CH-13-14 Stratification by Age – Sociology : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 13 to 14 CHAPTER 13 STRATIFICATION BY AGE ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Explain why we need to look at the life course as a continuum. Answer: To understand why we need to view the life course as a continuum, we should consider the following points: 1. Interconnected Life Stages: The life course comprises interconnected stages—childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age—that influence each other. Events and experiences in one stage impact subsequent stages, emphasizing the need to see the life course as a continuous process rather than isolated phases. 2. Changing Social Roles: As individuals transition through different life stages, their social roles and expectations evolve. Viewing the life course as a continuum helps us appreciate how these roles change and adapt over time, affecting one's identity and social interactions. 3. Cumulative Advantage/Disadvantage: Life experiences build on each other, leading to cumulative advantages or disadvantages. Recognizing the life course as a continuum allows us to better understand how early experiences can shape opportunities and outcomes later in life. 4. Social Policies and Interventions: Considering the life course as a continuum is crucial for designing effective social policies and interventions. Policies that address issues at various life stages can be more impactful if they acknowledge the ongoing and evolving nature of individuals' lives. By viewing the life course as a continuum, we gain a holistic understanding of how personal and social factors interact across different stages of life, leading to more informed analyses and interventions. 2. How does aging vary as a social phenomenon from society to society? Answer: Aging varies as a social phenomenon across societies in several ways: 1. Cultural Attitudes: Different societies have varied attitudes towards aging and the elderly. Some cultures revere older adults for their wisdom and experience, while others may prioritize youthfulness and view aging negatively. 2. Social Roles and Status: The roles and status assigned to older adults differ widely. In some societies, older individuals hold significant authority and respect, while in others, they may face marginalization or reduced social status. 3. Economic Support Systems: Societies differ in their economic support systems for the elderly. Some provide extensive social welfare programs and pensions, whereas others may rely more on family support or have minimal formal support structures. 4. Healthcare and Living Conditions: Access to healthcare and the quality of living conditions for the elderly vary globally. Advanced economies often offer better healthcare services and living conditions for older adults compared to less developed regions. 5. Generational Relationships: The dynamics between generations can vary, with some societies emphasizing intergenerational cooperation and others focusing on independence and self-sufficiency. These variations reflect the broader social, economic, and cultural contexts in which aging occurs, shaping how societies view and manage the aging process. 3. In what ways are older people a minority group in the United States? Answer: Older people can be considered a minority group in the United States in the following ways: 1. Social Marginalization: Older adults often face social marginalization, including stereotypes and ageism, which can lead to reduced social and economic opportunities. 2. Economic Disadvantages: Many older individuals experience economic challenges, such as lower retirement incomes or higher medical expenses, contributing to financial instability. 3. Healthcare Access: Older people may encounter barriers to accessing adequate healthcare, including affordability and availability of services tailored to their needs. 4. Workplace Discrimination: Age discrimination in the workplace can limit employment opportunities and advancement for older workers, reinforcing their minority status. 5. Political and Social Influence: Despite their growing numbers, older adults may have less political power and influence compared to younger age groups, impacting their ability to advocate for their interests. These factors collectively illustrate how older people face unique challenges and disparities, characterizing them as a minority group in the U.S. 4. What is meant by the disengagement theory of aging? Answer: The disengagement theory of aging posits that as people age, it is natural and beneficial for both individuals and society for older adults to gradually withdraw from social roles and responsibilities. This process of disengagement is thought to be a way for older individuals to prepare for the end of life, while allowing younger generations to assume their roles and responsibilities. The theory suggests that this mutual withdrawal helps maintain social stability and ensures a smooth transition of roles within the community. 5. What is meant by the activity theory of aging? Answer: The activity theory of aging suggests that older adults remain more satisfied and engaged with life when they continue to participate in various social, physical, and mental activities. According to this theory, maintaining active involvement and social interactions helps to enhance life satisfaction, well-being, and overall quality of life in older age. It contrasts with theories like disengagement theory by emphasizing the importance of continued activity and engagement for successful aging. 6. What is the interactionist approach to aging? Illustrate this approach using networking in Chicago during the 1995 heat wave. Answer: The interactionist approach to aging focuses on how individuals' interactions and social roles shape their experiences of aging. This approach emphasizes the subjective experiences of older adults and how they interpret and respond to their social environments. Illustrating this approach with the 1995 Chicago heat wave: During the heat wave, older adults' experiences and outcomes were significantly influenced by their social interactions and networks. Those with strong social connections and community support were more likely to receive help and stay safe, while those with limited social interactions faced greater risks and isolation. The interactionist perspective highlights how social support and community involvement play crucial roles in shaping older adults' responses to crises and their overall well-being. 7. Compare and contrast the disengagement and activity theories of aging. Answer: Disengagement Theory and Activity Theory offer contrasting perspectives on aging: 1. Disengagement Theory: • Concept: Proposes that it is natural and beneficial for older adults to gradually withdraw from social roles and responsibilities as they age. This mutual withdrawal is seen as a way to prepare for the end of life and allow younger generations to take over. • Focus: Emphasizes the process of disengagement and its role in maintaining social stability. • Implication: Suggests that reduced activity and social participation are a normal part of aging and contribute to a smooth transition for both the individual and society. 2. Activity Theory: • Concept: Argues that older adults remain more satisfied and engaged when they continue to participate in social, physical, and mental activities. Continued engagement is linked to better life satisfaction and well-being. • Focus: Emphasizes the importance of maintaining active involvement and social interactions to enhance quality of life in older age. • Implication: Suggests that increased activity and social participation contribute positively to the aging experience, countering the idea that disengagement is a natural or beneficial process. In summary, while disengagement theory views withdrawal as a natural and necessary part of aging, activity theory highlights the benefits of ongoing engagement and activity for older adults' well-being. 8. How do conflict theorists criticize disengagement and activity theories? Answer: Conflict theorists criticize both disengagement and activity theories for their focus on individual adjustments to aging rather than addressing broader social inequalities: 1. Critique of Disengagement Theory: • Focus on Inequality: Conflict theorists argue that disengagement theory overlooks how social and economic inequalities contribute to the marginalization of older adults. They suggest that disengagement is not a natural process but rather a consequence of unequal access to resources and opportunities. • Power Dynamics: This theory is seen as reinforcing existing power structures by justifying the reduction of older adults' roles and influence, thus perpetuating social stratification. 2. Critique of Activity Theory: • Overemphasis on Individual Responsibility: Conflict theorists criticize activity theory for placing the onus on older individuals to remain active without considering the systemic barriers they face, such as limited access to resources and opportunities. • Ignoring Structural Factors: They argue that activity theory fails to address how social and economic conditions, such as poverty and lack of supportive infrastructure, affect older adults' ability to engage in activities and maintain a high quality of life. Overall, conflict theorists emphasize the need to address structural inequalities and power imbalances that impact older adults, rather than focusing solely on individual adaptation and behavior. 9. What is the “sandwich generation”? Answer: The "sandwich generation" refers to middle-aged adults who are simultaneously caring for their aging parents while also supporting their own children. This group faces the challenge of balancing the demands of providing financial, emotional, and physical support to both older and younger generations, often resulting in significant personal and financial stress. 10. Summarize Daniel Levinson’s explanation of the adult life course. Answer: Daniel Levinson’s explanation of the adult life course is centered around the concept of "adult development", which he divides into distinct stages: 1. Early Adulthood (20s to 30s): Individuals establish their careers, form intimate relationships, and develop a sense of identity. This stage includes creating a stable life structure and setting long-term goals. 2. Middle Adulthood (40s to 50s): Adults reassess their life’s direction and achievements, often experiencing a midlife transition. This period involves reflecting on past accomplishments and making adjustments to align with new life goals. 3. Late Adulthood (60s and beyond): This stage focuses on reflecting on one’s life, dealing with retirement, and adjusting to the physical and social changes that come with aging. Levinson emphasizes that these stages are marked by transitions that involve evaluating and redefining personal and professional roles, contributing to ongoing growth and development throughout adulthood. 11. What are the phases in the retirement experience identified by Robert Atchley? Answer: Robert Atchley identified several phases in the retirement experience: 1. Pre-Retirement: This phase involves planning and anticipation of retirement, including psychological preparation and adjustments to future changes in lifestyle and identity. 2. Retirement: The actual transition into retirement, where individuals experience the shift from work to a retired status and begin to adapt to new routines and roles. 3. Disenchantment: This phase may involve feelings of dissatisfaction or disillusionment as retirees confront the realities of retirement, such as boredom or a loss of purpose. 4. Reorientation: Retirees adjust to their new lifestyle, finding new activities, interests, and social roles that provide fulfillment and purpose. 5. Stability: In this phase, retirees establish a stable and satisfying routine, integrating their new role and activities into their daily lives. 6. Termination: The final phase occurs if health issues or other factors lead to a significant change in the retirement experience, possibly requiring a reassessment of roles and activities. These phases capture the evolving nature of retirement and the adjustments retirees make as they navigate this major life transition. 12. How does retirement vary by gender and race? Answer: Retirement varies by gender and race in several key ways: 1. Gender: • Financial Security: Women often face lower retirement income due to lower lifetime earnings and more interrupted work histories. They are more likely to depend on Social Security and have less access to employer-sponsored pensions. • Retirement Timing: Women may retire earlier than men, often due to caregiving responsibilities or health issues. • Work History: Women frequently have less continuous work experience, impacting their retirement benefits and savings. 2. Race: • Economic Disparities: Racial minorities often face economic disadvantages, including lower lifetime earnings and fewer savings, which affect retirement security. Disparities in access to retirement plans and wealth accumulation also play a role. • Retirement Age: Minority groups may retire later than their white counterparts due to economic necessity or differences in employment patterns. • Health Disparities: Racial minorities may experience health disparities that affect their ability to work and retire, impacting their retirement experience and planning. Overall, these variations highlight how systemic inequalities and differences in financial stability and work experiences influence retirement across gender and racial lines. 13. What stages did Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identify in the social experience of dying? Answer: Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identified five stages in the social experience of dying, known as the Kübler-Ross model: 1. Denial: The individual refuses to accept the reality of their condition, often acting as if nothing is wrong. 2. Anger: The person experiences frustration and resentment, which may be directed at others or themselves, as they confront the unfairness of their situation. 3. Bargaining: The individual attempts to negotiate or make deals to reverse or delay the progression of their condition, often seeking to make amends or gain more time. 4. Depression: Feelings of deep sadness and hopelessness emerge as the person comes to terms with the inevitability of their condition and its impact. 5. Acceptance: The individual reaches a state of peace and acceptance, coming to terms with their condition and preparing for the end of life. These stages represent a framework for understanding the emotional and psychological responses individuals may experience as they approach death. 14. What is the functionalist view of the tasks of dying? Answer: The functionalist view of the tasks of dying emphasizes the role of death and the dying process in maintaining social stability and order. According to this perspective: 1. Role Transition: Dying individuals go through a process of role transition that allows for the orderly transfer of responsibilities and roles to others, helping to maintain social continuity. 2. Social Integration: The process of dying and death provides opportunities for social integration, as family members and communities come together to support the dying person and deal with their loss. 3. Adjustment and Adaptation: The tasks of dying involve adjustment and adaptation for both the individual and their social network, facilitating the management of grief and the reorganization of social roles and relationships. 4. Cultural and Ritual Functions: Dying and death serve cultural and ritual functions, reinforcing societal norms and values related to life and death, and providing a framework for understanding and coping with the end of life. In summary, the functionalist view sees the tasks of dying as essential for maintaining social order and cohesion through role transitions, social support, and cultural practices. 15. What is meant by the phrase “graying of America”? Answer: The phrase “graying of America” refers to the increasing proportion of older adults in the U.S. population due to longer life expectancies and aging baby boomers. This demographic shift highlights the growing significance of aging issues in society, including the need for adjustments in healthcare, social services, and retirement planning to accommodate the expanding elderly population. 16. What is meant by “ageism”? Answer: Ageism refers to the discrimination or prejudice against individuals based on their age. This can involve negative stereotypes, biases, and unfair treatment directed at both younger and older people, often resulting in social exclusion, reduced opportunities, and unequal treatment in various aspects of life such as employment, healthcare, and social interactions. 17. What is a NORC, and how are NORCs formed? Answer: A NORC (Naturally Occurring Retirement Community) is a residential area where a significant proportion of the population is elderly, having aged in place over time. NORCs are formed when an originally mixed-age neighborhood becomes predominantly occupied by older adults as younger residents move away and older residents stay in their homes. These communities often develop informal support networks and services to meet the needs of their aging residents. 18. In what ways are the elderly stereotyped? Answer: The elderly are often stereotyped in several ways: 1. Frailty and Dependence: Older adults are commonly portrayed as weak, frail, and dependent, emphasizing physical and cognitive decline. 2. Incompetence: There is a stereotype that older individuals are less capable of adapting to new technology and ideas, or making decisions. 3. Irrelevance: The elderly are sometimes viewed as less relevant or active in contemporary society, with little to contribute. 4. Overly Traditional: Older adults are often seen as stuck in their ways, resistant to change, and overly conservative in their viewpoints. These stereotypes can lead to ageism, impacting the way older individuals are treated and perceived in various aspects of life. 19. How does the standard of living among today’s older people compare with that of earlier generations? Answer: The standard of living among today’s older people generally compares favorably to that of earlier generations due to several factors: 1. Increased Wealth: Today’s older adults often have higher levels of accumulated wealth and better retirement benefits compared to previous generations. 2. Healthcare Advancements: Improvements in healthcare have led to better overall health and longer life expectancies, enhancing the quality of life for older adults. 3. Social Services: Expanded social services and support systems, including Social Security and Medicare, provide greater financial and medical security. 4. Living Conditions: Modern housing and amenities contribute to a higher standard of living and more comfortable living environments. However, disparities still exist, and some older adults may face economic challenges, especially those who did not benefit from these advancements. 20. Discuss the categories of elderly who are most likely to be poor. Answer: The categories of elderly most likely to be poor include: 1. Women: Elderly women are more vulnerable to poverty due to lower lifetime earnings, longer life expectancy, and often lower Social Security benefits. 2. Minorities: Racial and ethnic minorities tend to experience higher poverty rates due to historical and systemic inequalities affecting their economic status. 3. Unmarried Individuals: Single, divorced, or widowed elderly individuals may have fewer financial resources compared to those with a spouse or partner. 4. Low Education and Low Lifetime Earnings: Elderly individuals with lower educational attainment and historically low-paying jobs are more likely to face financial difficulties in retirement. 5. Disabled or Ill Individuals: Those with health issues or disabilities may have higher medical expenses and reduced ability to work, contributing to increased poverty rates. 21. What advantages or disadvantages do older people face in the labor market? Answer: Advantages: 1. Experience and Expertise: Older workers bring a wealth of experience, knowledge, and skills that can be valuable to employers. 2. Reliability: They are often perceived as more reliable, punctual, and dedicated compared to younger employees. Disadvantages: 1. Age Discrimination: Older workers may face bias and discrimination, leading to fewer job opportunities or challenges in advancing their careers. 2. Skill Gaps: They might have outdated skills or face difficulties adapting to new technologies and changing work environments. 3. Health Concerns: Employers may be concerned about health issues and increased absenteeism among older employees. Overall, while older workers offer significant advantages in terms of experience and reliability, they may also encounter barriers related to discrimination and skill adaptation. 22. What is meant by the “collective consciousness” of the elderly? Answer: The “collective consciousness” of the elderly refers to the shared set of beliefs, values, experiences, and cultural norms that bind older adults together as a group. It encompasses their common social identity and collective experiences shaped by aging, historical events, and generational perspectives. This collective awareness influences how they view themselves and interact with society, fostering a sense of unity and shared understanding among older individuals. 23. What are the goals of the AARP and SAGE? Answer: AARP (American Association of Retired Persons): • Advocacy: Promote policies and legislation that benefit older adults, including healthcare, retirement security, and age discrimination. • Education and Information: Provide resources and information on issues affecting seniors, including financial planning and health. • Community Engagement: Offer programs and services that enhance the quality of life for older adults, such as social activities and volunteer opportunities. SAGE (Services and Advocacy for GLBT Elders): • Advocacy: Address issues specific to LGBTQ+ older adults, including discrimination and social justice, and promote supportive policies and practices. • Support Services: Provide direct services and resources to improve the well-being of LGBTQ+ seniors, such as housing assistance and social programs. • Community Building: Foster a sense of community and belonging for LGBTQ+ elders through events, support groups, and educational initiatives. 24. Distinguish among euthanasia, physician assisted-suicide, senilicide, active euthanasia, and passive euthanasia. Answer: Here are the distinctions among the terms: 1. Euthanasia: The act of intentionally ending a person's life to relieve suffering. It can be classified into active or passive. 2. Physician-Assisted Suicide: A practice where a physician provides a patient with the means to end their own life, typically through a prescription for a lethal dose of medication, but the patient performs the final act. 3. Senilicide: The deliberate killing of elderly individuals, often considered a form of social or cultural practice rather than a medical intervention. 4. Active Euthanasia: The intentional act of causing a patient’s death through direct means, such as administering a lethal injection. 5. Passive Euthanasia: Allowing a person to die by withholding or withdrawing medical treatment or interventions that would prolong life. Each term involves different methods and ethical considerations related to end-of-life decisions. 25. What are the concerns that conflict theorists have with physician-assisted suicides? Answer: Conflict theorists raise several concerns about physician-assisted suicides: 1. Economic Pressures: They argue that financial constraints and the cost of healthcare might pressure vulnerable individuals, particularly those with limited resources, into choosing assisted suicide rather than receiving adequate care. 2. Social Inequality: There is concern that systemic inequalities might disproportionately influence marginalized or disadvantaged groups to opt for physician-assisted suicide as a means of alleviating suffering. 3. Power Dynamics: Conflict theorists worry about the potential abuse of power by medical professionals and the influence of healthcare institutions in encouraging or facilitating assisted suicide. 4. Ethical and Coercive Factors: They also highlight potential ethical issues, including the risk of coercion or manipulation of patients to make decisions that align with institutional or societal biases. These concerns emphasize how socio-economic and power structures might impact individuals' decisions and the broader implications for social justice and equity. 26. Discuss the provisions of Oregon’s assisted suicide law and its impact. Answer: Oregon's Assisted Suicide Law, officially known as the Oregon Death with Dignity Act, allows terminally ill adults to obtain and self-administer a lethal dose of medication prescribed by a physician. The key provisions include: 1. Eligibility: Patients must be 18 or older, a resident of Oregon, and diagnosed with a terminal illness with a prognosis of six months or less to live. 2. Process: Patients must make two oral requests and one written request for the medication, with a waiting period between requests. 3. Mental Competence: The patient must be mentally competent to make the decision. 4. Voluntary Participation: The decision must be voluntary and made without coercion. Impact: • Patient Autonomy: The law provides individuals with greater control over their end-of-life decisions. • Controversy: It has sparked debates on ethical, legal, and medical grounds. • Model for Other States: Oregon's law has influenced similar legislation in other states, contributing to a broader discussion on assisted suicide and euthanasia. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss why earlier societies may revere the elderly to a greater degree than in contemporary societies. Give some examples to support your answer. Answer: In earlier societies, the elderly were often revered more than in contemporary societies due to their role as keepers of knowledge, tradition, and experience. In many traditional cultures, elders were seen as the embodiment of wisdom and authority, guiding social norms, rituals, and family structures. For example, in Indigenous cultures, elders are respected as the primary bearers of oral history and cultural practices, playing a crucial role in education and community cohesion. In contrast, contemporary societies, with their rapid technological advancements and shifting family dynamics, often place less emphasis on age-related wisdom, valuing innovation and youthfulness. The prevalence of nuclear families and increased mobility further diminishes the traditional role of elders, leading to a decreased reverence compared to earlier times. 2. Describe why adjustment to retirement may or may not be easier for a person in a more modern society, compared to a person in an earlier society. Answer: Adjustment to retirement can be easier in modern societies due to greater financial resources and social support systems. In contemporary settings, retirees often have access to pensions, social security, and retirement savings plans, which can provide a more stable income and reduce financial stress. Additionally, modern societies offer various recreational and social activities designed for retirees, helping them stay engaged and active. In earlier societies, retirement might have been more challenging due to fewer financial safety nets and less structured support systems. Older adults in traditional societies often relied on family support or informal networks, and the lack of formal retirement plans could lead to financial insecurity. Furthermore, the roles and activities for older adults were often less clearly defined, making the transition out of work life potentially more difficult. 3. Discuss why elderly people are often more likely to vote than younger people. Answer: Elderly people are often more likely to vote than younger people due to several factors. First, older individuals typically have more stable life circumstances and may see voting as a civic duty or way to influence policies affecting their retirement and healthcare. Second, they often have more free time to engage in voting activities and may feel a stronger sense of responsibility to participate in elections. Additionally, older adults are more likely to have established voting habits and be engaged with political issues over time. In contrast, younger people may face more transient life situations, a lack of experience with the voting process, or less immediate concern about the policies at stake. 4. Describe how corporations might exploit elderly workers to maximize their profits. Be sure to give some examples to support your answer. Answer: Corporations might exploit elderly workers to maximize profits by leveraging their experience while paying lower wages and avoiding additional costs. For example, some companies may hire older employees for their expertise but offer lower salaries compared to younger counterparts, assuming that older workers may accept reduced pay due to their need for employment or lower expectations. Additionally, corporations might utilize older workers in part-time or temporary roles to avoid providing full benefits, such as healthcare and retirement contributions. This exploitation allows companies to benefit from the valuable experience of older workers while minimizing their financial obligations. 5. Identify certain occupations that elderly persons have typically performed that are becoming less and less common. Do you think any loss of knowledge and skill is necessary or justified? Answer: Certain occupations that elderly persons have traditionally performed, such as craftspeople, manual laborers, and specific roles in agriculture, are becoming less common due to automation and technological advancements. For instance, traditional skills like blacksmithing or typesetting are increasingly rare as industries evolve. The loss of these occupations can lead to a loss of specialized knowledge and skills that were once integral to various trades and cultures. However, this transition may be necessary for progress and efficiency in modern economies. While some loss of traditional expertise is inevitable, efforts to preserve and document these skills through museums, educational programs, and historical societies can help mitigate the impact and ensure that valuable knowledge is not entirely lost. TOPICS AND SOURCES FOR STUDENT RESEARCH 1. Conflict between Generations: See Leann M. Tiggers, “The Class Basis of Generational Conflict in the 1980s: Analysis and Critique of the Ageist Agenda,” Journal of Aging Studies 5 (Spring 1991): 1–10. 2. Household Tasks in Later Life: See Russell A. Ward, “Marital Happiness and Household Equity in Later Life,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 55 (May 1993): 427–438. 3. Philippines and Aging: See Lindy Williams and Lita J. Domingo, “The Social Status of Elderly Women and Men within the Filipino Family,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 55 (May 1993): 415–426. 4. Exploring Activity Theory Further: Gerontologist Mary Kouri notes that restless “young elders” today are rejecting the traditional retirement lifestyle of full-time leisure and are showing the way to re-engagement.” See Mary K. Kouri, “From Retirement to Re-Engagement,” The Futurist 18 (June 1984): 35–39, 41–42. 5. Acting Your Age: Refer to Bernice L. Neugarten and Dail A. Neugarten, “The Changing Meanings of Age,” Psychology Today (May 1987): 29–30, 32–33. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION Age (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video gives an overview of the sociological perspective on aging. It also addresses the fact that we have a growing percentage of older people in the population. Green Winter (Wellspring Media, 1989, 25m). This inspiring autobiographical program, produced by filmmaker Elda Hartley when she was in her mid-70s, offers a new perspective on the later years of life. The Unknown Generation X (McGraw-Hill, 29m). “Generation X” is called a myth by some, a reality by others. Whatever the case may be, the generation of young adults born between 1965 and 1980 faces challenges that no other generation has had to deal with. Unemployment, underemployment, a huge national debt, a depleting Social Security system, negative stereotyping, and endless bombardment from advertisers are just a few of the issues confronting this generation. The program examines some of the stereotypes and issues that society has created for “Generation X.” Whisper: The Women (Terra Nova Films, 1988, 11m). Sensitive portraits of seven senior women who share their stories and reflections. This documentary invites viewers to rethink their ideas about growing older. Focusing on the hands and faces as well as the words of these culturally diverse women, Wiener provides an eloquent testament to their wisdom and beauty. ADDITIONAL READINGS AARP. 2001. Beyond 50—A Report to the Nation on Economic Security. Washington, D.C.: AARP. A detailed report on the social circumstances and trends affecting the 76 million Americans age 50 and over. (This report can be accessed electronically at www.aarp.org.) Best, Amy L. 2000. Prom Night: Youth, Schools and Popular Culture. New York: Routledge. A sociologist looks at a significant rite of passage for many adolescents in the United States. Dychtwald, Ken. 1999. Age Power: How the 21st Century Will Be Ruled by the New Old. New York: Putnam. A gerontologist projects social patterns and aging into the future. Gubrium, Jaber F., and James A. Holstein, eds. Ways of Aging. Maldon, MA: Blackwell Publishing. An edited volume that emphasizes heterogeneity in the ways that people adjust to old age. Howe, Neil, and Bill Strauss. 1993. 13th Gen: Abort, Retry, Ignore, Fail? New York: Vintage. A heavily illustrated view of the lifestyles and beliefs of the thirteenth generation in the United States (people born between 1961 and 1981). Klinenberg, Eric. 2002. Heat Wave: A Social Autopsy of Disaster in Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Read in more detail about the social factors that produced differences in death rates among the elderly during the 1995 Chicago heat wave. Posner, Richard. 1995. Aging and Old Age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A former law professor and the chief judge of a federal appeals court, Posner analyzes old age in the United States, the voting patterns of the elderly, ageism, physician-assisted suicide, and social service programs intended to assist older people. Squishinsky, Joel S. 2000. Breaking the Watch: The Meanings of Retirement in America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. A gerontologist considers how workers in the United States approach the end of full-time employment. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of aging and age stratification are Ageing and Society (founded in 1981), Ageing International (1994), Contemporary Gerontology (1994), Death Studies (1976), Generations (1976), The Gerontologist (1961), Journal of Aging and Ethnicity (1996), Journal of Applied Gerontology (1982), Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology (1986), Journal of Gerontology (1946), Research on Aging (1979), and Youth and Society (1968). CHAPTER 14 THE FAMILY AND INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the nuclear versus extended family. Answer: Comparison of Nuclear and Extended Family Structures Nuclear Family: Advantages: 1. Autonomy: Members often enjoy greater independence and decision-making power, which can lead to more personal freedom. 2. Privacy: Less crowded living conditions allow for more personal space and privacy. 3. Flexibility: Easier to adapt to changes such as relocation or financial shifts due to fewer people involved. Disadvantages: 1. Limited Support: Fewer family members can mean less immediate help with childcare, financial issues, or emergencies. 2. Isolation: Greater likelihood of social isolation as there are fewer built-in social networks. 3. Economic Pressure: Higher financial burden on the immediate family unit as they are responsible for all household expenses. Extended Family: Advantages: 1. Support Network: Broader network of family members can provide emotional, financial, and practical support. 2. Shared Responsibilities: Responsibilities such as childcare and eldercare are often shared, reducing the burden on individual members. 3. Cultural Continuity: Easier transmission of traditions, values, and cultural practices through multiple generations. Disadvantages: 1. Less Privacy: Increased number of family members can lead to overcrowded living conditions and less personal space. 2. Conflicting Interests: Diverse opinions and interests among extended family members can lead to conflicts and reduced autonomy. 3. Complex Dynamics: Interpersonal relationships can become complicated, with more potential for family disputes and power struggles. In summary, nuclear families offer greater independence and privacy, while extended families provide a robust support network and shared responsibilities but with potential challenges in terms of privacy and family dynamics. 2. Cite various examples of how the family system varies in other cultures around the world. Answer: Variation in Family Systems Across Cultures 1. Nuclear Families (Western Cultures): In many Western societies, such as the United States and Western Europe, the nuclear family (consisting of two parents and their children) is the predominant family structure. This model emphasizes independence and self-sufficiency. 2. Extended Families (South Asian Cultures): In countries like India and Pakistan, extended families are common. Multiple generations, including grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins, often live together or maintain close ties, sharing responsibilities and resources. 3. Matriarchal Families (Some African Cultures): In certain African cultures, such as the Akan of Ghana, matriarchal systems are prominent. In these societies, lineage and inheritance are traced through the mother’s side, and women often hold significant authority in family matters. 4. Patrilocal and Matrilocal Residence (Various Cultures): In some societies, such as among the Navajo in the United States, the family may practice matrilocal residence, where a newly married couple lives with or near the wife's family. Conversely, in many South Asian and East Asian cultures, patrilocal residence is common, where the couple lives with or near the husband’s family. 5. Single-Parent Families (Global Trend): In modern urban settings around the world, including countries like Sweden and the UK, single-parent families are increasingly common. Social policies in these countries often support single parents with various welfare benefits. 6. Communal Living (Indigenous Cultures): Many indigenous cultures, such as those in Papua New Guinea and parts of Australia, practice communal living. Extended families or entire communities often share living spaces, resources, and child-rearing responsibilities. In summary, family systems around the world exhibit considerable diversity, reflecting different cultural values, social structures, and economic conditions. 3. How does the family vary in terms of marital form? Answer: Variation in Marital Forms Across Cultures 1. Monogamy: In many Western societies, including the United States and much of Europe, monogamy is the predominant marital form, where individuals marry one partner at a time, and divorce is relatively common if marriages do not work out. 2. Polygamy: In some cultures, particularly in parts of Africa and the Middle East, polygamy is practiced. This includes polygyny, where one man has multiple wives (e.g., in Nigeria and parts of Kenya), and polyandry, where one woman has multiple husbands (e.g., in some Tibetan communities). 3. Group Marriage: In certain communities, such as some experimental or alternative lifestyles in Western societies, group marriages or polyamorous relationships are practiced. These arrangements involve multiple individuals who form romantic and often legal bonds with each other. 4. Arranged Marriages: In countries like India and Pakistan, arranged marriages are common. Families play a significant role in selecting partners based on social, economic, and cultural compatibility, though individual choice is increasingly influencing these arrangements. 5. Same-Sex Marriages: In various parts of the world, including many Western countries and some regions in Latin America, same-sex marriages are legally recognized, reflecting broader acceptance and legal rights for LGBTQ+ individuals. 6. Cohabitation: In many modern societies, including Scandinavian countries and parts of North America, cohabitation without formal marriage is increasingly common. Couples live together and share responsibilities without a legal marriage, reflecting changing attitudes toward traditional marital forms. In summary, marital forms vary widely across cultures, influenced by social norms, religious beliefs, legal structures, and evolving attitudes toward relationships. 4. Discuss the accuracy of television’s presentation of American family life. Answer: Accuracy of Television’s Presentation of American Family Life Television’s portrayal of American family life often involves significant dramatization and idealization, leading to an imperfect reflection of reality. 1. Idealized Depictions: Many TV shows, such as "Leave It to Beaver" and "The Brady Bunch," present an idealized version of family life, characterized by harmonious relationships, problem resolution within half an hour, and often a perfect balance of work and family life. This portrayal can create unrealistic expectations and overlooks the complexities of real-life family dynamics. 2. Stereotyping: Television often relies on stereotypes, such as the bumbling dad or the overbearing mother, which can perpetuate simplistic and inaccurate views of family roles and relationships. Shows like "Modern Family" and "The Simpsons" present exaggerated versions of family members that may not accurately reflect diverse family experiences. 3. Homogeneity: Many shows focus on nuclear families and predominantly white, middle-class settings, which may not represent the diversity of family structures in America, including extended families, single-parent households, and families from various ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds. 4. Conflict and Drama: TV dramas and sitcoms frequently emphasize conflict and dramatic moments to engage viewers, often exaggerating everyday issues and portraying them in a more sensational manner than what occurs in typical family life. 5. Social Changes: Recent TV shows, like "Black-ish" and "Transparent," attempt to address a broader range of family experiences and social issues, offering more nuanced and diverse representations of American families. However, these portrayals still might not capture the full spectrum of family experiences. In summary, while television provides a compelling and entertaining view of American family life, it often prioritizes drama and idealization over accuracy, leading to a portrayal that may not fully reflect the complexities and diversity of real-life family dynamics. 5. Describe the ways in which descent is traced in different cultures. Answer: Tracing Descent in Different Cultures 1. Patrilineal Descent: In many societies, such as in parts of China and India, descent is traced through the father’s side of the family. In these cultures, lineage, inheritance, and family name are passed from father to children, and social status and property are often inherited through the paternal line. 2. Matrilineal Descent: In contrast, some cultures, such as the Minangkabau in Indonesia and the Navajo in the United States, trace descent through the mother’s side. In these societies, lineage, inheritance, and clan membership are determined by maternal connections, and property or names may be passed down through the mother’s lineage. 3. Bilateral Descent: In many Western societies, such as in the United States and Canada, descent is traced bilaterally, meaning that family lineage and inheritance rights can be traced through both the mother’s and father’s sides. This system recognizes kinship ties from both parental lines equally. 4. Ambilineal Descent: In some Pacific Island cultures, such as those in Samoa and Hawaii, ambilineal descent allows individuals to choose whether to affiliate with their maternal or paternal lineage. This flexibility can enable people to align with the family line that best suits their social or economic needs. 5. Dual Descent: In certain cultures, such as among the Yako people in Nigeria, dual descent systems involve tracing lineage through both the maternal and paternal lines for different aspects of social identity and inheritance. For instance, property might be inherited patrilineally, while social status or clan membership might be matrilineal. In summary, different cultures employ various systems for tracing descent, including patrilineal, matrilineal, bilateral, ambilineal, and dual descent, each shaping family structures, inheritance practices, and social roles in unique ways. 6. How is family authority determined in different cultures? Answer: Determination of Family Authority in Different Cultures 1. Patriarchal Authority: In many cultures, such as traditional societies in parts of the Middle East and South Asia, family authority is primarily patriarchal. The father or eldest male figure holds the central authority in family decisions, inheritance, and social roles. 2. Matriarchal Authority: In some societies, such as among the Minangkabau in Indonesia, family authority is matriarchal. Authority and lineage are traced through the mother’s side, and women, particularly the mother or eldest female, hold significant decision-making power within the family. 3. Egalitarian Authority: In many Western cultures, such as in Scandinavia and parts of North America, family authority tends to be more egalitarian. Decision-making responsibilities are often shared equally between partners, and there is a focus on collaborative and democratic approaches to family roles. 4. Elder Authority: In cultures such as among the Inuit in Canada and certain Indigenous groups in Africa, authority often rests with the elders. Older family members or community leaders are respected for their wisdom and experience and play a key role in guiding family decisions and maintaining traditions. 5. Collective Authority: In some communal or collective societies, such as in certain Pacific Island cultures, family authority may be distributed among various family members or community leaders. Decisions are often made through consensus and communal discussions, reflecting shared responsibility. In summary, family authority varies widely across cultures, with different systems emphasizing patriarchal, matriarchal, egalitarian, elder, or collective forms of governance, each shaping family dynamics and social structures in distinct ways. 7. What have sociologists identified as the six basic functions of the family? Answer: Six Basic Functions of the Family Identified by Sociologists 1. Reproduction: The family provides a social context for reproducing new members of society through childbirth and child-rearing, ensuring the continuation of the population. 2. Socialization: Families play a crucial role in socializing children, teaching them societal norms, values, and behaviors necessary for functioning in society. 3. Emotional Support: The family offers emotional support and security, providing love, care, and a sense of belonging, which are essential for psychological well-being. 4. Economic Support: Families often provide economic support by pooling resources, sharing financial responsibilities, and managing household expenses, which contributes to economic stability and welfare. 5. Care and Protection: The family is responsible for the care and protection of its members, particularly children, elderly members, and those who are ill or disabled, ensuring their physical and emotional safety. 6. Regulation of Sexual Activity: Families help regulate sexual behavior and relationships through social norms and legal frameworks, ensuring the continuation of family structures and societal order. In summary, sociologists identify these six basic functions—reproduction, socialization, emotional support, economic support, care and protection, and regulation of sexual activity—as essential roles that families play in maintaining societal stability and continuity. 8. Compare and contrast the functionalist and conflict views of the family. Answer: Comparison of Functionalist and Conflict Views of the Family Functionalist View: 1. Focus: Emphasizes the positive contributions of the family to societal stability and functioning. 2. Functions: Views the family as fulfilling essential functions such as reproduction, socialization, emotional support, economic support, care and protection, and regulation of sexual activity. 3. Harmony and Stability: Argues that the family promotes social harmony and stability by maintaining social norms and values, and by providing a structured environment for individuals. 4. Role Differentiation: Suggests that traditional roles within the family (e.g., breadwinner and homemaker) are necessary for the effective functioning of society. Conflict View: 1. Focus: Highlights the inequalities and power struggles within the family and how these reflect broader societal conflicts. 2. Power Dynamics: Views the family as a site of power struggles and inequality, often between genders or generations, where dominant groups (e.g., men) benefit at the expense of others (e.g., women). 3. Critique of Traditional Roles: Criticizes traditional family roles and structures for perpetuating inequality and reinforcing social hierarchies. 4. Social Change: Argues that the family can be a mechanism for social change and challenges existing norms that contribute to social inequalities. Summary: The functionalist view focuses on the positive functions and stability provided by the family, emphasizing harmony and role differentiation. In contrast, the conflict view critiques the family as a site of inequality and power struggles, highlighting how it can perpetuate social conflicts and inequalities. 9. What are the foci of the interactionist analysis of the family? Answer: Foci of the Interactionist Analysis of the Family 1. Day-to-Day Interactions: Interactionist analysis focuses on the everyday interactions and dynamics within the family. It examines how family members communicate, negotiate, and interpret each other’s behavior in daily life. 2. Symbolic Meanings: It explores the symbolic meanings attached to family roles, relationships, and rituals. Interactionists analyze how these symbols and meanings shape family life and influence individual identities and behaviors. 3. Role Expectations: Interactionist theory investigates how family members understand and fulfill their roles and responsibilities based on mutual expectations and social norms. It looks at how roles are negotiated and how expectations can change over time. 4. Socialization Processes: It studies how family members socialize each other through interactions, reinforcing norms, values, and behaviors. This includes the transmission of cultural and societal values from one generation to the next. 5. Conflict and Cooperation: Interactionists examine how conflicts arise and are resolved through communication and negotiation. They are interested in how cooperation and compromise are achieved within family relationships. Summary: Interactionist analysis of the family centers on daily interactions, symbolic meanings, role expectations, socialization processes, and the dynamics of conflict and cooperation, focusing on how family members create and interpret their relationships through everyday communication and interaction. 10. Explain the ways exogamy and endogamy operate within the United States. Answer: Exogamy and Endogamy in the United States Exogamy: 1. Definition: Exogamy refers to the practice of marrying outside one’s social group, such as race, ethnicity, or religion. It promotes forming relationships with individuals from different backgrounds. 2. Operation in the U.S.: In the United States, exogamy is increasingly common and socially accepted, reflecting the country's diverse and multicultural society. Interracial and interfaith marriages are examples where individuals marry outside their racial or religious groups, contributing to greater social integration and diversity. Endogamy: 1. Definition: Endogamy involves marrying within one’s own social group, including criteria such as race, ethnicity, religion, or socioeconomic status. It reinforces group identity and cultural continuity. 2. Operation in the U.S.: Endogamous practices can be seen in certain communities and subcultures, where there is a preference for marrying within the same ethnic, religious, or social group. For instance, Jewish and Hindu communities may place a high value on marrying within their religious or cultural groups to maintain traditions and values. Summary: In the United States, exogamy operates by encouraging and increasingly accepting marriages outside of one's social group, fostering diversity and integration. Endogamy, on the other hand, involves marrying within one's own group to preserve cultural or social identities, though its prevalence varies among different communities. 11. What role does “love” play in the United States as compared with its role in other cultures? Answer: Role of Love in the United States Compared to Other Cultures United States: 1. Romantic Love: In the U.S., romantic love is often considered the primary basis for marriage and intimate relationships. Emotional connection, personal fulfillment, and compatibility are highly valued in the choice of a partner. 2. Individual Choice: Love plays a central role in the decision-making process for marriage, with individuals typically seeking personal happiness and emotional satisfaction. 3. Cultural Emphasis: American culture emphasizes the ideal of finding a "soulmate" and views love as essential for a successful and fulfilling relationship. Other Cultures: 1. Arranged Marriages: In many cultures, such as in India and parts of the Middle East, marriages may be arranged by families based on social, economic, and cultural considerations rather than romantic love. Love may develop after marriage, but initial decisions are often based on compatibility and family interests. 2. Collective Values: In some cultures, such as among certain Indigenous groups and in East Asia, family and community values play a significant role in relationship choices. Love may be secondary to social harmony, family approval, and group cohesion. 3. Practical Considerations: In various cultures, practical aspects such as economic stability, social status, and familial alliances may take precedence over romantic love in relationship decisions. Summary: In the United States, love is a central and highly valued factor in forming intimate relationships and marriage. In contrast, other cultures may prioritize familial, social, or economic considerations over romantic love, with love often developing as a secondary aspect of relationships that are initially arranged or influenced by broader social factors. 12. How does family life in the United States vary by social class? Answer: Family life in the United States varies significantly by social class, reflecting differences in resources, opportunities, and experiences: 1. Economic Resources: Families in higher social classes typically have greater financial stability, which provides access to better housing, education, and healthcare. In contrast, lower-class families may struggle with financial instability, affecting their living conditions and access to essential services. 2. Educational Opportunities: Higher social class families often have better access to quality education, including private schools and extracurricular activities, which can lead to better future prospects for their children. Lower-class families may face challenges related to underfunded schools and limited educational resources. 3. Family Structure: Social class can influence family structure and stability. Higher-class families might experience more stability and fewer disruptions, while lower-class families might encounter higher rates of single-parent households and family instability. 4. Work-Life Balance: Higher social class families often have more flexibility in work schedules and the ability to balance work and family life more effectively. Lower-class families may face more rigid work demands and less control over their schedules, impacting family time and relationships. 5. Social Capital and Networks: Families in higher social classes often have access to extensive social networks and connections that can provide support and opportunities. Lower-class families may have fewer social connections and less access to networks that could offer assistance or advancement opportunities. Overall, social class plays a crucial role in shaping family life, influencing everything from economic stability and educational access to family structure and social support. 13. How does family life in the United States vary in terms of racial and ethnic groups? Answer: Family life in the United States varies significantly among racial and ethnic groups, influenced by cultural practices, socio-economic conditions, and historical contexts: 1. Cultural Traditions: Different racial and ethnic groups have distinct cultural practices and family structures. For example, some cultures emphasize extended family networks and intergenerational living, while others may prioritize nuclear family arrangements. 2. Economic Disparities: Socio-economic conditions often differ among racial and ethnic groups due to historical and systemic inequalities. This disparity affects access to resources like quality housing, education, and healthcare, impacting family life and stability. 3. Family Structure: Variations in family structure are noticeable, with certain groups experiencing higher rates of extended families or multigenerational households. For instance, Hispanic and Asian families often have strong extended family networks compared to the more nuclear family structure predominant in many white families. 4. Parenting Practices: Parenting styles and expectations can vary based on cultural values. Some groups may emphasize collectivist approaches and communal child-rearing, while others may focus on individualism and autonomy. 5. Challenges and Resilience: Families from different racial and ethnic backgrounds may face unique challenges related to discrimination, immigration status, or economic hardship. Despite these challenges, many communities exhibit strong resilience and support systems to address and overcome these issues. In summary, racial and ethnic diversity in the U.S. leads to varied family life experiences, shaped by cultural norms, economic conditions, and historical factors. 14. Distinguish between the characteristics of the African-American family and the Mexican- American family. Answer: The African-American and Mexican-American families in the U.S. exhibit distinct characteristics shaped by cultural, historical, and socio-economic factors: 1. Family Structure: • African-American Families: Often characterized by a higher prevalence of single-parent households and extended family networks. Extended families frequently play a significant role in child-rearing and support. • Mexican-American Families: Typically emphasize strong extended family connections and multigenerational households. Nuclear families are often embedded within larger extended family networks, including grandparents, aunts, and uncles. 2. Cultural Values: • African-American Families: Cultural practices may emphasize resilience and adaptability, often shaped by historical experiences of segregation and discrimination. Family roles and dynamics can be diverse, reflecting a range of experiences. • Mexican-American Families: Cultural values often include a strong emphasis on familial unity, respect for elders, and traditional gender roles. The concept of "familismo" highlights the importance of family loyalty and support. 3. Economic and Social Factors: • African-American Families: Economic challenges may be more pronounced due to historical and systemic inequalities. This can influence family dynamics and access to resources. • Mexican-American Families: Economic experiences vary, but many families face challenges related to immigration status and lower-income jobs. The family often serves as a primary support system in addressing these challenges. 4. Parenting Practices: • African-American Families: Parenting styles can vary widely, with an emphasis on resilience and independence. There is often a focus on navigating and overcoming systemic barriers. • Mexican-American Families: Parenting practices often reflect traditional values, with an emphasis on respect, obedience, and strong family ties. Parental roles may be more traditional, with clear distinctions between male and female responsibilities. In summary, while both African-American and Mexican-American families value strong family ties, their structures, cultural values, and socio-economic contexts exhibit notable differences. 15. What are the functionalist and interactionist views of adoption? Answer: Functionalist View of Adoption: • From a functionalist perspective, adoption is seen as a mechanism to maintain social stability and fulfill societal needs. It addresses issues such as childlessness and provides a stable environment for children who might otherwise face instability or neglect. Adoption helps in the socialization of children and ensures that societal norms and values are transmitted across generations. Interactionist View of Adoption: • The interactionist perspective focuses on the personal and social interactions involved in adoption. It examines how individuals negotiate their roles and identities within adoptive families and the meanings they attach to these relationships. This view emphasizes the importance of understanding the subjective experiences of adoptive parents, adopted children, and birth families, and how these interactions shape their perceptions and relationships. 16. What are the implications of dual-income families? Answer: Implications of Dual-Income Families: 1. Economic Benefits: Dual-income families generally experience greater financial stability and increased household income, which can improve access to resources, quality housing, and educational opportunities. 2. Work-Life Balance: Balancing careers and family responsibilities can be challenging. Dual-income families often face time constraints, leading to potential conflicts between work and family life and impacting personal and family relationships. 3. Childcare Arrangements: With both parents working, there is often a greater reliance on external childcare providers or family support systems. This can affect the quality and type of childcare and influence the child’s development. 4. Gender Roles: Dual-income families may challenge traditional gender roles, as both partners often share financial responsibilities and domestic duties. This can lead to more equitable distribution of household tasks and shifts in societal expectations. 5. Career Opportunities: Dual-income families may provide more opportunities for both partners to pursue career advancement and personal development, although this can also result in increased stress and pressure to manage multiple roles effectively. Overall, dual-income families can benefit from increased financial resources and opportunities but may also face challenges related to work-life balance and household responsibilities. 17. What are the trends in single parenthood in the United States? Answer: Trends in Single Parenthood in the United States: 1. Increase in Single-Parent Households: There has been a significant rise in the number of single-parent households over recent decades. Single parenthood is more common now due to factors like higher divorce rates, delayed marriage, and increased acceptance of non-traditional family structures. 2. Demographic Variations: Single parenthood trends vary by demographic factors. For example, single motherhood is more prevalent among younger, lower-income, and minority populations. Single fathers, while less common, are also increasing in number. 3. Economic Challenges: Single-parent families often face economic difficulties, including lower household incomes and higher poverty rates compared to two-parent families. This can impact access to resources and overall family stability. 4. Social Acceptance: There is growing social acceptance of single parenthood, with less stigma attached to non-traditional family structures. This shift has contributed to the normalization of single-parent families. 5. Impact on Children: Research indicates that children in single-parent families may face unique challenges, including financial strain and less parental supervision, but outcomes vary widely based on individual circumstances and additional support systems. Overall, single parenthood in the U.S. has become more prevalent and socially accepted, with ongoing implications for economic stability and family dynamics. 18. Why are stepfamilies considered to be complex institutions? Answer: Stepfamilies are considered complex institutions due to the following reasons: 1. Blended Family Dynamics: Stepfamilies involve integrating members from previous relationships, creating complex family structures with multiple sets of parental roles, sibling relationships, and varying family norms. 2. Adjustments and Conflicts: Members of stepfamilies often face challenges in adjusting to new roles and relationships. Conflicts may arise due to differing parenting styles, loyalty issues, and the integration of different family traditions and expectations. 3. Parental Roles: Stepparents must navigate their roles and boundaries within the family, which can be complicated by legal, emotional, and social factors. Their relationships with stepchildren may evolve over time and require careful negotiation. 4. Children’s Adaptation: Children in stepfamilies must adapt to new family dynamics, which can involve changes in living arrangements, school environments, and relationships with biological and stepfamily members. 5. Legal and Custody Issues: Legal considerations, such as custody arrangements and inheritance rights, can add another layer of complexity to stepfamily relationships. Overall, stepfamilies are complex due to the multiple layers of integration, adjustment, and negotiation required to blend families from previous relationships into a cohesive unit. 19. Summarize the statistical trends in divorce. Answer: Statistical Trends in Divorce: 1. Decline in Divorce Rates: Over recent decades, divorce rates in the United States have generally declined, partly due to changes in societal attitudes towards marriage and divorce, and a decrease in the marriage rate. 2. Timing and Risk: The risk of divorce is higher for first marriages compared to second or subsequent marriages. Many individuals who remarry may have learned from their previous experiences, leading to more stable second marriages. 3. Influence of Education: Higher levels of education are associated with lower divorce rates. Individuals with college degrees are less likely to divorce compared to those with less education. 4. Age at Marriage: Marrying at an older age is correlated with lower divorce rates. Individuals who marry later tend to have more stability and are often more prepared for the commitments of marriage. 5. Socioeconomic Factors: Economic stability and financial stress can influence divorce rates. Individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds face higher divorce rates, often due to financial strain and related stressors. Overall, while the rate of divorce has declined, factors such as education, age at marriage, and socioeconomic status continue to influence divorce trends. 20. Discuss the factors associated with higher probability of divorce. Answer: To address the factors associated with a higher probability of divorce, consider the following key points: 1. Marital Age: Couples who marry at a younger age face a higher risk of divorce. Younger individuals may have less maturity and experience, which can impact their ability to navigate marital challenges effectively. 2. Education and Income Levels: Lower levels of education and income are correlated with higher divorce rates. Higher education and income often provide greater stability and resources, which can support marital longevity. 3. Premarital Cohabitation: Couples who cohabit before marriage may experience a higher likelihood of divorce. This could be due to varying reasons, including differing expectations about the relationship or less commitment. 4. Prior Marital Experience: Individuals who have been previously married are at a higher risk of divorce in subsequent marriages. Past marital difficulties can influence future relationships. 5. Communication and Conflict Resolution: Poor communication skills and an inability to resolve conflicts effectively are significant predictors of divorce. Marriages with ongoing unresolved conflicts are more likely to end. 6. Family Background: Individuals from divorced families are more likely to experience divorce themselves. The influence of family history and parental relationships can affect marital stability. 7. Societal and Cultural Factors: Societal attitudes towards divorce and changing norms can impact divorce rates. In cultures where divorce is more socially accepted, there may be a higher incidence of divorce. Addressing these factors can help in understanding the complexities surrounding the probability of divorce and in developing strategies to support marital stability. 21. What is the impact of divorce on children? Answer: The impact of divorce on children can be significant and multifaceted, encompassing emotional, social, and developmental aspects: 1. Emotional Well-being: Children of divorced parents often experience a range of emotions, including sadness, anger, and confusion. They may struggle with feelings of loss and insecurity, which can affect their overall emotional stability. 2. Behavioral Changes: Divorce can lead to behavioral issues in children, such as increased aggression, anxiety, or withdrawal. These changes are often a response to the instability and stress associated with parental separation. 3. Academic Performance: Children of divorced parents may face challenges in their academic performance. Disruptions at home can affect their concentration, motivation, and overall school performance. 4. Parent-Child Relationships: Divorce can alter the dynamics of parent-child relationships. Children might experience reduced contact with one parent or strained interactions, which can impact their sense of security and attachment. 5. Social Relationships: The social lives of children can be affected, as they may face challenges in maintaining friendships or experience shifts in their social environment due to changes in family structure. 6. Long-term Effects: Long-term effects of divorce on children can include difficulties in forming and maintaining their own relationships in adulthood, as well as a potential increased risk of emotional and psychological issues. While these impacts can be significant, supportive parenting and effective coping strategies can help mitigate negative outcomes and promote resilience in children facing the challenges of divorce. 22. What are the trends in cohabitation in the United States and worldwide? Answer: Trends in Cohabitation: United States: 1. Increasing Prevalence: Cohabitation rates have risen significantly over recent decades. More couples choose to live together before marriage or as an alternative to marriage. 2. Delayed Marriage: Many individuals are delaying marriage, opting for cohabitation as a step in their relationship journey or as a long-term arrangement. 3. Diverse Arrangements: Cohabitation is becoming more diverse, with varying motivations including financial considerations, testing compatibility, or as a lifestyle choice without marriage. Worldwide: 1. Varied Acceptance: Trends in cohabitation vary widely by region. In Western countries, cohabitation has become increasingly common and socially accepted, whereas in many conservative or traditional societies, cohabitation is less prevalent and may face social stigma. 2. Cultural Shifts: In countries undergoing rapid modernization, such as parts of Asia and Latin America, cohabitation rates are rising as traditional family structures evolve and societal norms shift. 3. Legal and Social Recognition: Some countries have introduced legal frameworks recognizing cohabitation, offering similar rights and protections as marriage, which can influence the prevalence and acceptance of cohabitation. Overall, cohabitation trends reflect broader social, cultural, and legal changes affecting family dynamics globally. 23. Explain how “remaining single” is becoming an alternative family pattern in the United States. Answer: Remaining Single as an Alternative Family Pattern in the United States: 1. Cultural Shifts: There is a growing acceptance of remaining single as a valid lifestyle choice. Changing social norms and attitudes have reduced the stigma associated with singlehood and highlighted personal fulfillment as a priority. 2. Economic and Career Focus: Many individuals prioritize career advancement, personal development, and financial stability over traditional family structures. Remaining single allows for greater flexibility and focus on personal goals. 3. Delayed Marriage: Increasing numbers of people are choosing to marry later or not at all. This delay is often driven by a desire for personal freedom, career stability, or dissatisfaction with traditional marital roles. 4. Alternative Living Arrangements: Single individuals are exploring various living arrangements, such as shared housing with friends or solo living, which provide emotional and social support without the need for marriage. 5. Social Networks: Strong social networks and community ties offer support and fulfillment for those who choose to remain single. Friendships, extended family, and community involvement help to mitigate feelings of isolation. Overall, remaining single is increasingly recognized as a legitimate and satisfying alternative to traditional family patterns, reflecting broader societal changes in values and expectations. 24. Consider the implications of the terms child-free and childless. Answer: Implications of the Terms "Child-Free" and "Childless": 1. Child-Free: • Choice: "Child-free" refers to individuals or couples who consciously choose not to have children. This choice is often driven by personal, lifestyle, or philosophical reasons. • Empowerment: The term reflects a positive, proactive decision, emphasizing autonomy and the fulfillment of non-parental life paths. • Societal Perception: It challenges traditional expectations and can shift societal attitudes toward family and parenting, promoting acceptance of diverse life choices. 2. Childless: • Circumstantial: "Childless" typically refers to individuals or couples who do not have children due to circumstances beyond their control, such as infertility or health issues. • Stigma and Sensitivity: This term can carry emotional and social implications, including feelings of inadequacy or societal pressure. It often reflects a sense of loss or unmet desire for parenthood. • Support Needs: Those who are childless may require different forms of social support and understanding compared to those who are child-free by choice. Both terms highlight different aspects of the experience of not having children and reflect varying personal and societal attitudes towards family and parenting. 25. Compare the functionalist and conflict views of same-sex marriage. Answer: Functionalist and Conflict Views of Same-Sex Marriage: 1. Functionalist View: • Social Stability: Functionalists view same-sex marriage as a potential contributor to social stability and cohesion. They argue that allowing same-sex couples to marry integrates them into the societal norms of family life, promoting stability and social order. • Role Adaptation: Functionalists may emphasize how same-sex marriages adapt traditional family roles to fit modern contexts, contributing to the overall function and stability of the family unit within society. 2. Conflict View: • Power and Inequality: Conflict theorists focus on the power dynamics and inequalities that influence the acceptance of same-sex marriage. They argue that societal resistance to same-sex marriage reflects broader struggles over power, privilege, and social norms. • Social Change: They view the push for same-sex marriage as part of a broader struggle for equality and social justice. Legal recognition of same-sex marriage is seen as a challenge to existing power structures and an effort to address systemic discrimination and inequality. In summary, functionalists emphasize the integration and stability provided by same-sex marriage, while conflict theorists focus on the power struggles and efforts toward equality that shape the debate. 26. Explain the concept of a domestic partnership. Answer: Concept of a Domestic Partnership: A domestic partnership is a legally recognized relationship between two individuals who live together and share a domestic life but are not married. Key aspects include: 1. Legal Recognition: Domestic partnerships provide some or all of the legal rights and responsibilities associated with marriage, such as health insurance benefits, inheritance rights, and decision-making authority. 2. Cohabitation: Partners in a domestic partnership typically live together in a long-term, committed relationship, sharing responsibilities such as household expenses and caregiving. 3. Legal Status: The rights and benefits of domestic partnerships vary by jurisdiction, and in some places, they may offer an alternative to marriage for couples who seek legal recognition without the institution of marriage. 4. Equality and Inclusion: Domestic partnerships are often seen as a step toward legal and social recognition for same-sex couples and those who choose not to marry, contributing to broader discussions on relationship recognition and equality. Overall, domestic partnerships provide a framework for legal recognition and support of committed relationships outside of traditional marriage. 27. What is the status of domestic partnership legislation in the United States? Answer: Status of Domestic Partnership Legislation in the United States: 1. Varied State Laws: Domestic partnership legislation varies widely across the United States. Some states offer comprehensive domestic partnership benefits and recognition, while others have limited or no domestic partnership laws. 2. Evolution and Change: In recent years, there has been a trend toward greater recognition and expansion of domestic partnerships, particularly in states where same-sex marriage was not initially available. However, with the legalization of same-sex marriage nationwide in 2015, some states have re-evaluated or reduced domestic partnership provisions. 3. Legal Benefits: In states where domestic partnerships are recognized, couples often receive benefits similar to those of marriage, such as healthcare coverage and inheritance rights. The specific benefits and rights can vary significantly from one jurisdiction to another. 4. Current Trends: The legal landscape continues to evolve, with some states consolidating domestic partnership laws into broader marriage equality frameworks, while others maintain separate provisions for domestic partnerships. Overall, the status of domestic partnership legislation reflects a patchwork of state-level regulations, with ongoing changes influenced by broader legal and social developments. 28. Summarize recent policies on same-sex marriages. Answer: Recent Policies on Same-Sex Marriages: 1. Legalization: Following the Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), same-sex marriage is legally recognized across all states in the U.S. This landmark ruling established that same-sex couples have the constitutional right to marry, effectively invalidating any state laws prohibiting such marriages. 2. Anti-Discrimination Protections: Many states and local jurisdictions have enacted policies to prevent discrimination based on sexual orientation in areas such as employment, housing, and public services, ensuring equal treatment for same-sex couples. 3. Adoption and Parental Rights: Policies have evolved to recognize and protect the parental rights of same-sex couples, including access to adoption, custody, and fertility treatments, reflecting broader acceptance of diverse family structures. 4. Federal Benefits: Same-sex married couples are entitled to the same federal benefits and protections as opposite-sex couples, including tax benefits, Social Security survivor benefits, and spousal rights in federal programs. 5. Ongoing Debates: While same-sex marriage is legally recognized, debates continue over related issues such as religious exemptions and the extent of protections for same-sex couples in areas like employment and public services. Recent policies reflect a significant shift toward greater acceptance and legal equality for same-sex marriages, with ongoing efforts to address related issues and ensure comprehensive protection. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss which function(s) of the family could not adequately be supplied by another outside source or social institution. Answer: Functions of the Family That Cannot Be Adequately Supplied by Other Social Institutions: 1. Emotional Support: The family provides unique emotional support and nurturing that is difficult to replicate through other institutions. The intimate, personal nature of familial relationships fosters deep emotional bonds, care, and unconditional support that other institutions cannot fully replicate. 2. Socialization: The family plays a critical role in early socialization, teaching children values, norms, and cultural practices. While schools and other institutions contribute to socialization, the family provides the foundational, personalized guidance and values that shape an individual's early development. 3. Personal Identity and Belonging: Families contribute to the formation of personal identity and a sense of belonging. They offer a context for developing one's sense of self and place within a social network, which is challenging for other institutions to provide in the same deeply personal way. 4. Reproductive and Caregiving Functions: While other institutions can support caregiving and reproduction through various services, the family remains central in providing the day-to-day care and nurturing needed for raising children and supporting elderly members, often tailored to individual needs and preferences. Overall, while other social institutions play important roles, the family’s ability to offer personalized emotional support, socialization, identity formation, and specific caregiving functions is unique and not fully replaceable by outside sources. 2. Identify and describe any elements of a marriage ceremony that may reinforce domination by males in our society and encourage the subordination of females. Answer: Elements of Marriage Ceremonies That May Reinforce Male Domination and Female Subordination: 1. Traditional Roles: Many marriage ceremonies emphasize traditional gender roles, such as the bride being "given away" by her father. This practice can symbolize the transfer of ownership from one male to another, reinforcing patriarchal norms. 2. Language and Symbolism: Phrases like "obey" in traditional marriage vows, where the bride pledges to "love, honor, and obey" her husband, can imply a hierarchical relationship and reinforce the idea of female subordination. 3. Wedding Attire: The tradition of the bride wearing white symbolizes purity and often places the bride in a submissive role, while the groom's attire is typically more neutral. This can subtly reinforce traditional gender norms. 4. Ceremonial Customs: Practices such as the groom’s family hosting the wedding or making decisions regarding the ceremony can reflect and perpetuate male dominance in the family structure. These elements in marriage ceremonies can perpetuate traditional gender roles and reinforce societal norms that support male dominance and female subordination. 3. Discuss why children of interracial unions may often portray themselves as being of one race or the other due to endogamous restrictions in marriage. Answer: Reasons Children of Interracial Unions May Portray Themselves as One Race Due to Endogamous Restrictions: 1. Social Identity and Acceptance: Children of interracial unions may choose to identify with one race to gain social acceptance or align with the dominant racial group. This choice can help them navigate social environments and avoid discrimination or prejudice. 2. Endogamous Pressures: In societies with strong endogamous norms (where people are expected to marry within their racial or ethnic group), individuals may feel pressure to conform to these norms. As a result, they might emphasize one racial identity over another to fit social expectations or family pressures. 3. Racial Categorization: Societal frameworks often require individuals to fit into predefined racial categories. Children of interracial unions may find it easier to adhere to these binary categories, which simplifies their racial identity in contexts where mixed-race identities are less recognized or understood. 4. Cultural and Familial Influences: Cultural influences from one parent's background may be more dominant or influential, leading children to adopt that racial identity more strongly, even if they have mixed heritage. These factors contribute to why children of interracial unions may adopt or emphasize one racial identity over another, often influenced by societal norms, pressures, and personal experiences. 4. Using the various sociological perspectives, analyze the paradox of conservative politicians who discourage abortion and divorce, yet refuse to vote for increases in minimum-wage standards and increases in welfare assistance for low-income groups. Answer: Analyzing the Paradox Using Sociological Perspectives: 1. Functionalist Perspective: • Social Stability: Functionalists might argue that conservative politicians seek to promote social stability by discouraging abortion and divorce, which they view as disruptive to family structures. However, from this perspective, neglecting economic support for low-income groups can undermine social cohesion and stability by perpetuating inequality and economic strain on families. 2. Conflict Perspective: • Power and Inequality: Conflict theorists would highlight that conservative policies may reflect the interests of more privileged groups who benefit from maintaining the status quo. By opposing increases in minimum wage and welfare, these politicians may be preserving economic hierarchies that benefit the wealthy. Simultaneously, discouraging abortion and divorce could be seen as enforcing traditional family roles that align with their socio-economic interests. 3. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: • Meaning and Social Roles: Symbolic interactionists would focus on the meanings and social roles associated with conservative policies. For example, discouraging abortion and divorce might align with symbolic meanings of traditional family values, while the resistance to economic support could reflect attitudes about personal responsibility and work ethics. This discrepancy may arise from differing values about individual versus structural responsibility in social issues. 4. Feminist Perspective: • Gender and Power Dynamics: Feminist theorists might argue that the paradox reveals underlying gender and power dynamics. The discouragement of abortion and divorce could be seen as a means to control women's reproductive rights and maintain traditional gender roles, while refusal to support economic policies for low-income groups can further entrench gender inequalities by disproportionately affecting women and families who are often in lower-income brackets. In summary, the paradox can be analyzed through various perspectives that highlight different aspects of how conservative policies may reflect underlying socio-economic interests, values, and power dynamics. 5. Discuss the utility of lesbian and gay domestic partnerships in terms of strengthening family bonds or weakening family attachments among parents and children. Answer: Utility of Lesbian and Gay Domestic Partnerships: 1. Strengthening Family Bonds: • Inclusion and Legitimacy: Domestic partnerships for lesbian and gay couples can strengthen family bonds by providing legal recognition and support, which can help integrate these families into broader social structures. This recognition can foster stability and security for both partners and children, enhancing family cohesion and commitment. • Support and Resources: Legal and social support through domestic partnerships can provide access to benefits and resources, such as health care and inheritance rights, which contribute to a stable and supportive family environment for children. 2. Weakening Family Attachments: • Social Stigma: In some contexts, lesbian and gay domestic partnerships may face social stigma or legal barriers that can create tension or division within extended families or communities. This stigma can potentially weaken family attachments if relatives or communities are unsupportive. • Legal and Social Challenges: Limited legal recognition or inconsistent support across jurisdictions can create challenges for domestic partnerships, which might affect the stability and visibility of these family structures, potentially impacting family dynamics and attachments. Overall, lesbian and gay domestic partnerships can strengthen family bonds by providing legal recognition and support but may also face challenges related to stigma and legal inconsistencies that can impact family attachments. TOPICS AND SOURCES FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Contemporary Fiction: Cosbey develops a research project through which students utilize concepts about marriage and family to analyze a selection of contemporary novels. See Janet Cosbey, “Using Contemporary Fiction to Teach Family Issues,” Teaching Sociology 25 (July 1997): 227–233. 2. Marital Violence: See Russell P. Dobash et al., “The Myth of Sexual Symmetry in Marital Violence,” Social Problems 39 (February 1992): 71–91. 3. Adolescent Sexuality: See Irma T. Elo, Rosalind B. King, and Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., “Adolescent Females: Their Sexual Partners and the Fathers of Their Children,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 61 (February 1999): 74–84; Kathleen B. Rodgers, “Parenting Processes Related to Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviors of Adolescent Males and Females,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 61 (February 1999): 99–109; Kathleen E. Miller, Donald F. Sabo, Michael P. Farrell, Grace M. Barnes, and Merrill J. Melnick, “Athletic Participation and Sexual Behavior in Adolescents: The Different Worlds of Boys and Girls,” Journal of Health & Social Behavior 39 (June 1998): 108–123. 4. African-American Family: See Steven Ruggles, “The Origins of African American Family Structure,” American Sociological Review 59 (February 1994): 136–151. 5. Race and Household Structure in 1910: See S. Philip Morgan et al., “Racial Differences in Household and Family Structure at the Turn of the Century,” American Journal of Sociology 98 (January 1993): 799–828. 6. Infant Care by Men and Women: See Susan Walzer, “Thinking about the Baby: Gender and Divisions of Infant Care,” Social Problems 43 (May 1996): 219–234. 7. Commuter Marriages: See Melissa M. Groves and Diane M. Horm-Winegerd, “Commuter Marriages: Personal, Family, and Career Issues,” Sociology and Social Research 75 (July 1991): 212–217. 8. Single Mothers and Welfare Programs: See Ellen L. Bassuk, Angela Browne, and John C. Buckner, “Single Mothers and Welfare,” Scientific American 275 (October 1996): 60–67. 9. Historical Change in Parenting: Sayer addresses whether there has been recent, historical change in the nature of parenting, with surprising conclusions. Liana C. Sayer, “Are Parents Investing Less Time in Children? Trends in Mothers’ and Fathers’ Time with Children.” American Journal of Sociology 110 (July 2004): 1-43. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION After Solidarity: Three Polish Families in America (1989, 58m). Filmed over a two-year period, After Solidarity is the personal chronicle of three Solidarity families who were forced to leave Poland. One sees the immigrant experience as it occurs over time—from initial euphoria through the strains of joblessness, isolation, and cultural shock—and its specific effect on family life. And Baby Makes Two: Single Motherhood (McGraw-Hill, 1998, 29m). Despite statistics that indicate children need two parents, many women are choosing to have and rear their children as single parents. But is this growing number of unwed mothers sending a message that fathers aren’t important? Are men shedding their parenting responsibilities because they feel they’re not needed? This program looks at the high price that a culture must pay for becoming a fatherless society. Caught in the Crossfire: Children of Gay and Lesbian Parents (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2003, 27m). This video provides insight into the emotions, and negative and positive experiences of families composed of children with gay or lesbian parents. The Changing American Family: Decline or Transition (Insight Media, 1997, 30m). This video describes the cultural views on various family arrangements that affect the composition of the American family. It includes many issues facing contemporary families. Divorce and the Family (Learning Seed, 1995, 24m). Presents divorce proceedings from the point of view of the children. Family Violence: Breaking the Chain (McGraw-Hill, 28m). This program looks at the effects of family violence on the abused and the abuser; at the danger that abused children will grow up to repeat the pattern of violence in their own relationships; at the problems of date violence; and at the physical and emotional abuse women suffer at the hands of their husbands and lovers. While showing the benefits of therapy, it stresses that the abused need safety and protection from those who abuse them. This protection can be given through shelters, hot lines, and community assistance. The Human Animal: Family and Survival (McGraw-Hill, 52m). This specially adapted Phil Donahue program investigates the state of the American family. Less than 5 percent of American households fit the stereotype of the traditional nuclear family with a working father and a wife/mother who stays home to take care of the house and children. The stresses created by divorce, both parents working, and single parenting are far more common today. It is the children who bear the heaviest burden. Hutterites (1963, 28m). A portrait of daily life in a religiously based communal farm settlement in Alberta, Canada. Gives a brief historical background of the Hutterite faith. Interracial Marriage (McGraw-Hill, 1992, 52m). Two generations ago, it was a recipe for social ostracism; a generation ago, tongues wagged; and now some ethnic groups that were once completely clannish have a 60-percent rate of intermarriage. This program examines how and why couples of different colors, religions, and ethnic roots are drawn to one another; how their differences affect their marriages; how they deal with their friends; and how their parents make peace with children-in-law they wish were of their own race or background. The Japanese Nightmare: Women Who Don’t Want to Marry (Filmakers Library, 2002, 28m). This documentary explores an interesting social trend in Japan—women who delay marriage—and its negative demographic impacts. The Latino Family (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1993, 28m). Profiles families in three segments: a three-generation family, a New York-based performance artist, and a family picnicking in San Antonio, Texas. Working it Out: The Future of the Family (Insight Media, 1998, 45m). This video examines the impact of divorce on children and the movement of families away from the traditional model. It also examines the line between discipline and abuse in families. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bianchi, Suzanne M., and Lynne M. Casper. 2000. American Families (Population Bulletin, December 2000). Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau. This concise (44-page) publication provides a statistical and social overview of U.S. households at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Hertz, Rosanna, and Nancy L. Marshall, eds. 2001. Working Families: The Transformation of the American Home. Berkeley: University of California Press. Two sociologists look at the rise of dual-income families and the social dynamics of work and parenthood. Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 1997. Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work. New York: Metropolitan Books, Henry Holt. The author of The Second Shift describes the time crunch working Americans face and its consequences for their families. Luker, Kristin. 1996. Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of Teenage Pregnancy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. A sociologist analyzes attitudes toward unwed mothers in the United States, including the current “demonization” of these young women. Mindel, Charles H., Robert W. Haberstein, and Roosevelt Wright, Jr., eds. 1998. Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. This collection of 19 essays covers the family as a social institution in a variety of ethnic contexts, including Cuban American, Asian Indian, Native American, and Amish. Presser, Harriet. 2003. Working in a 24/7 Economy: Challenges for American Families. New York: Russell Sage. This book asks how recent work trends in the U.S.—namely, the fact that more and more employed people do not work a 9-to-5-day—have impacted family life. Romano, Renee C. 2003. Race Mixing: Black-White Marriage in Postwar America. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Explicates recent historical patterns of interracial marriage in the United States. Salinger, Adrienne. 1999. Living Solo. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel Publishing. A photojournalist examines the lives of single people, investigating their inner lives, dwelling places, and somewhat eccentric indulgences. Smith, William L. 1999. Families and Communes: An Examination of Nontraditional Lifestyles. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. A scholar takes a fresh look at family life within communes, and at communes as substitutes for the nuclear family. Wallerstein, Judith S., Julia M. Lewis, and Sandra Blakeslee. 2000. The Unexpected Legacy of Divorce. New York: Hyperion. A study that tracked children for 25 years after their parents’ divorce and examined the impact of the event on their lives. Yan, Yunxiang. 2003. Private Life under Socialism: Love, Intimacy, and Family Change in a Chinese Village, 1949-1999. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Based on 11 years of ethnographic study, this book gives an unusual glimpse into the private family sphere under socialism. JOURNALS Among the journals focusing on the family are Family Planning Perspectives (founded in 1969), Family Relations (1951), International Family Planning Perspectives (1975), Journal of Comparative Family Studies (1970), Journal of Family Issues (1980), Journal of Family Violence (1986), Journal of Marriage and the Family (1938), and Violence Against Women (1995). Solution Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669