CH-13-14 Religion and Education – Sociology: A Brief Introduction : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 13 to 14 13 RELIGION AND EDUCATION Contents: ● Learning Objectives • Using Text Boxes to stimulate discussion • Video suggestions • Key points from the text • Additional lecture ideas • Class discussion topics • Topics for student research • Additional audiovisual suggestions • Additional readings • Thinking About Movies Learning Objectives: 13.1. Discuss the sociological approach to religion. 13.2. Identify the diverse nature of world religions and practices. 13.3. Discuss the role of religion from the various sociological perspectives. 13.4. Describe the components of religious behavior. 13.5. Discuss the basic forms of religious organization. 13.6. Describe the role of education from the various sociological perspectives. 13.7. Discuss the nature of schools as formal organizations. Discuss the social policy of religion in schools. Using text boxes to stimulate discussion: Research in Action: Islam in Canada. The growing presence of Islam in Canada may, perhaps, lead to a better understanding of the significant diversity within Islam. Throughout the world, including in Canada, Muslims are divided into a variety of sects – the two major sects are Sunni and Shia (or Shiite). The great majority of Muslims in Canada are Sunni Muslims. Canada is home to roughly 940 000 Muslim Canadians, 2.8 percent of the total population of Canada ( Pew Research Center 2011 ). Applying Theory: 1) Is there a mosque in your community or a Muslim congregation on your campus? If so, are the members primarily Sunni or Shia? 2) Should communities be allowed to block the construction of mosques or dictate their appearance? What about a church or temple? Social Policy and Religion: Religion in the Schools. (The box discusses policy about prayer in the classroom, as well as the issues surrounding the teaching of theories of the origin of humans and of the universe. Applying Theory: 1) Do you think promoting religious observance is a legitimate function of the social institution of education? 2) Do you agree with a conflict view on the issue of organized school prayer? 3) Are there functions served by Christian fundamentalists and their allies attempting to reshape public education in Canada? Video suggestions: Survivors of the Red Brick School. (30 min., 2001, Kla-How-Ya Communications, First Nations Friendship Centre. Vancouver: Image Media (distributor)). Survivors from Kootenay Indian School in Cranbrook, B.C. confront their fears by returning to the residential school they attended while they were children. The film introduces the viewers to several survivors who replay stories of physical and sexual abuse. Where the Spirit Lives (97 min., 1989. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation). Set in 1937 in the Canadian Rockies, this is the story of Amelia, a courageous young Blackfoot girl. She is taken from her home in the reserve and relocated in an English-speaking residential school. Amelia must find within herself the courage to live in a place that is for her a foreign and hostile environment. The War and Beyond, 1939-1959 (24 min., 1996. Produced by David Paperny Films Inc., in association with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Distributor: Image Media, Vancouver). Joy Kogawa remembers the forced relocation of the West Coast's Japanese population to internment camps beginning in 1941. After the war British Columbia experiences growth and development: increased access to education, new technologies and the increased power of the trade unions. W.A.C. Bennett ushers in the era of damming rivers (Bennett Dam), flattening mountains and building a road system in Northern and Central British Columbia to meet the demands of postwar technology and lifestyle. The native population endures dispossession and the residential schools exacerbate the loss of their heritage. Ancient Religions of the Mediterranean. (48 min., 2004. Vancouver: Image Media, distributor). Using footage and images, interviews, examples and re-enactments, traces the spiritual history of the Mediterranean Basin by examining the ancient cultures, religions and literature that have greatly influenced those of the modern world, especially the Hebrew and Christian scriptures. Includes: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Asia Minor, Canaan, Greece, and Rome. Saved! ( Director: Brian Donnelly, 2004) A young woman named Mary (Jena Malone) attends American Eagle Christian High School, where she is a member of a popular clique called the "Christian Jewels." When Mary's boyfriend, Dean (Chad Faust), questions his own sexuality, Mary thinks she can "cure" his condition by having sex with him. Eventually, Dean's parents learn of what they regard as his deviant inclinations and ship him off to a reform school, leaving the pregnant Mary alone and abandoned by many of her friends. Mary questions both her religious beliefs and the educational institution she attends, where she is beginning to feel oppressed. Ultimately, she reaffirms her faith with help from some fellow outcasts. This film shows numerous religious rituals. Watch for the scene in which a band concert creates a place for students to exhibit their faith. One way of looking at Saved! is as a satire of Christian fundamentalism, with Mary trying to find her own voice amidst the rigid doctrine espoused by school authorities . Key points from the text: Émile Durkheim: Émile Durkheim was perhaps the first sociologist to recognize the critical importance of religion in human societies. He saw its appeal for the individual, but, more important, he stressed the social impact of religion. In Durkheim’s view, religion is a collective act and includes many forms of behaviour in which people interact with others. Durkheim defined religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things.” The sacred encompasses elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and even fear. By contrast, the profane includes the ordinary and commonplace. The Role of Religion: Among its manifest (open and stated) functions, religion defines the spiritual world and gives meaning to the divine. Religion provides an explanation for events that seem difficult to understand, such as what happens after death. The Integrative Function of Religion: Émile Durkheim viewed religion as an integrative power in human society, a perspective reflected in functionalist thought today. Religion gives people certain ultimate values and ends to hold in common. The integrative power of religion can be seen in the role hat churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques have traditionally played and continue to play for immigrant groups in Canada. Yet another example of the integrative impact of religion is provided by the Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches. It was established in the United States in 1968 to offer a welcoming place of worship for lesbians and gays. Religion and Social Support: Through its emphasis on the divine and supernatural, religion allows us to “do something” about the calamities we face. Religion encourages us to view our personal misfortunes as relatively unimportant in the broader perspective of human history—or even as part of an undisclosed divine purpose. This perspective may be much more comforting than the terrifying feeling that any of us can die senselessly at any moment, and that there is no divine “answer” as to why one person lives a long and full life whereas another dies tragically at a relatively early age. Religion and Social Change: The Weberian Thesis: Max Weber carefully examined the connection between religious allegiance and capitalist development in his pioneering work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber pointed out that the followers of John Calvin, a leader of the Protestant Reformation, emphasized a disciplined work ethic, worldly concerns, and a rational orientation to life that has become known as the Protestant ethic. Like Durkheim, Weber demonstrated that religion is not solely a matter of intimate personal beliefs. He stressed that the collective nature of religion has social consequences for society as a whole. Liberation Theology: Sometimes the clergy can be found in the forefront of social change. Many religious activists, especially in the Roman Catholic church in Latin America, support liberation theology – the use of a church in a political effort to eliminate poverty, discrimination, and other forms of injustice evident in a secular society. Advocates of this religious movement sometimes sympathize with Marxism. Activists associated with liberation theology believe that organized religion has a moral responsibility to take a strong public stand against the oppression of the poor, members of racial and ethnic minorities, and women. Use your sociological imagination: The social support that religious groups provide is suddenly withdrawn from your community. How will your life or the lives of others change? What will happen if religious groups stop pushing for social change? Religion and Social Control: A Conflict View: For Karl Marx, the relationship between religion and social change was clear: Religion impeded social change by encouraging oppressed people to focus on otherworldly concerns rather than on their immediate poverty or exploitation. He felt that religion was widely used to “drug” less fortunate people into submission by offering a consolation for their daily harsh lives: the hope of salvation in an ideal afterlife. Marxists suggest that by “inducing a “false consciousness” among the disadvantaged, religion lessens the possibility of collective political action that can end capitalist oppression and transform society. Feminist Perspectives: Feminist thinkers draw attention to the reality that the positions of women in religious organizations tend to be ones of subjugation Although women may play a significant role as volunteers in religious communities, men are more likely to make the major theological and financial judgments for nationwide spiritual organizations. Components of Religion: Religious beliefs, rituals, and experience all help to define what is sacred and to differentiate the sacred from the profane. Religious beliefs are statements to which members of a particular religion adhere. Religious rituals are practices required or expected of members of a faith. The term religious experience refers to the feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality, such as a divine being, or of being overcome with religious emotion. Use your sociological imagination: Canada and the United States are similar in many ways. Why would religious participation in the U.S. be greater than that in Canada? Use your sociological imagination: Choose a religious tradition other than your own. How would your religious beliefs, rituals, and experience differ if you had been raised in that tradition? Religious Organization: Sociologists find it useful to distinguish between four basic forms of organization. An ecclesia is a religious organization that claims to include most or all of the members of a society and is recognized as the national or official religion. A denomination is a large, organized religion not officially linked with the state or government. In the past 20 years, some distinctions among denominations have started to blur. Certain faiths have even allowed members of other faiths to participate in some of their most sacred rituals, such as communion. Even more dramatic has been the appearance of mega churches – large congregations that often lack direct ties to a worldwide denomination, A sect can be defined as a relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other religious organization to renew what it considers the original vision of the faith. A new religious movement (NRM) or cult is generally a small, secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith. Sociological Perspectives on Education: Education is a massive industry in Canada as well as a major agent of socialization. In the last few decades, increasing numbers of people have obtained a high school diploma and at least some postsecondary education. According to the Canadian Council of Learning (2004) only 10 percent of Canadians between the ages of 20 and 24 did not have a high school diploma or were not enrolled in school. Functionalist Perspective: Like other social institutions, education has both manifest (open, stated) and latent (hidden) functions. The most basic manifest function of education is the transmission of knowledge. Schools teach students such things as how to read, speak foreign languages, and repair automobiles. • Transmitting Culture: As a social institution, education performs a rather conservative function—transmitting the dominant culture. Schooling exposes each generation of young people to the existing beliefs, norms, and values of their culture. In our society we learn respect for social control and reverence for established institutions, such as religion, the family, and the government. • Promoting Social and Political Integration: Education serves the latent function of promoting social and political integration by transforming a population comprising diverse ethnic, and religious groups into a society whose members share – to some extent – a common identity. Schools have historically played an important role in socializing the children of immigrants into the norms, values, and beliefs of the dominant culture. From a functionalist perspective, the common identity and social integration fostered by education contribute to social stability and consensus. • Maintaining Social Control: Schools serve as a transitional agent of social control between parents and employers in the life cycle of most individuals. Schools direct and even restrict students’ aspirations in a manner that reflects societal values and prejudices. Socialization into traditional gender roles can be viewed as a form of social control. • Serving as an Agent of Change: Education can stimulate desired social change. Sex education classes were introduced in public schools in response to higher rates of sexual activity among teens. Special “girls only” science and mathematics classes were created in response to female graduates’ low participation rates in such fields as science, technology, and engineering. Conflict View of Schooling: Sociologist Christopher Hurn has compared the functionalist and conflict views of schooling. According to Hurn, the functionalist perspective portrays contemporary education as basically benign. For example, it argues that schools rationally sort and select students for future high-status positions, thereby meeting society’s need for talented and expert personnel. By contrast, the conflict perspective views education as an instrument of elite domination. Schools convince subordinate groups of their inferiority, reinforce existing social class inequality, and discourage alternative and more democratic visions of society. • The Hidden Curriculum: The term hidden curriculum refers to standards of behaviour that are deemed proper by society and are taught subtly in schools. According to this curriculum, children must not speak until the teacher calls on them and must regulate their activities according to the clock or bells. In addition, they are expected to concentrate on their own work rather than assist other students who learn more slowly. • Bestowal of Status: Conflict sociologists stress that schools sort pupils according to social class background. Although the educational system helps certain poor children to move into middle-class professional positions, it denies most disadvantaged children the same educational opportunities afforded children of the affluent. In this way, schools tend to preserve social class inequalities in each new generation. Even a single school can reinforce class differences by putting students in tracks. The term tracking refers to the practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups on the basis of test scores and other criteria. According to the correspondence principle approach, schools with students from different social classes promote the values expected of individuals in each class and perpetuate social class divisions from one generation to the next. • Treatment of Women in Education: In the 20th century, sexism in education showed up in many ways, in textbooks with negative stereotypes of women, counselors’ pressure on female students to prepare for “women’s work,” and unequal funding for women’s and men’s athletic programs. But perhaps nowhere has educational discrimination been more evident than in the employment of teachers. The positions of university professor and college administrator, which hold relatively high status in Canada, generally are filled by men. The Interactionist Perspective: The labeling approach and the concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy suggest that if we treat people in particular ways, they may fulfill our expectations. A dominant group's stereotyping of racial minorities may limit their opportunities to break away from expected roles. The teacher-expectancy effect is the impact that a teacher’s expectations about a student’s performance may have on the student’s actual achievements. This appears to be especially true in lower grades (through Grade 3). Feminist Views: Feminist perspectives on education raise a wide range of concerns stemming from the historical exclusion of girls and women in education and the persistent “chilly climate” that many females experience in educational institutions that treat them as outsiders. Some perspectives have articulated the need to understand how gender plays a role in the educational experiences of students from elementary school to university, and how these experiences are connected to such factors as race, class, and age. The hidden curriculum of the school system contributes to gender socialization through the use of language that is not gender-inclusive, curricula that are andocentric and role models of male principals and female elementary school teachers that reinforce traditional patterns of male dominance and authority. Schools as Formal Organizations: In many respects, today’s schools, when viewed as an example of a formal organization, are similar to factories, hospitals, and business firms. Like these organizations, schools do not operate autonomously; they are influenced by the market of potential students. This is especially true of private schools. Teachers: Employees and Instructors: A teacher undergoes many perplexing stresses every day. Although teachers’ academic assignments have become more specialized, the demands on their time remain diverse and contradictory. There are conflicts inherent in serving as an instructor, a disciplinarian, and an employee of a school district at the same time. For university professors, different types of role strain arise. Although formally employed as teachers, they are also expected to work on committees and are encouraged to conduct scholarly research. In many universities, security of position (tenure) is based primarily on the publication of original scholarship. As a result, instructors must fulfill goals that compete for time. The Student Subculture: An important latent function of education relates directly to student life: Schools provide for students’ social and recreational needs. The student subculture is complex and diverse. High school cliques and social groups may crop up based on ethnicity, social class, physical attractiveness, placement in courses, athletic ability, and leadership roles in the school and community. Adult Education: Many post-secondary institutions have witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of older students pursuing higher education. One explanation for the adult education boom is that society is changing rapidly in an age of technological innovation and a growing knowledge-based economy. In occupation after occupation, long-time workers and professionals are going back to school to adapt to the new demands of their jobs. Home Schooling: For an increasing number of students in Canada and the United States, home is the classroom and the teacher is a parent. Estimates of the number of children being home schooled in Canada vary. Statistics Canada reported 19,114 registered home-schooled students in 1997. In the past, families that taught their children at home lived in isolated environments or held strict religious views at odds with the secular environment of public schools. But today, home schooling is attracting a broader range of families not necessarily tied to organized religion. Poor academic quality, threat of school strikes, peer pressure, and school violence are motivating many parents to teach their children at home. In addition, the growing presence of computers in the home and the availability of education resources online have motivated some parents to educate their children at home. Additional lecture ideas: 1. Goal Multiplication and Religious Organizations Religious groups fulfill many of what Durkheim would term secular (rather than sacred) functions. In recent years (with the emphasis on government downsizing), churches and other religious organizations have started providing services previously assumed by government agencies. Republicans, led by Newt Gingrich, want to roll back government-funded welfare programs and shift the social safety net to private organizations in general and to churches and religious charities in particular. There appears to be public support for this role. Yet, the public rejects the notion that the nation’s religious organizations should be the main source of funds for the needy. In a 1995 Gallup survey in the United States, respondents were asked: “Who do you think should be more responsible for providing assistance to the poor— government or religious organizations?” The results showed 55 percent selecting the government, 28 percent religious organizations, 10 percent both, 4 percent neither, and 3 percent with no opinion. Among Republicans and Protestants, the government was still favoured as a source for such funds, but by smaller margins. Only self-identified conservatives favoured religious organizations over the government as the main source of support for assisting the poor. Some clergy and other observers are concerned about religious groups playing more of a role. They feel it is unconstitutional and spiritually wrong to force the poor through a religious doorway to meet their basic needs. Federal legislation has been proposed that would create a charity tax credit of $500 per taxpayer. It would allow taxpayers to designate money to a religious or charitable organization that devotes 70 percent of its efforts to poverty relief. Source: “Should Religious Organizations Provide All Welfare?” Emerging Trends, 17 (November 1995): 5. 2. Courts and Holiday Displays The city of Richmond, British Columbia decided in the late 1990s that it would no longer erect public displays for the Christmas season. The reason, according to city sources, was that such displays were discriminatory. A large portion of Richmond’s population is Asian and many are not Christian. Therefore, the city concluded, that to celebrate the religious holidays of one group and not those of another was to show favouritism. It was either have public displays inclusive of everyone’s beliefs, or have none. Debate around the ethnocentrism of holiday displays that involve the government, however indirectly, is an ongoing process. In December 1995 a federal judge in Newark, New Jersey ruled that adding Frosty the Snowman and Santa with a sleigh to a nativity scene, a Christmas tree, and a menorah makes a city’s holiday display legal. Judge Dickerson Debevoise said “installing these symbols sufficiently demystified the holy” (Leavitt, p. A3). Sociologists would regard these as efforts to make a legal distinction between what Durkheim called the sacred and the secular. At the heart of the conflict are the constitutional provisions of the First Amendment: “Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” The ruling followed a lawsuit brought by civil liberties activists that had led to the judge barring solely religious items on the City Hall lawn in Jersey City. “We shouldn’t have to censor those holidays that have a religious aspect,” said Mayor Bret Schundler (Leavitt, p. A3). The Supreme Court ruled in June 1995 that if government allows public displays, it cannot choose to bar religious displays per se. Religious expression must be treated like other forms of expression, such as United Way donation thermometers, which are often displayed on the sides of public buildings or in parks. Not everyone agrees with the ruling. Barry Lynn of Americans United for Separation of Church and State argues, “The Supreme Court is turning a lot of town squares into churchyards. And that has made a lot of people from minority religions feel like second-class citizens in their own towns” (Mauro, p. A2). In Chicago, a government office building stopped playing Christmas music when there were protests, but a court saw no problems with a mixture of Christmas music along with winter seasonal songs. Sources: Jan Crawford Greenburg, “In Season to be Tolerant, It’s Still Easier Said than Done,” Chicago Tribune (December 21, 1995), sec. 3:1, 3; Paul Leavitt, “Christmas Displays OK,” USA Today (December 19, 1995): 3A; Tony Mauro, “Ruling Helps Communities Set Guidelines,” USA Today (December 21, 1995): A1, A2. 3. The Halévy Thesis: Religion as a Stabilizer Max Weber is not the only scholar to contend that religion can exert an important influence on the process of social change. Elie Halévy (1870–1937), a Frenchman and noted historian who wrote at about the same time as Weber, was primarily interested in the stability of English society during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Halévy thesis suggests that Methodism, under the influence of John Wesley (1703–1791) and his followers, provided a kind of “escape valve” for the discontented English working class. This religious faith became a mechanism for dissent, an outlet for opposition to everything from labour practices to the monarchy itself. Yet this opposition was basically peaceful and was oriented to social reform rather than revolutionary change. From a Marxist point of view, Methodists were not part of the ruling bourgeoisie, yet they served the interests of the wealthy and powerful. For Halévy, the rise of Methodism explains why England, of all the nations of Europe, was most free from political disorders and revolutions during the 18th and 19th centuries. Halévy’s thesis has been criticized; in fact, many of the objections are similar to those raised in response to Weber’s monumental work. Some critics have argued that Halévy exaggerates the influence of Methodism and fails to explain the lack of revolt in England before this religion arose. Nonetheless, Halévy’s work, like Weber’s, contains important insights regarding the relationship between religious beliefs and the process of social change. See Elie Halévy. A History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century. Translated by E. I. Watkins and D. A. Barker. London: Ernest Benn; Halévy, 1924, rev. 1960; The Birth of Methodism in England. Translated by B. Senimel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971; Michael Hill. A Sociology of Religion. New York: Basic Books, 1973 pp. 183–203. 4. Women in the Clergy In February 1994, Victoria Mathews became Canada’s first Anglican bishop, one of only five in the world at the time. Mathews represented the forward thinking attitudes of the Anglican Church of Canada, a denomination that had begun ordaining female clergy in 1976. Twenty years later, 10 percent of the church’s ministers were female. By contrast, the Church of England, the Anglican parent organization, had only ordained its first female clergy—32 in all—in August of 1994, following years of acrimonious debate. In protest against the action, close to 600 male Church of England ministers resigned and converted to the Roman Catholic Church. Then, as now in the year 2002, the Pope and the Catholic Church reject the installation of female priests. Throughout history and in many diverse cultures, the highest positions of spiritual leadership within organized religion have been reserved for men. Even today, Roman Catholicism, does not permit women to be priests. A 1993 Gallup survey found that 63 percent of Roman Catholics in the U.S. favour the ordination of women, compared with only 29 percent in 1974, but the church has continued to maintain its long-standing teaching that priests should be male. Clearly, many branches of Protestantism and Judaism have been convinced that women have the right to be ordained as spiritual leaders. Yet a lingering question remains: Once ordained, will these female ministers and rabbis be accepted by congregations? Will they advance in their calling as easily as male counterparts, or will they face blatant or subtle discrimination in their efforts to secure desirable posts within their faiths? It is too early to offer any definitive answers to these questions, but thus far women clergy continue to face lingering sexism after ordination. As late as 1996, the Lutheran Church of Canada continued to resist the idea of female clergy, suggesting that while the god had made men and women equal in a moral sense, He intended the sexes to serve different purposes while here on earth. In both Reform and Conservative Judaism, the largest and best-known congregations rarely hire women rabbis. Consequently, women clergy in many denominations appear to be restricted to the low end of clerical pay scales and hierarchies. Sources for this lecture include the following: Keeper of the faith. By: Jenish, D'Arcy; Maclean's, 5/9/94, Vol. 107 Issue 19, p44. Woodward, Joe. 1996 to Ordain or not to Ordain: The Interminable Question.” Alberta Report.23, 35 1-3.Andrée Brooks, “Women in the Clergy: Struggle to Succeed,” New York Times (February 16, 1987): 15; Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States 1996. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996, p. 405; Debra Nussbaum Cohen, “The Right to be Rabbis Won, Women Face Role’s Challenges,” Long Island Jewish World, 29(August 23–29, 1991): 3, 22–23; Richard N. Ostling, “The Second Reformation,” Time 140(November 23, 1992): 52–58; Princeton Religion Research Center. “Attitudes toward Priests Changing Rapidly,” Emerging Trends, 15 (October 1993): 5. 5. The Ghost Dance of the Sioux An example of the integrative function of religion can be found in so-called millenarian movements. A millenarian movement is a religious group that believes in a prophecy that a cataclysmic upheaval will occur in the immediate future, followed by collective salvation. This shared worldview offers its members a sense of belonging. During the late 19th century, a millenarian movement appeared among the Sioux Indians. Life for the Sioux, or Dakota, Indians was especially oppressive in the middle to late 19th century. Spurred on by General George Custer’s exaggerated reports of gold in the Black Hills, many White settlers infiltrated Sioux territory in what is now South Dakota. Hostilities followed, and in 1876 the Sioux won a great victory in the battle of the Little Big Horn. But the Sioux were eventually defeated by the U.S. Army and forced to sell much of their land. Unable to continue hunting game as they traditionally had, members of the tribe found life on the reservation increasingly unbearable. Many Sioux sought an escape through the supernatural and turned to the ghost dance religion, which included dances and songs that proclaimed the return of the buffalo and the resurrection of deceased Indians in a land free of Whites. The ghost dance had originated among the Paiute Indians of Nevada and soon became a symbolic or millenarian movement. Ironically, it had spread northward to the Plains Indians through the schools—the institution that served as the cornerstone of forced assimilation of Native Americans. By 1890, according to sociologist Russell Thornton, about 65 percent of the Indian tribes in the west were involved in the ghost dance. From a functionalist perspective, this millenarian movement can be viewed as a means of coping with the domination of White intruders. While the ghost dance was essentially harmless, Whites feared that the new Indian solidarity encouraged by the movement would lead to renewed warfare. As a result, more troops were summoned to areas where the ghost dance had become popular. In late December of 1890, anticipating that a massive ghost dance would be staged, a cavalry division arrived at an encampment of Teton Sioux at Wounded Knee Creek on the Pine Ridge reservation. When the soldiers began disarming the warriors, a random shot was fired at them, touching off a close-range battle. The cavalry then turned its artillery on Indian men, women, and children. Approximately 300 Sioux and 25 soldiers were killed in the ensuing fighting. One Sioux eyewitness later recalled: “We tried to run, but they shot us like we were buffalo. I know there are some good White people, but the soldiers must be mean to shoot children and women.” The Wounded Knee massacre was not the worst defeat suffered by Native Americans during the 19th century, but it shattered the Sioux hope for a return, even a supernatural one, to the life they had known. See Dee Brown. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, New York: Holt, 1971, p. 417; Russell Thorton, “Demographic Antecedents of the 1890 Ghost Dance,” American Sociological Review, 46(February 1981): 88–96. 6. Inequality in Education As was discussed in Chapter 8, educational achievements play a critical role in social mobility. Consequently, concern has been expressed that subordinate minorities in Canada, such as First Nations, immigrants, and those with mental or physical challenges, do not have positive experiences in schools that will assist them in later competition in the job market. This country’s minorities, however, are not alone in this experience. The anthropologist John Ogbu looked at educational opportunities and achievements in six societies and found group inequality in all of them. In Great Britain, for example, Black West Indian immigrants and their descendants (many of whom are born in Britain) perform poorly in school. By contrast, in New Zealand it is the native Maori people (the original islanders now outnumbered and dominated by White Europeans) who have the greatest difficulty in the educational system. Whites are 350 times more likely than Maori to attend college. In these societies, race was the critical factor differentiating successful and unsuccessful educational performance. However, in studying other societies, Ogbu found that inequality was evident even when racial distinctions were absent. In India, people from lower-caste backgrounds are physically indistinguishable from other residents. Yet children from the lower castes are much less likely to attend the private schools that launch Indians toward better careers. While lower caste children account for more than 15 percent of India’s population, they constitute only about 5 percent of those attending college. Ogbu found certain common themes in all the societies he studied (one of which was the United States). The dominant groups in each society agree on the importance of education and the key role of educational attainment in shaping one’s position in adult life. At the same time, however, folk explanations in many societies contribute to prejudice and discrimination by ascribing failure in school to the alleged inferiority of subordinate minorities. More recent studies have demonstrated that educational inequalities persist around the world: • A study of educational attainment in Taiwan found a substantial difference between the “mainlanders” (those who immigrated to Taiwan from mainland China in the 1940s) and the native Taiwanese. The latter are much less likely to continue schooling than are the mainlanders. • Researchers have found a significant gap in educational attainment between Jews and Arabs living in Israel. In part, this has resulted from the government’s failure to apply compulsory school attendance laws to Arabs as forcefully as it has to Jews. • According to a 1992 report by the World Bank, children from poor and rural families around the world are less likely to attend primary schools than children from affluent and urban families. Moreover, girls from all types of families are less likely to attend primary schools than boys. The report urges governments to ensure greater access to education for these underrepresented groups. Sources: See Marlaine F. Lockheed, Adriaan M. Verspoor, and associates. Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991; John H. Ogbu. Minority Education and Caste: The American System in Cross-Cultural Perspective. New York: Academic, 1978; Shu-Ling Tsai and Hei-Yuan Chiu, “Changes in Educational Stratification in Taiwan.” In Yossi Shavit and Hans-Peter Blossfield (eds.), Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries, Boulder, CO.: Westview, 1993, pp. 193–227. 7. Education and Religion and the Right to Personal Choice NOTE: It might be wise to remind your students, before they read this article, about the old injunction to “consider the source.” In the spring of 2002, Marc Hall, a seventeen year-old student at Monsignor John Pereyma Catholic Secondary School in Oshawa, Ontario, was denied permission to bring his male partner to the graduation dance. Hall sued the Durham Roman Catholic School Board for discrimination. The court declared that not only could Mr. Hall bring his date of choice, but also that the school could not cancel its dance. The vehement response to this decision is captured graphically in an article by Ian Hunter in Report/Newsmagazine, a right-wing, Alberta-based periodical, entitled “We have Reached the Point Where Churches, If They Vanished, Would Scarcely be Missed.” The tone of the article reflects the level of emotion and intolerant rhetoric attached to the public debate in Canada over the liberalization of both church and education. Mr. Hunter suggests that the decision by Justice Robert McKinnon of the Ontario Superior Court was “biased”, and that it perhaps represents the beginning of a trend that will eventually see the courts taking over control of who should stand in a pulpit. That level of emotional response to Mr. Justice McKinnon’s ruling, while not reflective of contemporary attitudes held by most Canadians, provides a stimulating point of departure for classroom debate. The discussion might be engaged by asking the class to define the sovereignty of religion in modern Canadian society. Or, a critical analysis of Mr. Hunter’s article might prove an interesting place to start. How do the students in your class feel about the rights of Marc Hall; the rights of the Durham Catholic School Board? See “We have Reached the Point Where Churches, If They Vanished, Would Scarcely be Missed.” By: Hunter, Ian; Report/Newsmagazine (Alberta Edition), 6/10/2002, Vol. 29 Issue 12, p16, 1p, 8. Online Education One of the most profound changes in university level education in recent years has been the development of online courses and online degree programs. An online course may consist of a Web site that contains a course syllabus, course notes, power point presentations, links to relevant sites on the Internet, e-mail capabilities between the instructor and students and between students, a real time or synchronous chat room, and an asynchronous bulletin board for class discussions. Online courses are just the latest manifestation of distance learning courses, which have been available since the mid-1800s. Distance learning permits students to take courses without being on a campus full-time. Correspondence courses; television-, radio-, and newspaper-based courses; and interactive television courses are several types of distance learning courses. Schools may offer several types of distance learning courses in addition to traditional classroom or on-ground courses. At many colleges and universities, students may now complete an entire undergraduate or graduate degree by taking only online courses. Online education may be examined using each of the three major sociological perspectives. Functionalists might note that online courses are a very flexible form of education that enables working students, homebound students, and housewives with child care responsibilities to take courses when their schedules might not otherwise permit. Conflict theorists, on the other hand, would suggest that not all students have access to online courses. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to own or have access to a computer that will permit them to take advantage of online courses. Interactionists would focus in on the surprising statement made by many online instructors that they get to know their students better and they have better class discussions online than they have ever had in a classroom, because the level of interaction in an online class is more frequent and more personal than in a traditional course. In addition, the advent of online courses has had a significant impact on the organizational structure of colleges and universities, and the administrative relationship of amongst them. For example, one of the leaders in the field of online education is the state of New Jersey. For the first time in state history, all 19 of the state's community colleges have banded together in an educational endeavor. Students may register for an online course at their local community college, but if their school does not offer the course that they want, they can take the course from any one of the other community colleges in the state that is offering the course. All 19 colleges have agreed to charge the same fee to students for online courses. When students have completed a course, the grade is sent to the student's home college and the letter grade, not a transfer grade, is added to the student's transcript. A system of this type has organizational implications for how each of the member schools does business, which is an interesting research base for future studies of formal organizations. (The author of this class discussion topic is the Distance Learning Coordinator of a New Jersey community college and the Vice-Chair of the New Jersey Virtual Community College Consortium). See Scott W. Wright and Eleanor Lee Yates, "Distance Learning," Community College Week (May 31, 1999): 6–7, 14. Class discussion topics: 1. Inherit the Wind: Viewing this 1960 motion picture based on Jerome Laurence’s play can provide insight into contemporary discussions about religious issues. See the class exercise on p. 80 in Jerry M. Lewis. Tips for Teaching Introductory Sociology. Minneapolis: West, 1995. 2. Religious Autobiography: The possibility of having students prepare their “religious autobiographies” is described by Larry C. Ingram, “Teaching the Sociology of Religion: The Student’s Religious Autobiography,” Teaching Sociology, 6(January 1979): 161–172. 3. Canada Connects: On March 1, 1999 Canada became the first country in the world to connect all of its public schools and libraries to the Net. Find out more about this project at: http://www.schoolnet.ca/home/e/ 4. Ramadan: Ramadan is a Muslim ritual that entails 30 days of dawn-to-dusk fasting and powerful study of scriptures, marking Allah’s (God’s) revelation of the Koran to Muhammad and reminding the devout of the need to focus on spiritual rather than secular activities. See Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Adair T. Lummis. Islamic Values in the United States: A Comparative Study. New York: Oxford, 1987. 5. Ritual: A lecture outline is provided on the topic of the sociology of religious ritual on pp. 51–52 of Jerry M. Lewis. Tips for Teaching Introductory Sociology. Minneapolis: West, 1995. 6. Joshua: For an interesting, brief, and readable discussion of contemporary religious organizations and values, see Joseph F. Girzone. Joshua: A Parable for Today. New York: Collier, 1983. Girzone has written a series of books on related subjects. 7. Market-Based Theory of Religious Growth: This new approach to religious dynamics draws upon supply-side economics. For an overview of this area consult the Chronicle of Higher Education, May 17, 1996. This theory was brought to national prominence by Rodney Stark and Roger Finke. The Churching of America. Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993. 8. Protestant Diversity: Drawing on local clergy, describe the differences between Protestant denominations in beliefs, rituals, and historical beginnings. 9. Student Census: A religious and ethnicity "census" of the students can be taken to determine the diversity within the classroom. 10. Field Trips: If feasible, have the class visit a Catholic Church, a Buddhist temple, a United church, a Sikh Temple, and a Jewish synagogue or temple. If practical, attend services in diverse communities. Ask students to consider the essential differences between each of those you visit and the traditional house of worship attended by their ancestors. 11. Crisis in Post Secondary Quality: Author Ann Dowsett Johnston uses her own experiences in trying to choose a school to evaluate the quality of Canada’s institutions. Johnston, Ann Dowsett, “The Crisis in Quality,” Maclean's, 6/10/2002, Vol. 115 Issue 23, p36. 12. Education and Theory: Alisa Potter provided an exercise for students that applies the functionalist and conflict perspectives to rules and norms present in educational institutions. See the description on p. 269 in Teodora O. Amoloza and James Sikora (eds.). Introductory Sociology Resource Manual (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1996. With little effort, application of the interactionist perspective could be added to the exercise. 13. Foreign Students: Find out the number of foreign students on campus and their nationalities. Before revealing the figure, ask the class to estimate it and the major “sending” countries. Use the comparison between the facts and these estimates as a starting point of a discussion of these students’ place on your campus. 14. Subcultures on Campus: Have your class brainstorm some of the different groups present on campus that form their own subculture. Possibilities are • Campus leaders versus uninterested masses. • “College-age” students (18–24) versus “mature” students (over 25). • Commuters from home versus dorm residents. • Commuters from home versus commuters from off-campus apartments. • Drinkers versus abstainers. • Full-time students versus part-time students. • Graduate students versus undergraduates. • “Greeks” versus independents. • Married students versus single students Not all these subcultures are present on each college campus, but the list does point out that any student body is heterogeneous. 15. Using Humour: David S. Adams has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated in lectures associated with this chapter. See Adams, “The Family.” In Using Humor in Teaching Sociology: A Handbook. Washington, DC: ASA Teaching Resources Center, 1982. See also Joseph E. Faulkner. Sociology through Humor. New York: West,1987. Topics for student research: 1. Interactionist View: Not only college-bound students but also the other people in their lives undergo anticipatory socialization for higher education. See Thomas J. Cottle, “A Family Prepares for College,” Journal of Higher Education, 62(January–February 1991): 79–86. 2. Peer Group Tutoring: See Suzanne Girard and Kathlene R. Willing, Partnerships for Classroom Learning: From Reading Buddies to Pen Pals to the Community and the World Beyond. Markham: Pembroke, 1996. 3. Sexual Harassment in Schools: See “Sexual Harassment in School: Your Rights and Responsibilities.” Calgary: Alberta Civil Liberties Research Centre, 1997. 4. Classroom Culture: See Joyce L. Davies, Interpretations of a Classroom Culture. Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 1981 5. Student Community: See Colleen Hawkey, Patterns of Participation, Modes of Exclusion: Undergraduate Students’ Experience of Community at a Research-Intensive University. Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2000. 6. Women Seminarians: See Barbara Finlay, “Do Men and Women Have Different Goals for Ministry? Evidence from Seminarians,” Sociology of Religion, 57(Fall 1996): 311–318. 7. Women in Higher Education: See Susan Prentice and Jacqueline Stalker, Claiming the Future: The Inspiring Lives of Twelve Canadian Women Scientists and Scholars. Markham: Pembroke, 1991. 8. The Church as Activist: See Kevin Neuhouser, “The Radicalization of the Brazilian Catholic Church in Comparative Perspective,” American Sociological Review, 54(April 1989): 233–244. 9. Youth and Religion: See Brian Bergman, “Returning to Religion,” Maclean’s 4/1/2002, Vol. 115 Issue 13, p. 48. 10. Religion and History in Canada: See Households of Faith: Family, Gender, and Community in Canada, 1760-1969. Montréal: McGill-Queen's University Press, c2002. 11. Critiques of the “Protestant Ethic”: For a bibliography of materials analyzing Weber’s classic work, see sources listed under “Religion and Capitalism” in Talcott Parsons. The Structure of Social Action, vol. 2. New York: Free Press, 1968, pp. 33–34. 12. Intermarriage between Protestants and Roman Catholics: See Matthhijs Kalmijn, “Shifting Boundaries: Trends in Religious and Educational Homogamy,” American Sociological Review, 56(December 1991): 786–800. 13. No Religion: See William Fergelman, Bernard S. Gorman, and Joseph A. Varacalli, “Americans Who Give Up Religion,” Sociology and Social Research, 76(April 1992): 138–144. 14. Attitudes toward Religion and Court Decisions: See James G. Hovgland, Jr., “The State and Observations of Religious Holiday Traditions: Attitudes toward Nativity Scenes on Government Property,” Sociological Analysis, 53(Fall 1992): 299–308; Eric Woodrum and Thomas Hoban, “Support for Prayer in School and Creationism,” Sociological Analysis, 53(Fall 1992): 309–321. 15. Legacy of the Residential Schools: See “Delegates Slated to Attend Native Residential School Healing Conference,” Canadian Press, 06/30/2002 Additional Audiovisual materials: Corporate Advertising and Commercialization on College Campuses (2011, NYTimes.com, 5:41m). This NYT video shows how universities are increasingly interconnected with the corporate sector. Cults: Saying No under Pressure (1991, 20m). This program examines different types of cults and investigates their recruitment tactics. Interviews with ex-cult members illuminate why people are attracted to a cult. Aimed at alerting viewers to techniques of deception, mind control, and psychological manipulation, the video presents a vignette that illustrates how cults recruit new members and shows how people can resist the pressure to join. Digital Nation ( 2009, PBS Frontline, 90:00m). A critical view of the role that technology plays in our lives, challenging the notion that it can always be viewed as “progress” or a “solution.” Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America (1992, 19m). This program interviews educators and business leaders to illuminate the devastating effects of gender bias in schools. It investigates the loss of self-esteem among girls and shows how they are often tracked away from math and science curricula. Additional readings: Adams, Michael. Fire and Ice: The United States and Canada and the Myth of Converging Values. Toronto: Penguin Books, 2003. A comparison of Canadian and U.S. values, including those related to religion. Adam’s book reveals that Canadian and U.S. citizens have different beliefs about the role religion plays in their daily lives. Arjomand, Said A. The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran. New York: Oxford, 1988. A history of the Islamic religion taking control of Iran and deposing the Shah. Ballantine, Jeanne H. and Floyd Hammack. The Sociology of Education. (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2012. A recent, comprehensive sociology of education textbook. Beaman, Lori G., Religion and Canadian Society: Contexts, Identities, and Strategies. Toronto: CSPI, 2012. Beckford, James A., and Thomas Luckmann (eds.). The Changing Face of Religion. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989. Beckford and Luckman have collected nine articles that provide an interesting cross-cultural exploration of religion. Bloom, Allan. The Closing of the American Mind. NY: Simon and Schuster, 1987. Although not new, this book still makes controversial and thought-provoking comments about the state of education in the United States. Carmody, Denise Lardner. Women and World Religions (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989. A feminist examination of world religions and women's religious experiences. Chandras, Kananur. Four Thousand Years of Indian Education: A Short History of the Hindu, Buddhist, and Moslem Periods. San Francisco: R&E Research Associates, 1977. Davies, Scott, and Neil Guppy. The Schooled Society: An Introduction to the Sociology of Education. Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press, 2013. Explores contemporary debates on schooling from a variety of perspectives within a Canadian context. Dei, George J Sefa and Arlo Kempf. New Perspectives on African- Centred Education in Canada. Toronto: CPSI, 2013. Grace, Andre P., Lifelong Learning as Critical Action: International Perspectives on People, Politics,Policy, and Practice. Toronto: CSPI, 2013. Hamdan, Amani. Muslim Women Speak: A Tapestry of Lives and Dreams.Toronto: CSPI, 2009. Herbert, David. Charles Darwin’s Religious Views: From Creationist to Evolutionist. London, ON: Hersil Publishing, 1990. Rose, Ellen. On Reflection: An Essay on Technology, Education, and the Status of Thought in the 21st Century. Toronto: CSPI, 2012. Rosenthal, Robert, and Lenore Jacobson. Pygmalion in the Classroom. New York: Holt, 1968. The authors argue, based on their San Francisco study, that teacher expectations influence pupils' intellectual development. This book should be read in light of Janet D. Elashoff and Richard E. Snow's critique, "Pygmalion" Reconsidered. Worthington, OH: Charles A. Jones, 1971. Sigmund, Paul E. Liberation Theology at the Crossroads: Democracy or Revolution? New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. A careful look at liberation theology, with appendixes that reprint some of the writings of Gustavo Gutiérrez. Wotherspoon, Terry. The Sociology of Education In Canada: Critical Perspectives, 3rd ed. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press, 2009. An introduction to the sociological understanding of education in Canada with an emphasis on the critical research and theories of education. Bernard Schissel. The Legacy of School for Aboriginal People: Education, Oppression and Emancipation. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2003. Thinking About Movies:____________________________________ Freedom Writers (Richard Lagravenese, 2007) Erin Gruwell (Hillary Swank) teaches English at a high school in California. One of her goals is to help her students understand racism and learn tolerance for other ethnic and racial groups. To acquaint them with anti-Semitism and the Holocaust, Erin assigns The Diary of Anne Frank and asks students to talk with Holocaust surviviors. Realizing that gang violence is common in their neighbourhoods, she encourages them to express their feelings by telling their own stories through journals. Gradually, the “freedom writers” learn to deal with their anger and share their experiences of growing up in an impoverished community. This film portrays the difficulty of the teacher-student relationship through conflict between students and Erin, who stands in for the larger bureaucracy. Freedom Writers also shows conflict between student subcultures and suggests a path toward mutual understanding. For Your Consideration 1. How does the movie show the hierarchy of authority at the school, and how does that hierarchy affect social relationships? 2. What do you think of the strategies Erin uses to overcome the impersonality of the educational bureaucracy? 14 POLITICS AND THE ECONOMY Contents: • Learning Objectives • Using the Text Boxes to stimulate discussion • Classroom activities • Audiovisual suggestions • Key points from the text • Additional lecture ideas • Class discussion topics • Topics for student research • Additional audiovisual suggestions • Additional reading • Thinking About Movies Learning Objectives: 14.1 Describe the various types of economic systems. Discuss the effects of capitalism in China. 14.2 Identify and describe the various types of authority. 14.3 Describe the various types of government. 14.4 Discuss the various aspects of political behavior in Canada. 14.5 Contrast and compare the various models of power structure in Canada. 14.6 Discuss sociological perspectives on war and peace. 14.7 Discuss the nature and extent of deindustrialization and downsizing in Canada. Discuss the trend of global offshoring. Using the Text Boxes to Stimulate Discussion: Sociology in the Global Community: Capitalism in China Today’s China is not the China of past generations; it stands on the brink of becoming the world’s largest economy. In this country, where the Communist Party once dominated people’s lives, few now bother to follow party proceedings. Instead, after a decade of rapid economic growth, most Chinese are more interested in acquiring the latest consumer goods. Applying Theory: 1) What research topics might be relevant to feminist sociologists studying the Chinese economy today? 2) What might conflict thinkers stress in studying the economic changes currently occurring in China? Sociology in the Global Community: Gender Quotas at the Ballot Box Worldwide, women are under-represented in government. To remedy this situation, many countries have adopted quotas for female representatives. Applying Theory: 1) How might a conflict thinker explain why Canada has so few women in government compared to some other nations? 2) What interpretation might a functionalist sociologist give to the low rates of female representation in elected politics? Social Policy and the Economy: Global Offshoring Sometimes referred to as “banking the unbanked,” microfinancing was the brainchild of Bangladeshi economist Muhammad Yunus. In 1976, in the midst of a devasting famine in Bangladesh, Yunus founded the Grameen (meaning “Village”) Bank, which he headed in 2011. Microfinancing is lending small sums of money to the poor so they can work their way out of poverty. Applying Theory: 1) Do you think microfinancing might be useful in Canada? If so, how and under what conditions? 2) Using sociological concepts, explain why some politicians might resent microfinacing programs. Classroom Activities: Using the film “The Corporation:” There is a free Canadian based set of teaching resources for the film “The Corporation” online at: http://www.thecorporation.com/index.php?page_id=51 There are a wealth of class activities in this guide. One that works particularly well with Introductory Sociology students is the “Web Scavenger Hunt.” After viewing the film, or parts of the film, students are sent out individually or in groups to answer questions that the film raises. The web scavenger hunt includes questions about Adbusters, Enron, product placement, bias, and it also includes an instructor’s answer key. Capitalist Monopoly: See “Sociopoly: Life on the Boardwalk.” Jessup, Michael M. Teaching Sociology, Vol. 29, January:102-109. By changing the rules to the classic board game, students are given a taste in a game setting of what it is like to live in a world where the upper class capitalists control the rules of the game, and determine their life chances. This game works equally well for Chapter 8 on Inequality, and for an introduction to sociology. There is some set-up involved in getting enough Monopoly games and providing the “new rules,” but it is well worth the effort. The Canadian Economy in a Global Context: The Canadian economy is no longer an isolated entity able to manage itself outside of the influences of transnational corporations and the global markets, whether they involve commodities, investment or currency. At http://canadianeconomy.gc.ca/english/economy/ students can search through the various sites and consider how their focus links to the content of this chapter. Look at information on the federal debt, the global markets, key economic indicators, and the impact of macroeconomic factors on individuals and Canadian families. Audiovisual Suggestions: The Corporation. (174 min., 2004. Mark Achbar, Jennifer Abbott, Joel Bakan; Big Picture Media Corporation. This film is best used in sections, as it is very long, and provocative. It has three parts titled: Part 1: The pathology of commerce (58 min.); Part 2: Planet Inc. (58 min.); Part 3: Reckoning (58 min). Part 1 examines the pathological self-interest of the modern corporation, since it won legal status as a person. After a disturbing analysis, the film concludes that the corporation meets the diagnostic criteria of a psychopath. Part 2: Looks at the scope of commerce and the sophisticated, even covert techniques markets use to get their brands into our homes. From the container: “The ad industry's "Nag Factor" study shocked child psychiatrists when it exposed premeditated manipulation of not just kids, but infants. Corporations own the song "Happy birthday"; patents on plants and animals; even your next disease. When they own everything, who will stand for the public good?" Part 3: examines how corporations cut deals with any style of government, including those that allow and even encourage sweatshops, as long as profits increase. The film shows American corporations such as IBM, General Motors, Ford and Coke worked with and profited from Nazi Germany. It also shows how in the present day, Bechtel attempted to privatize Bolivia’s water system. From the container: “Presented are some excellent examples of positive activism; the character revocation movement took on oil giant Unocal; sweatshop activists moved labor standards; seed activists beat corporate patents; in Pennsylvania, two cities decreed that corporations can no longer carry on as a person and Bolivians defeated Bechtel corporation's attempt to privatize their water system.” Wal-Mart: The high cost of low price. (97 min., 2005, Brave New Films, Retail Project LLC.) This film examines the effect Wal-Mart stores have on local businesses, their employees' economic status, the rights of women and minorities as Wal-Mart Associates, the lack of environmental responsibility by Wal-Mart starting with corporate headquarters on down, and the exploitation of Chinese and Bangladesh workers. The film shows that Wal-Mart has concern for its own profits by heavy in-store security but well-known lack of security in their parking lots which have an inordinate amount of crime. The Devil Wears Prada ( Director: David Frankel, 2006) In a coming-of-age tale about a recent college graduate, Andy Sachs (Anne Hathaway) embarks on a career in the fashion industry. Trained as a journalist, Andy settles for an entry-level job as assistant to the editor of a widely circulated fashion magazine. The editor, Miranda Priestly (Meryl Streep), is known for being impossible to please. Though she makes extreme demands on Andy, she sees herself in the young woman and sets her on a path to power in the fashion industry. This movie shows how the fashion industry controls the products that are available for purchase in our consumption-oriented society. To a large extent, powerful people like Miranda dictate what goes in and out of style not just in the United States, but around the world. Watch for the scene in which Andy first meets Miranda. Andy proclaims her disinterest in fashion, but Miranda takes one look at her sweater and proves that everyone who wears clothes is affected by the fashion industry. Key points from the text: The Political System: This is the social institution that is founded on a recognized set of procedures for implementing and achieving society’s goals, such as the allocation of valued resources. The Economic System: The term economic system refers to the social institution through which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed. As with social institutions such as the family, religion, and government, the economic system shapes other aspects of the social order and is, in turn, influenced by them. Use Your Sociological Imagination: Do you see any relationships within your age group in terms of degree to which people are “plugged in” to news, the medium through which they receive the news, and their degree of political involvement (e.g., attending a demonstration, voting during elections, joining a political party)? Industrial Society: An industrial society is one that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. Tow basic types of economic systems distinguish contemporary industrial societies: capitalism and socialism. Capitalism: Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profit. In practice, capitalist systems vary in the degree to which the government regulates private ownership and economic activity. Immediately following the Industrial revolution, the prevailing form of capitalism was what is termed laissez-faire (“let them do”). Under this principle, as expounded and endorsed by Adam Smith (1723-1790), people could compete freely, with minimal government intervention in the economy. However, in contrast to the era of laissez-faire, capitalism today features government regulation of economic relations. Contemporary capitalism also differs from laissez-faire in another important respect: capitalism tolerates monopolistic practices. A monopoly exists when a single business firm controls the market. Socialism: Socialist theory was refined in the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Under socialism, the means of production and distribution in a society are collectively rather than privately owned. The basic objective of the economic system is to meet people’s needs rather than to maximize profits. Marx believed that each socialist state would eventually "wither away" and evolve into a communist state. As an ideal type, communism refers to an economic system under which all property is communally owned and no social distinctions are made on the basis of people's ability to produce. Informal Economy: In many countries, one aspect of the economy defies description as either capitalist or socialist. In the informal economy (also known as the underground economy), transfers of money, goods, or services take place but are not reported to the government. Use Your Sociological Imagination: Some of your relatives are working full-time in the informal economy – for example, babysitting, lawn cutting, housecleaning – and are earning all their income that way. What will be the consequences for them in terms of job security and health care? Will you try to persuade them to seek formal employment, regardless of how much money they are making? Forms of Power and Authority: A cultural universal is the exercise of power and authority. Inevitably, the struggle for power and authority involves politics, which political scientist Harold Lasswell defined as “who gets what, when, and how” (1936). Power: Power is at the heart of a political system. Max Weber defined power as the ability to exercise one’s will over others. Power relations can involve large organizations, small groups, or even people in an intimate association. There are three basic sources of power within any political system: force, influence, and authority. Force is the actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one’s will on others. Influence, on the other hand, refers to the exercise of power through a process of persuasion. Types of Authority: The term authority refers to institutionalized power that is recognized by the people over whom it is exercised. Max Weber identified three ideal types of authority. In a political system based on traditional authority, legitimate power is conferred by custom and accepted practice. Authority does not rest in personal characteristics, technical competence, or even written law. Power made legitimate by law is known as rational-legal authority. Leaders of such societies derive their authority from the written rules and regulations of political systems, such as a constitution. The term charismatic authority refers to power made legitimate by a leader’s exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers. Charisma allows a person to lead or inspire without relying on set rules or traditions. Use Your Sociological Imagination: What would our government be like if it were founded on traditional rather than rational-legal authority? What difference would it make to the average citizen? Various Types of Government: A monarchy is a form of government headed by a single member of a royal family, usually a king, queen, or some other hereditary ruler. Typically, they governed on the basis of traditional forms of authority, sometimes accompanied by the use of force. An oligarchy is a form of government in which a few individuals rule. A dictatorship is a government in which one person has nearly total power to make and enforce laws. Totalitarianism involves virtually complete government control and surveillance over all aspects of a society’s social and political life. In a literal sense, democracy means government by the people. Popular rule is generally maintained through representative democracy, a form of government in which certain individuals are selected to speak for the people. Participation and Apathy: Political participation on the part of citizens makes government accountable to the voters. If participation declines, government operates with less of a sense of accountability to society. This issue is most serious for the least powerful individuals and groups in society. In Canada, voter turnout has been particularly low among members of younger age groups. Women in Politics: Women continue to be dramatically underrepresented in the halls of government. Sexism has been the most serious barrier to women interested in holding office. Female candidates continue to attempt to overcome the prejudices of both men and women regarding women’s fitness for leadership. There is also evidence that the media covers women in politics differently from men. A content analysis of newspaper coverage showed that reporters wrote more often about a female candidate’s personal life, appearance, or personality than a male candidate’s and less often about her political positions and voting record. Use Your Sociological Imagination: Imagine a world in which women, not men, held the majority of elective offices. What kind of world would it be? Elite and Pluralist Models of Power Relations: Who really holds power in Canada? Like others who hold an elite model of power relations, Karl Marx believed that society is ruled by a small group of individuals who share a common set of political and economic interests. Sociologist C. Wright Mills argued that power rested in the hands of a few, both inside and outside government, the power elite. Sociologist G. William Domhoff stresses the role played both by elites of the corporate community and by the leaders of policy-formation organizations such as chambers of commerce and labour unions. Critics of the elite model of power relations insist that power is more widely shared than Marx, Mills, and Domhoff indicate. In their view, a pluralist model is a more correct description. Under a pluralist model many conflicting groups within the community have access to government so that no single group is dominant. War and Peace: Conflict is a central aspect of social relations. Sociologists Theodore Caplow and Louis Hicks have define war as conflict between organizations that possess trained combat forces equipped with deadly weapons (2002:3). Sociologists approach war in three different ways: There are those who take a global view to study how and why two or more nations become engaged in military conflict; those who take a nation-state view to stress he interaction of internal political, socio-economic, and cultural forces; and those who take a micro level view to focus on the social impact of war on individuals and the groups they belong to. Sociologists have considered peace both as the absence of war and as a proactive effort to develop cooperative relations among nations. Acts of terror, whether perpetrated by nation-states, a few, or many people, can be a powerful political force. Formally defined, terrorism is the use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in pursuit of political aims. The Changing Economy: As advocates of the power elite model point out, the trend in capitalist societies has been toward concentration of ownership by giant corporations, especially trans-national ones. For example, in 1998, there were 3882 mergers in the United States alone, involving $1.4 trillion in business. The nature of national economies is changing in important ways, in part because each nation’s economy is increasingly intertwined with and dependent on the global economy. • Conflict View: Conflict theorists view the economy as the central institution of a society and as the institution that defines the character of the entire society, and, correspondingly, the quality of people’s lives. In 1887, Karl Marx laid the foundation for the conflict perspective in his critique of capitalism. According to Marx, in capitalist societies, the economy is based on a division of classes: those who own the means of production (i.e., the factories and the workplaces), call the bourgeoisie, and those who work for the owners of the means of production, the proletariat. • Functionalist View: Functional sociologists maintain that an economy based on inequality, such as the capitalist economy, ensures that the best people reach the top positions of the workplace. • Feminist Views: Although feminist perspectives are diverse, many point to the economy as a source of gender inequality. Marxist feminists believe that at the heart of gender inequality is the fact that it is men who own the means of production and women who are used as a reserve of surplus labour. Socialist feminist believe that because the capitalist economy and patriarchy are inextricably linked, both must be eliminated to bring about gender equality. Liberal feminism, which tends to be moderate in its recommendations for change, suggests how the economy could be tweaked, rather than overhauled, to provide women with greater access to jobs and economic power. • Interactionist Views: Interactionist sociologist examine the meaning that people give to work and the economy. Using this theoretical perspective allows us to see not only what work means to people but also why they work, why they choose to retire, how they view being unemployed, and how they view work relative to other aspects of their lives. Face of the Workplace: Projections suggest that by 2015, the Canadian workforce will be comprised equally of men and women. Sociologists and labour specialists foresee a workforce increasingly comprising women and members of ethnic minorities. In 1960, there were twice as many men in the paid labour force as women. Today, women constitute slightly less than half of all Canadians 15 years of age and older in the paid labour force. Visible minority immigrants experience greater in equality in income and employment than do hose immigrants whose identities are not racialized. The impact of this changing labour force is not merely statistical. A more diverse workforce means that relationships among workers are more likely to cross gender, racial, and ethnic lines. Deindustrialization and Downsizing: The term deindustrialization refers to the systematic, widespread withdrawal of investment in basic aspects of productivity such as factories and plants. Although deindustrialization may involve relocation, in some instances, it takes the form of corporate restructuring as companies seek to reduce costs in the face of growing worldwide competition. The term downsizing was introduced in 1987 to refer to reductions in a company’s work force. Viewed from a conflict perspective, the unprecedented attention given to downsizing in the mid-1990s reflected the continuing importance of social class in Canada. Conflict theorists note that job loss, affecting factory workers in particular, has long been a feature of deindustrialization. But when large numbers of middle-class managers and other white-collar employees with substantial incomes began to be laid off, suddenly there was great concern in the media over downsizing. Use Your Sociological Imagination: What will the Canadian workforce look like in 2020? Consider workers’ ages, genders, races, and ethnicities. How much education will workers need? Will they work full time or part time? What will be the most common occupations? Additional Lecture Ideas: 1. Marx and Marxism Analyzed Despite extensive criticism, Karl Marx’s theory of rebellion has not been analyzed directly in cross-national research. The failure of proletarian revolutions to occur in the world’s most developed countries has discredited some of Marx’s important predictions. With this in mind, sociologist Terry Boswell and political scientist William J. Dixon (1993) contend that recent cross-national studies of rebellion and political violence reveal a perplexing positive effect of economic development on rebellion (controlling for income inequality and political democracy in these nations). Boswell and Dixon argue that a proper understanding of Marx’s theory can explain this finding. According to these researchers, economic development leads to class conflict by creating, expanding, and organizing the proletariat. Under capitalism, production is centralized and concentrated on facilitating workers’ organization and joint action. The result, according to Marx, is a more polarized class structure with the proletariat growing in size and power. At the same time, class exploitation accelerates. Consequently, there are two contradictory trends: growing wealth in the capitalist class and growing exploitation of the working class. Why, then, have revolts not typically occurred in the capitalist societies? Boswell and Dixon suggest that the conventional explanation is “class compromise.” Overall growth in a country’s economy can allow the proletariat to achieve relative prosperity (nothing, of course, like the wealth of the bourgeoisie). Marx talks about secondary exploitation through mortgages, loans, and land rents, which can lead the self-employed (i.e., the peasantry) to form alliances among themselves and with artisans and small merchants (the petty bourgeoisie). Although not fully developed by Marx, this view of secondary exploitation does offer insight into peasant rebellions. With a Marxist interpretation of rebellion research in mind, Boswell and Dixon developed a novel measure of class exploitation in a cross-national regression analysis of violent rebellion in 61 countries. The dependent variable used as a measure of revolution was the number of deaths from violent rebellions against the state from 1973 to 1977. To measure class exploitation, Boswell and Dixon used the total value of goods in manufacturing in excess of a nation’s wages and salaries. In addition they drew upon income inequality as measured by the richest 20 percent of a country’s population. After statistical analysis, the researchers found (as Marx might have expected) that the effect of class exploitation on revolt is conditioned by market crises, or what we refer to as economic recessions. In such times, as Marx speculated, class conflict intensifies. Most of this tension is manifested in day-to-day struggles on the job. However, in a time of market crisis or national recession, these conflicts can become nationwide and can be directed at the state. “Class compromise” is typically lacking because capitalists tend to be opportunistic in order to secure their positions. In summary, Karl Marx’s theory helps to explain the frequent but perplexing finding that economic development can have a positive effect on violent rebellion. Development creates the industrial proletariat and the conditions for its organization (class consciousness). As Marx anticipated, revolt in industrial countries was offset by the relative affluence of the working classes. Yet, as the researchers’ cross-national comparison shows, market crises coupled with class exploitation can facilitate rebellion (as Marx himself might have expected). Source: Terry Boswell and William Jo Dixon, “Marx’s Theory of Rebellions: A Cross-National Analysis of Class Exploitation, Economic Development, and Violent Rape,” American Sociological Review, 58(October 1993): 681–702. 2. Who Rules? The text presents two models of power structure, pluralist and elite. What methodology is used in researching the distribution of power in a community? Three research designs have been developed for the study of community power: the reputational approach, the positional approach, and the issues approach. The reputational approach attempts to identify people who have a reputation for being influential in community decision making; this is typically done by asking knowledgeable people who they consider the most influential. The positional approach is more direct; it simply assumes that people who fill the formal positions of a community (mayor, councilors, etc.) exercise power. Finally, the issues approach attempts to analyze the actual process of decision making with respect to specific issues that are significant for a community. In some ways, the methodology selected often directs a researcher to either the “pluralist” or the “elitist” camp. For example trying to determine “who rules” by virtue of reputations or positions tends to lead to a small, finite number of people, if not an elite. On the other hand, the issues approach (especially if several diverse issues are analyzed) tends to lead to a more pluralist conclusion. 3. Market Exchange—The Wedding Reception An exchange occurs when all participants recognize and take account of all the exchange opportunities in calculating their pricing strategies. We may all be aware of this at an auction, but we are less likely to see it in a wedding reception, unless we use sociological imagination. In Canada, it is expected that the close relatives of the bride will provide a feast for members and friends of the bride’s and bridegroom’s families. This feast is generally held after the religious or state-sanctioned ceremony, which is considered the only absolutely indispensable part of the ritual legitimating marriage. Thus, the feast is not absolutely compulsory, and some who are very poor or nonconformist dispense with it. Most families, however, expend a large percentage of that year’s income on a feast. The exchange of goods involved is as follows. The bride’s family offers food and alcoholic drink in their home, at a hotel, or in another grand setting for which they pay rent to the owners. In return, each of the guests brings a gift to the bride and groom. The food is offered in a special, ceremonial manner, and the gifts are brought in special, ceremonial wrapping, often with verses of well-wishing attached to the wrappings. That this situation is definitely not a market transaction may be seen in the fact that the guests would never overtly evaluate the food and drink in terms of money; nor would the bride and groom comment on the money value of the gifts in the presence of the givers. The participants are not aware of an obligation to expend equal amounts. Each giver sees his or her own giving as an act of friendship, without specific hope of return. A guest without a gift would never be stopped at the door, though the omission might be negatively commented on in the privacy of the family circle. The feast is paid for by the bride’s family as a kind of dowry for having the woman, traditionally considered a financial liability, taken off their hands. The feast also performs a function in the prestige system of the natives (that is, Canadians). Each family will go to great lengths to put on the grandest display of wealth it possibly can. Much honour is reflected on the bride’s parents for their ability to provide such a lavish display. Feasts in each locality are described in local newspapers and give an indication of the family’s high position. The feat is therefore an exchange of goods for prestige. It should be noted, however, that there is no simple or automatic exchange of dollar value for prestige. Rather, the feast must be presented in a certain traditional style felt to be proper. Any other style would bring ridicule down on the heads of the givers, even though they had spent many dollars. In this sense, as well, it can be seen that this is not simply a market transaction. The feast also serves to strengthen the legitimacy of the union in the eyes of relatives, friends, and the community in general. Parents feel that they express love for their daughter by giving a grand feast, even though, interestingly enough, the young couple is seldom as excited or pleased by the arrangements as the parents are. See Inge Powell Bell. Involvement in Society Today. Del Mar, CA.: CRM Books, 1971, pp. 78, 80. 4. In Defense of Socialist Planning As communism collapsed in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, there was rejoicing not only within these countries but also in the democracies of the West. Some observers viewed this collapse as a clear validation of unfettered “free market” policies that would prohibit governmental intervention in and regulation of national economies. However, economist Robert Pollin and political columnist Alexander Cockburn insist that socialist planning remains an essential tool for broadening democracy and making the world’s economies better serve people’s needs. As part of their defense of socialist planning, Pollin and Cockburn identify and challenge what they see as three pervasive myths regarding socialist and free market economies. Myth 1: Socialist Central Planning Has Been a Disaster: Pollin and Cockburn acknowledge that central planning under socialist governments had significant failures because the lack of democracy in these nations led to the creation of stifling, all-powerful bureaucracies. Nevertheless, socialist planning was responsible for some substantial achievements. While Western democracies suffered through an intense depression in the period 1929 to 1937, Soviet industrial growth averaged more than 12 percent. When the communist party came to power in China in 1949, life expectancy was approximately 40 years; by 1988, it had reached 70 years. Over the period 1952 to 1978, industrial growth in China averaged 11.2 percent, thereby establishing the foundation for economic modernization in a previously agricultural nation. Finally, in terms of such health and social indicators as life expectancy, infant mortality, and rate of literacy, Cuba comes out far better than any other Latin American country. Myth 2: Government Intervention under Capitalism Has Also Been a Failure. In countering this myth, Pollin and Cockburn point to the example of Latin America. During the 1930s, most Latin American governments instituted interventionist policies intended primarily to encourage domestic manufacturing. These policies were fairly successful over a number of decades. Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil all began producing consumer goods, developed machine-building capacity in the 1960s, and began to export on the world market in the 1970s. Per capita income in the region was generally high during the 1950s and 1960s. Although these interventionist policies eventually led to failure, it was primarily because the Latin American economies were never able to break their dependence on foreign capital from the United States and Europe. Myth 3: The Paragons of Free Market Success Are the “Miracle” Economies of East Asia. Pollin and Cockburn observe that, contrary to this myth, in Japan and South Korea, the great “miracles” in the region are not and never have been free market economies. In both nations the state is dominant in planning and strategic financing; it provides business firms with export subsidies, protection, and cheap money. Moreover, the alleged “free market” was restricted, since both Japan and South Korea limited intervention by foreign corporations, especially during periods of rapid economic growth. Source: Robert Pollin and Alexander Cockburn, “The World, the Free Market and the Left,” The Nation, 252(February 25, 1991): 224–232, 234–236. 5. Work and Alienation: Marx’s View For millions of men and women, work is a central part of day-to-day life. Work may be satisfying or deadening, and the workplace may be relatively democratic or totally authoritarian. Although the conditions and demands of people’s work lives vary, there can be little doubt of the importance of work and workplace interactions in our society and others. All the pioneers of sociological thought were concerned that changes in the workplace resulting from the industrial revolution would have a negative impact on workers. Émile Durkheim argued that as labour becomes more and more differentiated, individual workers would experience anomie, or a loss of direction. Workers cannot feel the same fulfillment from performing one specialized task in a factory as they did when they were totally responsible for creating a product. As was noted in Chapter 6, Max Weber suggested that impersonality is a fundamental characteristic of bureaucratic organizations. One result is the cold and uncaring feeling often associated with contemporary bureaucracies. But Karl Marx offered the most penetrating analysis of the dehumanizing aspects of industrialization. Marx believed that as the process of industrialization advanced within capitalist societies, people’s lives became increasingly devoid of meaning. While Marx expressed concern about the damaging effects of many social institutions, he focused his attention on what he saw as a person’s most important activity: labour. For Marx, the emphasis of the industrial revolution on specialization of factory tasks contributed to a growing sense of alienation among industrial workers. The term alienation refers to the situation of being estranged or disassociated from the surrounding society. The division of labour increased alienation because workers were channeled into monotonous, meaningless repetition of the same tasks. However, in Marx’s view, an even deeper cause of alienation is the powerlessness of workers in a capitalist economic system. Workers have no control over their occupational duties, the products of their labour, or the distribution of profits. The very existence of private property within capitalism accelerates and intensifies the alienation of members of the working class, since they are constantly producing property that is owned by others (members of the capitalist class). The solution to the problem of workers’ alienation, according to Marx, is to give workers greater control over the workplace and the products of their labour. Of course, Marx did not focus on limited reforms of factory life within the general framework of capitalist economic systems. Rather, he envisioned a revolutionary overthrow of capitalist oppression and a transition to collective ownership of production (socialism) and eventually to the ideal of communism. See Émile Durkheim. Division of Labour in Society. Translated by Georg Simmel. New York: Free Press, 1933 (originally published in 1893). Also see Kai Erickson, “On Work and Alienation,” American Sociological Review, 51(February 1986): 1–8. Class Discussion Topics: 1. Controlling Information: Does the class feel that control of information through communication is a more powerful political tool than control of goods and services through production and distribution? 2. Culture and Politics: See Richard M. Merelman, Partial Visions: Culture and Politics in Britain, Canada, and the United States. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991. 3. Corporate Power: Examine one or more large corporations to determine the many spheres of life over which its power extends. 4. Stimulating Classroom Discussions about The End of Work: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Jeremy Rifkin's The End of Work include the following: Do you agree with Rifkin's views concerning the future of work? What evidence do you see in your society or in other societies that supports your point of view? What would a "workerless" society be like? How would you answer the question: "What if there really were no more jobs?" How would people be organized in a workerless society? Do you know professionals who have lost their jobs through downsizing? Do they have difficulty finding new jobs? Have they had to retrain or take jobs in new fields? Is technology producing enough new jobs to take the place of the jobs that technology is eliminating? 5. "Monopoly": Use this board game, first introduced by Parker Brothers in 1935, as an exercise in examining capitalism. Reviewing the "Chance" and "Community Chest" cards offers excellent insights into western capitalist values. 6. Alienation among Workers: This activity was developed by Bob Leighninger at Western Michigan University to create a pool of concrete work experiences that exemplify Marx's conception of alienation and the social organization that produces it. See Technique No. 81 in Reed Geertsen (ed.). Eighty-One Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: ASA Projects on Teaching Undergraduate Sociology, 1982. 7. Adam Smith and Modern Capitalism: There are any number of inconsistencies between the ideas of capitalism’s poster boy, and the contemporary system. For example, Smith made it clear that he believed the marketplace was not to be fully trusted, and therefore needed to be judiciously overseen by government. See Adam Smith, An Inquiry of the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 8. Using Humor: David S. Adams has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated in lectures associated with this chapter. See Adams. Using Humor in Teaching Sociology: A Handbook. Washington, DC: ASA Teaching Resources Center, 1982. See also Joseph E. Faulkner. Sociology through Humor. New York: West, 1987. Topics for student research: 1. The Canadian political scene has a history of being good theatre. What examples can you find that support this characterization? See James Bickerton and Alain Gagnon, Canadian Politics, Third Edition. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 1999. 2. The Misery Index: A calculation of the increasing claim put on the earnings of Canadians by governments at all levels. See Jack Anderson and Kerry Gray, “The Misery Index.” Canadian Business, 6/10/2002, Vol. 75, Issue 11, pg. 29. 3. Japanese Power Elite: See Albrecht Rothacher. The Japanese Power Elite. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993. 4. Women in Traditionally Male Occupations: Research shows that men interrupt women more often than the reverse across a wide variety of occupations. Does this continue when women are in a position of authority over men? See Candace West, "When the Doctor Is a Lady: Power, Status and Gender in Physician-Patient Encounters," Symbolic Interaction, 7(1)(1984): 87–106. 5. Top Women Business Owners: Women play a major role (as founders or executives) in many private businesses. Consult the annual salute in Working Women. According to the May 1993 results, a woman is a major owner in Little Caesars, Jockey International, J. Crew, Tootsie Rolls, Turtle Wax, and Discovery Toys. 6. Marginalized Groups remain on the Sidelines: Women and minorities have made economic gains, but not enough according to some analysts. See “Gains for Aboriginals, the Disabled, Minorities, and Women Not Enough: Report.” Canadian Press, 03/29/2001 7. The Economic Transfer from U.S.S.R. to Russia: Michael Burawoy and Pavel Krotov, "The Soviet Transition from Socialism to Capitalism," American Sociological Review, 57(February 1992): 16–38. 8. Workplace Democracy and Employee Involvement: See Vicki Smith, "Employee Involvement, Involved Employees: Participative Work Arrangements in a White-Collar Service Occupation," Social Problems, 43(May 1996): 166–179. 9. An Introduction to Canadian Politics: See Chambers, Tom. 1995. Canadian Politics: an Introduction. Toronto, Thomson Educational. 10. Government Spending and the Underground Economy: See “Government Spending and the Underground Economy: A Bad Report Card.” Maclean's, 05/03/99, Vol. 112 Issue 18, p32. 11. China's Changing Economy: See Victor Nee, "The Emergence of a Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology, 101(January 1996): 908–949. 12. The Future of Canadian Politics: See Michael Whittington & Glen Williams, eds. Canadian Politics in the 21st Century. Scarborough, ON: Nelson Thomson Learning, 2000. Additional audiovisual materials: The global power shift (2011, TEDTalk,18:29m). Paddy Ashdown talks about the global power shifts that are happening and argues that many of these forces are acting without constraint. He advocates bringing governance to the global space. How economic inequality harms societies (TEDTalk, 2011, 16;52m). Richard Wilkinson, comparing data from various countries, makes the case that income differences are linked to the health and happiness of its citizens. Jobs: Not What they Used to Be—The New Face of Work in America (57m, colour, McGraw-Hill). This program examines some fundamental and perhaps transforming changes occurring with jobs and work in America. As American business is going through reorganization and downsizing, many questions emerge. Where will the jobs be? Who will be working? What will the workplace be like? What skills will be needed? Program host and award-winning journalist Hodding Carter, along with economic experts Richard Florida and Jeremy Rifkin, provides the commentary as the program takes a look at companies such as Johnson Controls, Konica, BMW, Home Depot, and IDEO—all of which stress teamwork, high technology, and inventive ways of organizing their businesses. . To Humanize the Assembly Line: Freeing Us from Dull, Boring Work (colour, 20m). One successful attempt to take human values into account within a modern factory system is a project at the Volvo plant in Sweden. This film speaks with Ove Linblad, plant manager, who is charged with making work meaningful and satisfying to the factory workers without adding to costs. Who controls the world? (2013, TEDTalk, 13:57m). James B. Glattfelder studies the complexity of the global economy and how the concentration of power rests in a few hands, leaving the vast majority vulnerable. Why democracy matters (2012,TEDTalk, 13m). Rory Stewart, a British politician, talks about the growing cynicism about government and politics and the need to rebuild democracies. Additional readings: Bannerji, Himani. Demography and Democracy: Essays on Nationalism, Gender and Ideology. Toronto: CSPI, 2011. Bliss, Michael. Right Honourable Men: The Descent of Canadian Politics from Macdonald to Mulroney. Toronto: HarperCollins, 1994. Bottomore, Thomas B., and Maximilien Rubel (eds.). Karl Marx: Selected Writings in Sociology and Social Philosophy. New York: McGraw Hill, 1964. Excerpts from the writings of Karl Marx. This primer includes essays on alienation, social class, and the relationship between politics and economics. Charlton, Mark and Paul Barker. Contemporary Political Issues.Toronto: Nelson, 2013. Doherty, Joe, Elspeth Graham, and Mo Malek. Postmodernism and the Social Sciences. New York: St. Martin's Press. A series of advanced articles on the impact of postmodernism on the various social sciences. Domhoff, G. William. Who Rules America Now? Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1983. An important contribution to the study of political leadership that builds on the work of W. Wright Mills. Dyck, Rand. Canadian Politics, 5th ed. Toronto: Nelson Publishing, 2012. A comprehensive overview of Canadian politics that includes coverage of political culture, socialization, and participation, as well as the mass media and public opinion polls. Harrison, Bennett. Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility. New York: Basic Books. An analysis of corporate downsizing and its social consequences. Jackson, Andrew. Work and Labour in Canada (2nd ed.). Toronto: CSPI, 2010. This book focuses on the critical issues surrounding work and labour in Canada, utilizing a strong empirical component. Kloby, Jerry. Inequality, Power and Development: Issues in Political Sociology. Amherst, NY: Promethus Books, 2003. An examination of the relationship between transnational corporate exploitation, Western political institutions, free trade, and international financial institutions. Landes, Ronald G. The Canadian Polity, Sixth Edition. Toronto: Prentice Hall Canada, 2002. Ritzer, George. The McDonaldization of Society (5th. ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2007. A well-written critique of U.S. society, including all social institutions. Shalla, Vivian (ed.). Working in a Global Era: Canadian Perspectives(2nd ed.). Toronto: CSPI/WP, 2011. A collection of readings on the role of Canadian labour in the global working world, written from a critical perspective. IMF Staff Country Report 2012 Canada: Selected Issues. IMF Country Report No. 13/41. Washington. International Monetary Fund. Thinking About Movies:________________________________________ The Last King of Scotland ( Kevin McDonald, 2006) Scottish expatriate Nicholas Garrigan ( James McAvoy) serves as an aid worker in Uganda. By chance he becomes the personal physician of the dictator Idi Amin (Forest Whitaker), known for his legendary brutality. At first, Garrigan is impressed by Amin’s charisma and his populist rhetoric about his planned social programs. As he becomes more familiar with Amin, however, he begins to grasp the lengths to which Amin will go to preserve his power. This movie shows charismatic authority in action. Amin’s power is made legitimate by his ability to appeal to his followers’ emotions. Moreover, the movie shows the tactics a dictator employs to maintain control. For Your Consideration 1. How would you define Idi Amin’s authority, and how is it related to his style of governing? 2. What does the movie say about the abuse of power by politicians? Instructor Manual for Sociology: A Brief Introduction, Richard T. Schaefer, Jana Grekul 9781260065800