary novels. See Janet Cosbey, “Using Contemporary Fiction to Teach Family Issues,” Teaching Sociology 25 (July 1997): 227–233. 2. Marital Violence: See Russell P. Dobash et al., “The Myth of Sexual Symmetry in Marital Violence,” Social Problems 39 (February 1992): 71–91. 3. Adolescent Sexuality: See Irma T. Elo, Rosalind B. King, and Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., “Adolescent Females: Their Sexual Partners and the Fathers of Their Children,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 61 (February 1999): 74–84; Kathleen B. Rodgers, “Parenting Processes Related to Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviors of Adolescent Males and Females,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 61 (February 1999): 99–109; Kathleen E. Miller, Donald F. Sabo, Michael P. Farrell, Grace M. Barnes, and Merrill J. Melnick, “Athletic Participation and Sexual Behavior in Adolescents: The Different Worlds of Boys and Girls,” Journal of Health & Social Behavior 39 (June 1998): 108–123. 4. African-American Family: See Steven Ruggles, “The Origins of African American Family Structure,” American Sociological Review 59 (February 1994): 136–151. 5. Race and Household Structure in 1910: See S. Philip Morgan et al., “Racial Differences in Household and Family Structure at the Turn of the Century,” American Journal of Sociology 98 (January 1993): 799–828. 6. Infant Care by Men and Women: See Susan Walzer, “Thinking about the Baby: Gender and Divisions of Infant Care,” Social Problems 43 (May 1996): 219–234. 7. Commuter Marriages: See Melissa M. Groves and Diane M. Horm-Winegerd, “Commuter Marriages: Personal, Family, and Career Issues,” Sociology and Social Research 75 (July 1991): 212–217. 8. Single Mothers and Welfare Programs: See Ellen L. Bassuk, Angela Browne, and John C. Buckner, “Single Mothers and Welfare,” Scientific American 275 (October 1996): 60–67. 9. Historical Change in Parenting: Sayer addresses whether there has been recent, historical change in the nature of parenting, with surprising conclusions. Liana C. Sayer, “Are Parents Investing Less Time in Children? Trends in Mothers’ and Fathers’ Time with Children.” American Journal of Sociology 110 (July 2004): 1–43. 10. Single Mothers and Marriage: See Kathryn Edin and Maria Kefalas, Promises I Can Keep: Why Poor Women Put Motherhood Before Marriage. 11. Work/Family Conflict: See Suzanne M. Bianchi, John P. Robinson, and Melissa A. Milkie, Changing Rhythms of American Family Life (Rose Series in Sociology). 12. Women and Welfare: See Sharon Hays, Flat Broke with Children: Women in the Age of Welfare Reform.After Solidarity: Three Polish Families in America (1989, 58m). Filmed over a two-year period, After Solidarity is the personal chronicle of three Solidarity families who were forced to leave Poland. One sees the immigrant experience as it occurs over time—from initial euphoria through the strains of joblessness, isolation, and cultural shock—and its specific effect on family life. And Baby Makes Two: Single Motherhood (McGraw-Hill, 1998, 29m). Despite statistics that indicate children need two parents, many women are choosing to have and rear their children as single parents. But is this growing number of unwed mothers sending a message that fathers aren’t important? Are men shedding their parenting responsibilities because they feel they’re not needed? This program looks at the high price that a culture must pay for becoming a fatherless society. Beyond the Nuclear Family (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2008, 25 minutes). This program offers a thought-provoking look at the changing roles, structures, and functions of the family unit. Societal expectations, technological advancements, and changes in cultural and sexual diversity are explored. Caught in the Crossfire: Children of Gay and Lesbian Parents (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2003, 27m). This video provides insight into the emotions, and negative and positive experiences of families composed of children with gay or lesbian parents. The Changing American Family: Decline or Transition (Insight Media, 1997, 30m). This video describes the cultural views on various family arrangements that affect the composition of the American family. It includes many issues facing contemporary families. Dating—Is it Outdated? (Insight Media, 2006, 60 minutes). This program explores strategies that people utilize to meet new love prospects. It features relationship experts who discuss the ways in which singles meet and reveal how such factors as proximity, timing, and intent affect the outcome. Divorce and the Family (Learning Seed, 1995, 24m). Presents divorce proceedings from the point of view of the children. Family Violence: Breaking the Chain (McGraw-Hill, 28m). This program looks at the effects of family violence on the abused and the abuser; at the danger that abused children will grow up to repeat the pattern of violence in their own relationships; at the problems of date violence; and at the physical and emotional abuse women suffer at the hands of their husbands and lovers. While showing the benefits of therapy, it stresses that the abused need safety and protection from those who abuse them. This protection can be given through shelters, hot lines, and community assistance. The Human Animal: Family and Survival (McGraw-Hill, 52m). This specially adapted Phil Donahue program investigates the state of the American family. Less than 5 percent of American households fit the stereotype of the traditional nuclear family with a working father and a wife/mother who stays home to take care of the house and children. The stresses created by divorce, both parents working, and single parenting are far more common today. It is the children who bear the heaviest burden. Hutterites (1963, 28m). A portrait of daily life in a religiously based communal farm settlement in Alberta, Canada. Gives a brief historical background of the Hutterite faith. Interracial Marriage (McGraw-Hill, 1992, 52m). Two generations ago, it was a recipe for social ostracism; a generation ago, tongues wagged; and now some ethnic groups that were once completely clannish have a 60-percent rate of intermarriage. This program examines how and why couples of different colors, religions, and ethnic roots are drawn to one another; how their differences affect their marriages; how they deal with their friends; and how their parents make peace with children-in-law they wish were of their own race or background. The 1900 House (PBS, 2000, 240 minutes). In this documentary, students will see how a modern family adjusts to being transported back in time to 1900. For three months, the Bowler family lives in a late-Victorian house, wearing period clothing and dealing with the absence of a century of scientific and technological innovations. The Japanese Nightmare: Women Who Don’t Want to Marry (Filmakers Library, 2002, 28m). This documentary explores an interesting social trend in Japan—women who delay marriage—and its negative demographic impacts. The Latino Family (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1993, 28m). Profiles families in three segments: a three-generation family, a New York-based performance artist, and a family picnicking in San Antonio, Texas. Working it Out: The Future of the Family (Insight Media, 1998, 45m). This video examines the impact of divorce on children and the movement of families away from the traditional model. It also examines the line between discipline and abuse in families. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bianchi, Suzanne M., and Lynne M. Casper. 2000. American Families (Population Bulletin, December 2000). Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau. This concise (44-page) publication provides a statistical and social overview of U.S. households at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Hertz, Rosanna, and Nancy L. Marshall, eds. 2001. Working Families: The Transformation of the American Home. Berkeley: University of California Press. Two sociologists look at the rise of dual-income families and the social dynamics of work and parenthood. Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 1997. Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work. New York: Metropolitan Books, Henry Holt. The author of The Second Shift describes the time crunch working Americans face and its consequences for their families. Luker, Kristin. 1996. Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of Teenage Pregnancy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. A sociologist analyzes attitudes toward unwed mothers in the United States, including the current “demonization” of these young women. Mindel, Charles H., Robert W. Haberstein, and Roosevelt Wright, Jr., eds. 1998. Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. This collection of 19 essays covers the family as a social institution in a variety of ethnic contexts, including Cuban American, Asian Indian, Native American, and Amish. Presser, Harriet. 2003. Working in a 24/7 Economy: Challenges for American Families. New York: Russell Sage. This book asks how recent work trends in the U.S.—namely, the fact that more and more employed people do not work a 9-to-5-day—have impacted family life. Romano, Renee C. 2003. Race Mixing: Black-White Marriage in Postwar America. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Explicates recent historical patterns of interracial marriage in the United States. Salinger, Adrienne. 1999. Living Solo. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel Publishing. A photojournalist examines the lives of single people, investigating their inner lives, dwelling places, and somewhat eccentric indulgences. Smith, William L. 1999. Families and Communes: An Examination of Nontraditional Lifestyles. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. A scholar takes a fresh look at family life within communes, and at communes as substitutes for the nuclear family. Wallerstein, Judith S., Julia M. Lewis, and Sandra Blakeslee. 2000. The Unexpected Legacy of Divorce. New York: Hyperion. A study that tracked children for 25 years after their parents’ divorce and examined the impact of the event on their lives. Yan, Yunxiang. 2003. Private Life under Socialism: Love, Intimacy, and Family Change in a Chinese Village, 1949–1999. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Based on 11 years of ethnographic study, this book gives an unusual glimpse into the private family sphere under socialism. JOURNALS Among the journals focusing on the family are Family Planning Perspectives (founded in 1969), Family Relations (1951), International Family Planning Perspectives (1975), Journal of Comparative Family Studies (1970), Journal of Family Issues (1980), Journal of Family Violence (1986), Journal of Marriage and the Family (1938), and Violence Against Women (1995). Chapter 14 Education ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What are the main concerns about charter schools discussed in your text? Answer: Charter schools are often critiqued for exacerbating educational inequality. Concerns include their potential to divert funding from public schools, leading to a decrease in resources for traditional public schools. There's also worry about lack of accountability, as charter schools might not always adhere to the same standards as public schools. Additionally, some argue that charter schools can create a divide by drawing students from more advantaged backgrounds, leaving behind those in greater need. The selective admissions and exit policies can also contribute to a lack of inclusivity and equity in education. 2. Identify and describe the manifest and latent functions of education. Answer: Manifest functions of education are the intended and explicit outcomes, such as the transmission of knowledge, skills development, and preparation for the workforce. Education aims to equip students with academic knowledge and vocational training to succeed in their careers. Latent functions are the unintended and implicit outcomes, including socialization, the formation of social networks, and the reinforcement of social stratification. Education can also serve as a means for children to learn social norms and values, as well as provide a setting for social integration and status maintenance. 3. In what ways do schools serve to transmit culture? Answer: Schools transmit culture through the formal curriculum and informal interactions. The formal curriculum includes subjects like history and literature that teach students about societal values, traditions, and cultural heritage. Informal interactions, such as group work and extracurricular activities, help students internalize social norms and cultural practices. Schools also serve as a setting where diverse cultural backgrounds can be shared, promoting understanding and cohesion among students from different cultural backgrounds. Through rituals, ceremonies, and traditions, schools reinforce societal values and cultural continuity. 4. How do schools promote social and political integration? Answer: Schools promote social integration by bringing together individuals from diverse backgrounds, fostering a sense of community and shared identity. Through collaborative activities and shared experiences, students learn to interact and work with others who may have different cultural or social perspectives. Politically, schools educate students about civic responsibilities, governmental structures, and democratic principles, preparing them for active participation in society. By teaching civic values and encouraging political engagement, schools help integrate individuals into the political fabric of their communities and the broader society. 5. How do schools maintain social control and facilitate social change? Answer: Schools maintain social control by enforcing rules and norms that regulate behavior, helping students learn the expectations and conduct required for societal participation. Discipline and structured environments contribute to maintaining order and ensuring conformity. Schools facilitate social change by serving as platforms for the introduction of new ideas and progressive values. Educational reforms, curriculum updates, and the promotion of critical thinking can challenge existing norms and drive societal progress. Through education, schools can address social inequalities, promote equity, and prepare students to contribute to social and cultural advancements. 6. How do conflict theorists view the “hidden curriculum”? Answer: Conflict theorists see the hidden curriculum as a tool for perpetuating social inequalities. They argue that, beyond the formal curriculum, schools impart implicit lessons that reinforce social hierarchies and maintain the status quo. This hidden curriculum includes norms, values, and expectations that align with the interests of the dominant class, such as promoting obedience, punctuality, and conformity, which benefit the upper classes by preparing students to accept their future roles in a stratified society. By subtly reinforcing class distinctions and perpetuating the social order, the hidden curriculum contributes to the reproduction of existing social inequalities. 7. How do conflict theorists view “credentialism”? Answer: Conflict theorists view credentialism as a mechanism for maintaining and legitimizing social stratification. They argue that the emphasis on formal educational credentials, such as degrees and certifications, serves to filter and allocate individuals into different social positions, often reinforcing existing class divisions. Credentialism can create barriers to upward mobility by requiring specific qualifications for high-status jobs, which may disadvantage those from lower socio-economic backgrounds. This process helps preserve the power and privilege of the elite by using educational credentials as a way to justify and perpetuate social inequality. 8. How are schools able to preserve social class and how does tracking relate to social class? Answer: Schools preserve social class by maintaining and reinforcing existing social hierarchies through practices like tracking. Tracking involves grouping students based on perceived ability or academic achievement, which often correlates with socio-economic background. Students from higher social classes are frequently placed in advanced or honors tracks, providing them with more resources and opportunities. Conversely, those from lower socio-economic backgrounds may be placed in remedial or lower tracks, which limits their academic and professional prospects. This segregation reinforces social class distinctions by ensuring that students from different backgrounds receive different levels of education and opportunities. 9. How does the correspondence principle relate to social class? Answer: The correspondence principle suggests that the structure and practices of schools mirror and reinforce the social and economic hierarchies present in broader society. According to this principle, the way schools are organized and operate reflects the needs and values of the capitalist economy. For example, schools often replicate the hierarchical and competitive nature of the labor market, preparing students to accept and perform roles within the existing social and economic structure. This principle highlights how educational systems contribute to the perpetuation of social class by ensuring that students from different socio-economic backgrounds are prepared for different roles in the labor market. 10. Discuss how the status of women in education is changing and how it has remained the same. Answer: The status of women in education has seen significant improvements, with women now outnumbering men in higher education enrollment and achieving higher educational attainment overall. This progress reflects greater gender equality in access to educational opportunities and a shift towards valuing women’s contributions in academic and professional fields. However, challenges remain. Women still face disparities in certain fields, such as STEM, and often encounter barriers to advancement in academic and professional careers. Additionally, gender biases and stereotypes persist, influencing the types of opportunities and support available to women. Despite progress, achieving complete gender parity in education and addressing remaining inequalities continues to be an ongoing challenge. 11. Describe the research findings on the teacher-expectancy effect. Answer: Research on the teacher-expectancy effect, initially explored by sociologist Robert Rosenthal and schoolteacher Lenore Jacobson, reveals that teachers' expectations of students can significantly impact their academic performance. In their study, teachers were led to believe that certain students were "late bloomers" who would show unexpected academic growth. These students, regardless of their actual abilities, subsequently performed better, illustrating how positive or negative expectations can influence students’ achievements. This phenomenon occurs because teachers may unconsciously provide more encouragement, attention, and support to students they believe will excel, thereby fulfilling their own expectations and affecting students' performance and self-esteem. 12. Using Max Weber’s five basic characteristics of bureaucracy, explain how schools are bureaucratic. Answer: Max Weber’s five basic characteristics of bureaucracy include a hierarchical structure, specialization, a set of rules and regulations, impersonal relationships, and a focus on efficiency. Schools exhibit these traits as follows: 1. Hierarchical Structure: Schools have a clear chain of command with roles such as principals, vice-principals, teachers, and administrative staff. 2. Specialization: Teachers and staff are specialized in their roles and responsibilities, such as subject-specific teaching or administrative tasks. 3. Rules and Regulations: Schools operate under formalized rules and policies, such as grading systems and attendance requirements. 4. Impersonal Relationships: Interactions within schools are often formal and based on roles rather than personal relationships, focusing on professional conduct. 5. Focus on Efficiency: Schools aim to operate efficiently by standardizing procedures and optimizing educational processes to manage large groups of students. 13. What is Title IX, and why was it implemented? Answer: Title IX is a federal law enacted in 1972 as part of the Education Amendments in the United States. It prohibits sex-based discrimination in any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance. Title IX was implemented to address and rectify gender inequalities in education, particularly in athletics, admissions, and employment. It aimed to provide equal opportunities for women and girls, ensuring that they have the same access to educational resources and opportunities as their male counterparts. The law has led to significant improvements in female participation in sports and other educational activities, though debates continue regarding its application and impact. 14. What are some of the difficulties that contemporary teachers face? Answer: Contemporary teachers face several challenges, including: 1. Large Class Sizes: Managing large groups of students can be overwhelming and affect the quality of individual attention. 2. Funding Issues: Limited budgets often lead to insufficient resources, outdated materials, and lower salaries. 3. Increased Accountability: Teachers are subject to rigorous standards and evaluations, which can create stress and limit flexibility. 4. Diverse Classrooms: Meeting the needs of students with varying backgrounds, abilities, and learning styles requires significant effort. 5. Behavioral Issues: Addressing behavioral problems and maintaining discipline can be challenging, particularly with inadequate support systems. 15. How do functionalists and conflict theorists view the bureaucratization of schools? Answer: Functionalists view the bureaucratization of schools positively, seeing it as a means to achieve efficiency and order in the education system. They believe that a structured, bureaucratic approach ensures that educational institutions fulfill their roles in transmitting knowledge, socializing students, and preparing them for the workforce in a consistent and effective manner. Conflict theorists, on the other hand, critique the bureaucratization of schools as a mechanism that perpetuates social inequalities. They argue that the bureaucratic structure reinforces existing power dynamics and social stratification, where schools reflect and reproduce the inequalities of the broader society. The focus on standardization and regulation can marginalize students from lower socio-economic backgrounds, perpetuating disparities rather than addressing them. 16. What are the dimensions of violence in school in the United States? Answer: Violence in U.S. schools manifests in several dimensions, including physical, verbal, and psychological forms. Physical violence includes fights, assaults, and bullying, leading to injuries and disruptions. Verbal violence encompasses name-calling, threats, and harassment, which can have long-term effects on mental health and student well-being. Psychological violence involves intimidation, exclusion, and emotional abuse, which can impact academic performance and social development. Additionally, incidents of weapon use and school shootings contribute to a climate of fear and insecurity. These forms of violence are influenced by broader societal issues, such as socio-economic disparities and family instability, and require multifaceted approaches for prevention and intervention. 17. What are conflict and feminist views concerning school violence? Answer: From a conflict perspective, school violence is seen as a manifestation of broader social inequalities and power struggles. Conflict theorists argue that violence in schools reflects societal conflicts over resources and power, exacerbated by economic disparities, systemic racism, and lack of access to social services. They suggest that violence often emerges from frustrations related to unequal opportunities and social injustices. Feminist views on school violence focus on how gender dynamics contribute to violence. Feminists highlight that school violence is often rooted in patriarchal structures that perpetuate male dominance and control. They point to issues such as sexual harassment, gender-based bullying, and the normalization of aggressive behavior in male students. Feminist analyses advocate for addressing these underlying gender inequalities to reduce violence and promote a safer, more equitable school environment. 18. Describe findings on subcultures among college students. Answer: Subcultures among college students vary widely and are often influenced by students' backgrounds, interests, and identities. Research shows that subcultures can include groups centered around academic interests (e.g., science clubs, literature circles), social activities (e.g., Greek life, party scenes), and cultural or ethnic identities (e.g., LGBTQ+ groups, multicultural organizations). These subcultures provide students with a sense of belonging and identity, but can also contribute to campus divisions. For example, students involved in Greek life may develop a strong sense of community but also face criticism for exclusivity and privilege. Subcultures can impact students' social networks, academic experiences, and personal development, reflecting the diversity of interests and backgrounds in higher education. 19. Explain the current issues related to charter schools in the United States. Answer: Charter schools in the United States face several issues, including debates over their impact on public school systems, funding disparities, and accountability. Critics argue that charter schools can divert funding from traditional public schools, exacerbating inequalities. There are concerns about the lack of oversight and varying standards for accountability, which can lead to inconsistent educational quality. Supporters claim that charter schools offer innovative educational approaches and increased parental choice. However, issues like limited access for marginalized students and the uneven distribution of resources can undermine the potential benefits of charter schools. The ongoing debate centers around balancing innovation with equitable access and maintaining high standards across all educational institutions. 20. What are some of the insights sociologists can bring to school policies, including those that affect charter schools? Answer: Sociologists provide valuable insights into school policies by analyzing how educational practices and structures impact various groups within the school system. They can identify how policies affect social inequalities, including disparities in access to quality education and resources. For example, sociologists can evaluate how charter schools impact traditional public schools and whether they exacerbate or alleviate educational inequalities. They can also examine the social dynamics within schools, such as the effects of tracking and disciplinary policies on different student groups. Additionally, sociologists can offer recommendations for policies that promote inclusivity and address systemic issues, contributing to more equitable and effective educational environments. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Describe how using the Internet could strengthen or weaken the integrative function of education within a society. What elements of socialization may be missing? Answer: Using the Internet can strengthen education by providing access to diverse perspectives and resources, fostering global communication, and enabling collaborative learning. However, it can weaken integrative functions by reducing face-to-face interactions, which are crucial for developing social skills and emotional intelligence. Elements of socialization, such as interpersonal relationships and cultural norms, may be missing or diminished in an online environment. 2. Compare and contrast the views on education from the conflict and interactionist perspectives. What was Christopher Hurn’s contention about the functionalist view? Answer: Conflict theorists view education as a means of perpetuating social inequalities, reinforcing class structures, and serving the interests of dominant groups. Interactionists, on the other hand, focus on how daily interactions and teacher-student relationships shape educational experiences and self-concepts. Christopher Hurn contended that the functionalist view overly emphasizes the positive functions of education while underestimating how it reproduces social inequalities and serves specific interests. 3. Describe the various extremes students may take in trying to please a college professor in terms of experiencing the teacher-expectancy effect. Answer: Students may go to extremes such as overly conforming to the professor’s expectations or engaging in excessive flattery to gain favor. This can include mimicking the professor’s viewpoints, excessively participating in class, or altering their own academic interests to align with the professor’s preferences. These actions stem from the teacher-expectancy effect, where students' performance may be influenced by the expectations and perceptions of their instructors. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Sexual Harassment in Schools: See Valerie E. Lee, et al., “The Culture of Sexual Harassment in Secondary Schools,” American Educational Research 33 (Summer 1996): 383–417. 2. Peer Groups in School: See Wesley Shrum and Neil H. Cheek, Jr., “Social Structure during the School Years: Onset of the Degrouping Process,” American Sociological Review 52 (April 1987): 218–223. 3. Tracking: See Maureen T. Hallinan, “Track Mobility in Secondary School,” Social Forces 74 (March 1996): 983–1002. See also Lleras, Christy and Claudia Rangel. “Ability Grouping Practices in Elementary School and African American/Hispanic Achievement.” American Journal of Education 115(2): 279-305.(2009) 4. Women in Higher Education: See Doris W. Ewing, “Status of Women Faculty in Graduate Departments,” The Midwest Sociologist 37 (June 1996): 16–18. 5. Interactionist View: College-bound students aren’t the only ones who undergo anticipatory socialization for higher education. See Thomas J. Cottle, “A Family Prepares for College,” Journal of Higher Education 62 (January–February 1991): 79–86. 6. Teachers and Students: How do prospective teachers feel about working in an environment with a diverse student body? See Eileen L. Schultz, T. Kelly Neyhard, and U. Mae Rick, “Swimming against the Tide: A Study of Prospective Teachers’ Attitudes Regarding Cultural Diversity and Urban Teaching,” Western Journal of Black Studies 20 (Spring 1996): 1–8. 7. The Social Embeddedness of the American University: American colleges and universities are currently undergoing changes, as they adjust to changes in the outside social, technological, and economic environment. Steven Brint, ed. The Future of the City of Intellect: The Changing American University. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002. VIDEO RESOURCES Educating to End Inequity (Insight Media, 2001, 54m). This program addresses teachers’ efforts to level the educational and social playing fields for their students by examining public school reform and its relationship to social change. A History of Education (Insight Media, 1999, 52m). This video traces the evolution of education through the various historical eras. It demonstrates how education evolved from a privilege of elite to a consideration of basic right. Public Education: It’s a Bull Market (Filmakers Library, 1991, 30m). This program takes a critical look at the influential role that big business plays in public education in America. It shows how large corporations influence both curricula and policy. For example, sponsored films supplied by large corporations influence young children on such subjects as nuclear energy and pesticides. The Whittle Corporation’s controversial Channel One program advertises products as well as bringing in current events. Sometimes, schools are given high-tech equipment in return for endorsing the products to other teachers. Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America (AAUW, 1992, 19m). This program interviews educators and business leaders to illuminate the devastating effects of gender bias in schools. It investigates the loss of self-esteem among girls and shows how they are often tracked away from math and science curricula. The Story of American Public Education (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 4 x 55m each) This video set examines the complete history of America’s public school system from common school in the 1770s through the present. Narrated by Meryl Streep, the videos use archival footage and interviews to navigate the various pathways that have been forged in our educational journey. What Should We Do in School Today (1992, 22m). This film explores some of the most pressing issues facing educators today: Curriculum—what should we be teaching? Discipline—just how far should we go? Teacher evaluation—how can you measure good teaching? Dropping out—how can we keep at-risk kids in school? To examine these issues we visit four schools around the country that are trying to solve these problems in some new, and sometimes controversial, ways. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bowen, William G. and Derek Bok. 1998. The Shape of the River. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Two respected researchers look at the history and social consequences of the consideration of race in college admissions. Brantlinger, Ellen. 2003. Dividing Classes: How the Middle Class Negotiates and Rationalizes School Advantage. New York: Routledge Falmer. An analysis of the No Child Left Behind Act and its relationship to social inequality in the schools. Margolis, Eric, ed. 2001. The Hidden Curriculum in Higher Education. New York: Routledge. Eleven essays on the ways in which higher education reproduces race, class, and gender hierarchies. Ravitch, Diane. 2000. Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reforms. New York: Simon and Schuster. A respected scholar considers the failure of several massive efforts to improve public schools in the United States. Rosenbaum, James E. 2001. Beyond College for All: Career Paths for the Forgotten Half. New York: Russell Sage. Rosenbaum examines the world of work possibilities for Americans who do not go to college. Sadker, Myra, and David Sadker. 1995. Failing at Fairness: How America’s Schools Cheat Girls. New York: Touchstone. The authors present a history of women’s education in the United States and then critically examine the contemporary treatment of females from elementary school through graduate school. Soares, Joseph A. 2007. The Power of Privilege: Yale and America’s Elite Colleges. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. The author gives an analysis of the admissions process at elite universities—and the degree to which admission is related to income and wealth. Steinberg, Jacques. 2003. The Gatekeepers: Inside the Admissions Process of a Premier College. New York: Penguin. In this fascinating book, Steinberg follows an admissions counselor from Wesleyan University for a period of one year. JOURNALS The sociology of education is reflected in Educational Record (founded in 1920), Education and Urban Society (1968), Education Week (1981), the Harvard Educational Review (1974), Intercultural Education (1989), Journal of Contemporary Education (1984), Journal of Educational Finance (1975), Phi Delta Kappan (1915), Race Ethnicity and Education (1998), and Sociology of Education (1927). Chapter 15 Religion ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What are the main concerns about charter schools discussed in your text? Answer: Charter schools often face criticism regarding their impact on public education. Concerns include potential increases in educational inequality, as charter schools may siphon resources from traditional public schools, leading to a disparity in educational quality. There are also worries about the lack of accountability and oversight, as some charter schools operate with less regulatory scrutiny compared to public schools. Additionally, critics argue that charter schools may not always deliver on their promises of innovative teaching methods and improved student outcomes. 2. Use the excerpt from Vine Deloria’s book at the beginning of the chapter to explain the sociological meaning of religion, the sacred, and the profane. Answer: In Vine Deloria’s book, religion is portrayed as a fundamental social institution that helps individuals and societies understand their place in the world. The "sacred" refers to elements of life that are set apart and revered, holding profound significance and invoking a sense of reverence or awe. The "profane," in contrast, encompasses the ordinary, everyday aspects of life that lack this special significance. Sociologically, religion structures how individuals interact with these realms, creating a framework for understanding and engaging with both the transcendent and the mundane. 3. Clarify the distinction that Émile Durkheim made between the sacred and the profane. Answer: Émile Durkheim distinguished between the sacred and the profane in his study of religion. The "sacred" consists of things set apart and forbidden, imbued with extraordinary significance, and deserving reverence, such as religious rituals, symbols, or objects. The "profane," on the other hand, pertains to the mundane, everyday aspects of life that are not considered holy or extraordinary. This dichotomy helps Durkheim explain how religious practices and beliefs foster social cohesion and establish a sense of collective identity among members of a society. 4. What is meant by the “integrative” function of religion? Answer: The "integrative" function of religion refers to its role in promoting social cohesion and unity within a society. By providing shared beliefs, rituals, and symbols, religion helps to bind individuals together, creating a sense of community and belonging. It establishes moral guidelines and a common framework for understanding the world, which can enhance social solidarity and cooperation among members of different groups or communities. 5. What is meant by the “social support” function of religion? Answer: The "social support" function of religion involves the ways in which religious institutions and communities provide emotional, psychological, and material support to individuals. Religion often offers a support network through congregations, religious organizations, and community services, which can assist people in times of need, such as during personal crises, illness, or bereavement. This function helps individuals cope with stress and challenges, fostering a sense of belonging and providing tangible assistance through faith-based programs and resources. 6. How did Karl Marx and Max Weber view the relationship between religion and the economic side of life? Answer: Karl Marx viewed religion primarily as a tool used by the ruling class to maintain control over the proletariat. According to Marx, religion functions as an "opiate of the masses," offering illusory happiness and justifying the existing social order by promoting the idea of a better afterlife. This, Marx argued, detracts from the pursuit of social change and maintains economic inequalities. In contrast, Max Weber's perspective in "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" suggested that certain religious beliefs, particularly those of Protestantism, had a profound influence on the development of capitalist economies. Weber argued that the Protestant work ethic, emphasizing hard work and frugality, was instrumental in shaping modern capitalist practices. 7. What has been the primary nature of critiques of Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism? Answer: Critiques of Max Weber’s "Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" focus on several areas. Firstly, some argue that Weber overstated the connection between Protestantism and capitalism, suggesting that other factors, such as technological advancements and colonialism, played more significant roles in the rise of capitalism. Critics also challenge Weber’s assumption that Protestant ethics directly led to capitalist economic behavior, pointing to evidence of capitalist practices in non-Protestant societies. Additionally, some sociologists argue that Weber's analysis overlooks the complex interplay between religious, economic, and cultural factors, and that his thesis may not fully account for the diversity of capitalist development across different contexts. 8. What is liberation theology and how does it relate to conflict theory? Answer: Liberation theology is a religious movement that emerged in the 1960s, primarily within the Christian context in Latin America. It emphasizes the role of religion in addressing social injustices and advocating for the poor and oppressed. Liberation theology aligns with conflict theory by highlighting how economic and social inequalities are perpetuated by existing power structures. It argues that religious teachings should support social justice and revolutionary change to dismantle systems of oppression and achieve equality. The movement critiques the status quo and encourages religious communities to actively work towards social transformation and the empowerment of marginalized groups. 9. What is meant by the “social control” function of religion? Answer: The "social control" function of religion refers to the ways in which religious institutions and beliefs enforce societal norms and expectations. Religion provides a moral framework that dictates acceptable behavior and discourages deviance through formal doctrines, rituals, and social sanctions. By promoting values such as honesty, fidelity, and respect for authority, religion helps regulate behavior and maintain social order. It also creates mechanisms for reinforcing conformity, such as community accountability and religious teachings, thereby contributing to the stability and cohesion of society. 10. Contrast the views of religion taken by Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx. Answer: Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx had fundamentally different views on religion. Durkheim saw religion as a vital social institution that contributes to social cohesion and collective consciousness. He believed that religion reinforces social solidarity by creating a sense of belonging and moral unity among individuals. In contrast, Marx viewed religion as a mechanism of social control used by the ruling class to perpetuate inequality. He argued that religion serves to distract and pacify the working class by promising rewards in an afterlife, thus maintaining the status quo and preventing social change. While Durkheim emphasized religion's role in social integration, Marx focused on its role in perpetuating class struggles and economic exploitation. 11. In what ways do both Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx emphasize the importance of secular outcomes of religion? Answer: Émile Durkheim emphasized that religion's secular outcomes include fostering social cohesion and collective consciousness. According to Durkheim, religious practices and rituals create a sense of belonging and unity among members of society, reinforcing social norms and values. Religion, in this sense, serves a functional role in maintaining social order and solidarity. Karl Marx, on the other hand, focused on how religion serves the economic and political interests of the ruling class. He argued that religion perpetuates social inequalities by justifying the status quo and offering false hope to the oppressed, thus maintaining the existing power structures. For Marx, the secular outcome of religion is its role in sustaining class dominance and hindering social change. 12. Identify and briefly describe the three components of religious behavior presented in the textbook. Answer: The three components of religious behavior are: 1. Beliefs: These are the fundamental ideas and doctrines that individuals hold about the nature of the divine, the universe, and the meaning of life. Beliefs provide the foundation for religious practices and influence how adherents view their world. 2. Rituals: These are the formal and repetitive practices performed by adherents to express and reinforce their religious beliefs. Rituals can include ceremonies such as prayer, worship, and sacraments, and are often performed collectively or individually. 3. Religious Institutions: These are organized structures and groups within a religion that help to maintain and transmit religious beliefs and practices. Institutions include churches, temples, mosques, and religious organizations that provide social support, education, and leadership within the religious community. 13. What are some of the different forms that religious rituals can take? Answer: Religious rituals can vary widely but generally include: 1. Ceremonial Rituals: These involve formal ceremonies such as weddings, baptisms, and funerals, which mark significant life events and transitions. 2. Worship Rituals: These rituals are dedicated to the veneration of deities or divine entities and can include practices like prayer, singing hymns, and attending religious services. 3. Rites of Passage: These rituals mark important stages in an individual’s life, such as coming of age ceremonies, initiation rites, or ordination. 4. Seasonal and Festive Rituals: These celebrate religious festivals or seasonal events, such as Christmas, Ramadan, or Passover, and often involve special activities, feasts, or observances. 14. Explain the different types of religious organizations. Answer: 1. Churches: These are large, established religious organizations with a formal and hierarchical structure. Churches typically have a broad membership and are integrated into mainstream society. They emphasize stability and continuity and often engage in a wide range of social activities. 2. Sects: Sects are smaller, less formal religious groups that often break away from established churches. They typically have a more intense and personal form of worship and may reject some of the mainstream religious norms. Sects often emphasize purity and commitment among their members. 3. Cults: Cults are new or unconventional religious groups that often center around a charismatic leader. They may have unconventional beliefs or practices and often face skepticism or opposition from mainstream society. Cults can be highly insular and demanding of their members. 15. How do denominations, ecclesia, and sects differ? Answer: 1. Denominations: Denominations are distinct, organized religious groups within a broader religious tradition. They share common beliefs but differ in practices, doctrines, or rituals. Denominations typically accept the legitimacy of other denominations within the same faith and operate within the broader social context. 2. Ecclesia: An ecclesia is a state-sanctioned or officially recognized religious organization that is integrated into the political and social structures of a society. It often represents the dominant religious institution and has significant influence over public life and policy. 3. Sects: Sects are smaller, more radical religious groups that have separated from larger religious institutions. They often challenge established norms and practices and may have a more intense or exclusive approach to religious life. Sects typically emphasize personal commitment and a strict adherence to their beliefs. 16. Distinguish between cults, or new religious movements, and sects. Answer: Cults, or new religious movements, are relatively new religious organizations that emerge outside of mainstream religious traditions. They often form around a charismatic leader and present unique or unconventional beliefs and practices that challenge established norms. Cults may be seen as radical or innovative and are frequently characterized by intense devotion among their members. Sects, on the other hand, are smaller, often splinter groups that break away from larger religious institutions or denominations. While sects also have distinct beliefs and practices, they typically maintain some connection to the broader religious tradition they emerged from. Sects are often more focused on preserving or returning to what they see as the "true" form of their religion and may have less of a charismatic leadership structure compared to cults. 17. What are some of the key religions in India, and how do they differ from one another? Answer: India is home to several major religions, each with unique beliefs and practices: 1. Hinduism: This is the largest religion in India, characterized by a diverse range of beliefs, including a pantheon of deities, reincarnation, and karma. Hinduism encompasses various traditions and practices, such as yoga, devotion (bhakti), and rituals associated with numerous deities. 2. Islam: Islam is the second-largest religion in India. Followers, known as Muslims, adhere to the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad as revealed in the Quran. Islam emphasizes monotheism, the Five Pillars of Faith, and a way of life guided by Sharia law. 3. Sikhism: Founded in the 15th century by Guru Nanak, Sikhism teaches the oneness of God, equality, and the importance of community service. Sikhs follow the teachings of ten Gurus recorded in the Guru Granth Sahib, their holy scripture. 4. Christianity: Introduced to India by missionaries, Christianity in India includes denominations such as Catholicism, Protestantism, and Eastern Orthodoxy. It focuses on the teachings of Jesus Christ, the Bible, and the concepts of salvation and grace. 5. Buddhism: Originating in India with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), Buddhism emphasizes the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as a means to attain enlightenment and escape the cycle of rebirth. 6. Jainism: Jainism teaches non-violence (ahimsa), non-possessiveness (aparigraha), and the pursuit of spiritual purity through self-discipline. Jain followers strive for liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth through ethical living and ascetic practices. 18. Historically, what has been the relationship between religion and statehood in India? Answer: Historically, the relationship between religion and statehood in India has been complex and multifaceted. Ancient Indian kingdoms often intertwined religious authority with political power, with rulers frequently patronizing religious institutions and participating in religious rituals to legitimize their rule. During the colonial period, British rule introduced a more secular administrative framework but also manipulated religious identities for political purposes, which heightened communal tensions. Post-independence, India adopted a secular constitution that guarantees freedom of religion and aims to maintain neutrality in religious matters. However, political parties and leaders often engage with religious communities to garner support, and communal tensions occasionally influence state policies and governance, reflecting an ongoing interplay between religion and politics. 19. What is the sociological significance of Jonathan Kozol’s The Shame of the Nation? Answer: Jonathan Kozol’s The Shame of the Nation is significant in sociology for its critical examination of educational inequality in the United States. Kozol highlights the stark disparities between affluent and impoverished schools, revealing how systemic inequities perpetuate educational and social disadvantages for students in underfunded urban schools. The book sheds light on issues such as inadequate resources, overcrowded classrooms, and the impact of socioeconomic status on educational opportunities. Kozol’s work underscores the social consequences of educational inequities and calls for reforms to address these disparities and promote greater equality in the education system. The book is influential in discussions about educational policy, social justice, and the broader implications of inequality in American society. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss why the norms of religion will likely make a war on terrorism difficult for anyone to win. Do you think agnostic government leaders could clarify the disputed issues better than fundamentalist religious leaders? Why or why not? Answer: Religious norms often make conflicts challenging because they intertwine with deeply held beliefs and identities, making resolution difficult. Agnostic leaders might offer a more secular and pragmatic approach to disputes, but they may lack the cultural and religious insights needed to address underlying issues effectively. 2. Describe the significance of the role played by religion in the current war in Iraq. How did political leaders use religion to underscore their war actions? Answer: In the Iraq War, religion was significant as political leaders framed the conflict as a fight between good and evil, often invoking religious rhetoric to justify actions. Leaders used religious justifications to rally support and legitimize military interventions, influencing public perception and morale. 3. Describe how using the Internet could strengthen or weaken the integrative power of religion within a society. What elements of religious socialization may be missing? Answer: The Internet can strengthen religion by providing platforms for worship and community-building, but it may weaken integrative power by promoting fragmented and diverse beliefs. Key elements of religious socialization, such as face-to-face interaction and ritual participation, might be diminished. 4. Discuss why current educational policies have been favorable toward the blending of education and religion. Do you feel this is a sound integrative function or part of a hidden curriculum? Answer: Current policies may favor blending education and religion to accommodate diverse beliefs and values in schools. Whether this blending is a sound integrative function or a hidden curriculum depends on whether it promotes inclusivity or subtly enforces specific religious norms. 5. Discuss why a religious conservative may try to justify school choice vouchers over an agnostic person. Would the increased blending of religion and education be a positive step or a negative one? Give examples to support you answer. Answer: Religious conservatives may support school choice vouchers to enable funding for religious schools, believing it promotes their values and education quality. Increased blending of religion and education could be positive for those seeking religious education but negative if it undermines secularism and equality in public schooling. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. No Religion: See William Fergelman, Bernard S. Gorman, and Joseph A. Varacalli, “Americans Who Give Up Religion,” Sociology and Social Research 76 (April 1992): 138–144. 2. Attitudes toward Religion and Court Decisions: See James G. Hovgland, Jr., “The State and Observations of Religious Holiday Traditions: Attitudes toward Nativity Scenes on Government Property,” Sociological Analysis 53 (Fall 1992): 299–308; Eric Woodrum and Thomas Hoban, “Support for Prayer in School and Creationism,” Sociological Analysis 53 (Fall 1992): 309–321. 3. Intermarriage between Protestants and Roman Catholics: See Matthhijs Kalmijn, “Shifting Boundaries: Trends in Religious and Educational Homogamy,” American Sociological Review 56 (December 1991): 786–800. 4. Contemporary Religious Patterns: How can sociological theory be applied to the question of why people join particular religious congregations? This book adjudicates the possibilities. Joseph B. Tamney. The Resilience of Conservative Religion: The Case of Popular, Conservative Protestant Congregations. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 5. Women Seminarians: See Barbara Finlay, “Do Men and Women Have Different Goals for Ministry? Evidence from Seminarians,” Sociology of Religion 57 (Fall 1996): 311–318. 6. Religion and the Economy: Sociological research exploring the connections between religion and the economy are not limited to Weber’s classic work on the Protestant ethic. For a contemporary example of work in this area, see Robert J. Barro and Rachel M. McCleary, “Religion and Economic Growth across Countries,” American Sociological Review 68 (October 2003): 760–781. 7. Religion and the Government: Government funding of religious charities is a hot issue in the sociology of religion today. Chaves et al. look at empirical evidence to see whether government funding of religious charities affects their political activities in Mark Chaves, Laura Stephens, and Joseph Galaskiewicz, “Does Government Funding Suppress Nonprofits’ Political Activity? ,” American Sociological Review 69 (April 2004): 292–316. VIDEO RESOURCES Brother Born Again (New Day Films, 57 minutes). This film explores one family’s struggle with a brother who rejects Judaism for fundamentalist Christianity. Cults (Insight Media, 2000, 50m). This film looks at cults from a sociological perspective, highlighting both contemporary and ancient cults. God and the Inner City (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2002, 58m). More and more people believe that faith-based programs can transform the downward spiral of America’s inner cities. The reality of these organizations in the trenches seldom fits the stereotypes of inner-city ministries. Narrated by Phylicia Rashad, this compelling program looks at three emotional stories of struggle and hope. The Jolo Serpent-Handlers (1984, color, 40m). A recent portrait of an unusual fundamentalist sect that is widespread throughout the South. This ethnography brings us close to the reality and spirit of this little-understood religious group. Jonestown: The Life and Death of People’s Temple (PBS: American Experience, 2007, 90 minutes). In 1978, Congressman Leo Ryan traveled to Guyana to investigate a compound known as Jonestown, a group called the Peoples Temple, and its leader, the Reverend Jim Jones. Within two days, Ryan, Jones and over 900 Jonestown followers were dead; casualties of a mass murder-suicide. This PBS documentary goes beyond the headlines to provide a revealing portrait of Jones and The Peoples Temple. The King Does Not Lie: The Initiation of a Shango Priest (1993, 50m). This film documents the Afro-Cuban religion, Santeria, following a young priest through his initiation rituals. Knocking (New Day Films, 53 minutes). This video follows two families who stand firm for their often controversial and misunderstood faith. Their stories reveal how one unlikely religion helped to shape history beyond the doorstep. Muslims in America (Insight Media, 1997, 23m). This video gives an overview of the Islamic faith, and the current political and social position of American Muslims. On Fire with Faith (1990, 60m). This program explores the history of Hispanic Catholics in North America from the arrival of the first missionaries. Religion (1991, 30m). Explores the various functions of religion using several major religions. Shows how religion reflects society and how it is involved with social change and social conflict. Tempting Faith: Is Charitable Choice Working? (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2002, 57m). The implementation of the 1996 welfare reform act’s Charitable Choice provision has proved controversial in the extreme. In this program, supporters and opponents alike give a clear sense of what is at stake as they examine the application of Charitable Choice in Indiana, Massachusetts, and North Carolina. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bartowski, John, and Helen A. Regis. 2003. Charitable Choices: Religion, Race, and Poverty in the Post-Welfare Era. New York: New York University Press. Among other features, this book presents a history of faith-based welfare initiatives in the United States. Demerath III, N.J. 2001. Crossing the Gods: World Religions and World Politics. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. A comparative study of church-state relations in 14 countries. Lee, Martha F. 1996. The Nation of Islam: An American Millenarium Movement. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. A political scientist examines the origins of the organized religion commonly known as the “Black Muslims” and changes in this faith over the last half-century. Lindner, Eileen W., ed. 2004. Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches 2004. Nashville: Abingdon Press. Prepared annually by the National Council of the Churches of Christ, this compendium provides the latest statistical data plus topical articles. Nesbitt, Paula D. 1997. Feminization of the Clergy in America: Occupational and Organizational Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press. This work considers the constellation of historical and social factors contributing to the feminization of clergy in the United States, with emphasis on the Episcopal and Unitarian Universalist Churches. Orfield, Gary, and Holly J. Lebowitz, eds. 2001. Religion, Race, and Justice in a Changing America. New York: The Twentieth Century Fund. Addresses the changing nature of civil rights and its relationship to organized religion. Vásquez, Manuel A., and Marie Friedmann Marquardt. Globalizing the Sacred: Religion across the Americas. New Burnswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Examines the interplay between religion and globalization processes. JOURNALS The sociological study of religion is reflected in the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (founded in 1961), Religion Watch (monthly newsletter, 1986), Review of Religious Research (1958), Social Compass (1954), and Sociology of Religion (previously Sociological Analysis, 1940). Solution Manual for Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026812, 9780071318419