CH-12 Socioemotional Development in Middle Childhood – The World of Children : Exam Guide

Chapter 12 Socioemotional Development in Middle Childhood 12.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. While watching a baseball game at recess one day, 10-year-old Kevin wonders to himself "Am I as good of a player as those kids are?" This most likely illustrates the concept of A) social comparison. B) parentification. C) prosocial reasoning. D) psychological evaluation. Answer: A) social comparison. Kevin’s question is an example of social comparison, the process in which children compare their own qualities and performances to those of their peers. 2. In first grade, Brady thought he was best at everything. Now that he's in 5th grade, Brady knows that Juanita is better than he is in math and Yao is better than he is in art. This process of evaluating one's self in relation to one's peers is known as A) the looking-glass self. B) social comparison. C) identity diffusion. D) real-self comparison. Answer: B) social comparison. Brady’s sense of self is influenced by social comparison, the process in which children compare their own qualities and performances to those of their peers. 3. ________ are the judgments that people make about themselves, and ________ is positive or negative emotions related to these judgments. A) Self-esteem; self-evaluation B) Self-evaluation; self-esteem C) Social comparison; self-evaluation D) Self-esteem; social comparison Answer: B) Self-evaluation; self-esteem 4. Cassandra does well in school and feels proud when she gets good grades. However, in sports she is not as successful, and she feels a little embarrassed about competing with her classmates. These feelings are part of her A) prosocial reasoning. B) classroom climate. C) self-esteem. D) selection model. Answer: C) self-esteem. The specific emotions that Cassandra experiences in relation to her perceived strengths and weaknesses are part of her self-esteem. 5. Six-year-old Felice will tell you that she is a girl, that she goes to school, and that her best friend is Molly. These aspects of self are a part of Felice's A) self-evaluation. B) self-representation. C) looking-glass self. D) intermodal perception. Answer: B) self-representation. Felice’s self-representation or self-concept is reflected in the way in which she describes herself. 6. Carol is involved in the theatre program at school; she loves to act, sing, and dance in different plays during the school year. One day at dinner, Carol announces "I am an actress." This is most likely an example of A) self-evaluation. B) self-esteem. C) self-representation. D) self-belief. Answer: C) self-representation. Carol’s self-representation or self-concept is reflected in the way in which she describes herself. 7. Self-representations are the characteristics and facts about ourselves that make up the A) real-self. B) we-self. C) me-self. D) ideal-self. Answer: C) me-self. Self-representations and me-self both reflect what a child knows about and how they describe themselves. 8. Jessica feels that she is an outstanding speller, decent in math, and a pretty good volleyball player. These judgments represent her A) intermodal perceptions. B) profile of self-evaluations. C) global self-esteem. D) ideal self-concepts. Answer: B) profile of self-evaluations. Jessica’s self-evaluations are judgments that she makes about herself. 9. Children form a global self-evaluation by the age of A) 3 years. B) 6 years. C) 8 years. D) 9 years. Answer: C) 8 years. 10. Compared to early childhood, self-evaluations during middle childhood become A) more realistic. B) unrealistically optimistic. C) more negative. D) more positive. Answer: A) more realistic. 11. Among all of the areas that have been found to be important to children's self-esteem, ________ has been found to be the most important. A) academics B) social skills C) athletics D) physical appearance Answer: D) physical appearance 12. In terms of self-evaluation, the correlation between perceived physical appearance and self-esteem A) ranges from .52 to .80. B) is apparent from early childhood through adulthood. C) is found across different populations, ethnic groups, and countries. D) all of the above. Answer: D) all of the above. 13. Cameron has wanted to be a member of the swim team for years (his ideal self). However, he knows that he is not a very good swimmer (his real self). What will be one of the most important determiners of his self-esteem regarding swimming? A) whether he gets on the swim team B) the support of his parents and peers C) his level of practice D) whether he is also good at running Answer: B) the support of his parents and peers The degree of social support from parents and peers will help Cameron resolve the differences between his real self and ideal self. 14. All of the following are important to fostering children's positive self-evaluations EXCEPT A) always give positive feedback—even if you have to lie. B) emphasize the child's strengths. C) provide instruction and guidance to help the child improve. D) help the child to recognize the process—not only the outcome. Answer: A) always give positive feedback—even if you have to lie. 15. Table 12.1 highlights suggestions for fostering positive self-evaluations. Which of the following is an example of teaching goal-setting skills? A) Provide opportunities for your child to play and interact with others. B) Make teaching interactions as pleasant as possible. C) Help your child develop and use a system for tracking progress toward their goals. D) Talk about specific things your child can do to improve. Answer: C) Help your child develop and use a system for tracking progress toward their goals. 16. A recent study found that empathetic adults had childhoods with all of the following EXCEPT A) absent fathers who were not involved in their care. B) mothers who were tolerant of dependent behavior. C) mothers who restricted their children's aggression. D) mothers who were satisfied with their roles. Answer: A) absent fathers who were not involved in their care. Fathers who are present and involved in the care of their children promote the development of empathy. 17. Children who are able to accurately read emotions tend to have all of the following EXCEPT A) the ability to know when others are frustrated. B) the ability to know how to make others happy. C) the ability to know when to console friends. D ) a very small group of friends. Answer: D) a very small group of friends. 18. Children of mothers who _________________ are often prone to feelings of guilt and helplessness. A) are bilingual B) are chronically depressed C) have high self-esteem D) are popular Answer: B) are chronically depressed 19. Several studies suggest that children have difficulty reading the emotions expressed by A) people from other ethnic backgrounds other than their own. B) their parents. C) their younger siblings. D) their schoolmates. Answer: A) people from other ethnic backgrounds other than their own. 20. Compared to girls, boys are more likely to do all of the following EXCEPT A) engage in outdoor play. B) engage in rough play. C) engage in activities that cover a large area of physical space. D) engage in organized play activities. Answer: D) engage in organized play activities. 21. Beginning at an early age, boys show more ____________, such as hitting or kicking, than girls. A) relational aggression B) prosocial behavior C) physical aggression D) self-evaluations Answer: C) physical aggression 22. Attempting to hurt others by destroying social relationships is called A) social reaction. B) relational aggression. C) social comparison. D) reactive aggression. Answer: B) relational aggression. 23. All of the following are examples of relational aggression EXCEPT A) gossip. B) threats to withdraw friendship. C) social inclusion. D) spreading rumours. Answer: C) social inclusion. 24. Which of the following is the best example of relational aggression? A) "If you don't let me, be it, I won't be your friend anymore." B) "This is a stupid game. Let's go play football." C) "You always get your way. Why can't I go first?" D) "Charles is angry. Go tell the teacher." Answer: A) "If you don't let me be it, I won't be your friend anymore. " Relational aggression is the act of withdrawing friendship or otherwise disrupting or threatening social relationships as a way to hurt other people. 25. Heather picks up her lunch tray and walks over to the table in the lunchroom that she has sat at all year. She notices that one of her friends, Tiffany, is sitting in her seat. As she puts her tray down at another table, she hears Tiffany say "We've decided not to be your friend anymore." This is an example of A) relational aggression. B) social comparison. C) social reaction. D) reactive aggression. Answer: A) relational aggression. Tiffany’s comment is an example of relational aggression, as it is an act of withdrawing friendship. 26. Which of the following statements is true about relational aggression? A) Boys and girls are equally likely to show relational aggression. B) Girls are more likely than boys to show relational aggression. C) Relational aggression includes behaviours such as hitting and kicking. D) Children with siblings are more likely to show relational aggression than single children. Answer: B) Girls are more likely than boys to show relational aggression. 27. By the time they are age 5, children already expect ______________ to be more physically aggressive and ______________ to engage in more relational aggression. A) unfamiliar children; their friends B) girls; boys C) younger children; older children D) boys; girls Answer: D) boys; girls 28. Girls often receive ratings and evaluate themselves as more helpful, cooperative, and sympathetic than boys. When their actual behavior is considered, they are A) also more helpful. B) less helpful. C) not consistently different from boys in their level of helping behaviours. D) less helpful if their friends are observing. Answer: C) not consistently different from boys in their level of helping behaviours. 29. When attempting to influence others, boys are more likely to use ________ and girls are more likely to use ________. A) verbal persuasion; threats B) physical force; verbal persuasion C) physical force; threats D) no influence tactics; verbal persuasion Answer: B) physical force; verbal persuasion 30. Lisa is hanging out at the local mall with one of her friends, Brittany. As they walk through a jewellery store, Lisa sees a pair of earrings she wants but realizes that they are more than her mom said she could spend. Brittany says "Just take them, no one is looking." Lisa responds "No way, my mother would be so disappointed in me if she found out." According to Kohlberg, Lisa is in which stage of moral development? A) Stage 1 B) Stage 2 C) Stage 3 D) Stage 4 Answer: C) Stage 3 During Kohlberg’s Stage 3, children’s moral reasoning is shaped by the desire to live up to others’ expectations. 31. In what stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning do individuals follow rules because they want to gain approval from others? A) Stage 1 B) Stage 2 C) Stage 3 D) Stage 4 Answer: C) Stage 3 During Kohlberg’s Stage 3, children’s moral reasoning is shaped by the desire to live up to others’ expectations. 32. What is the first level in Eisenberg's theory of prosocial reasoning? A) empathic orientation B) hedonistic orientation C) approval and/or stereotyped orientation D) strongly internalized values orientation Answer: B) hedonistic orientation During the level of hedonistic orientation, children are concerned with their own needs and the consequences for themselves. 33. The thought processes involved in deciding whether or not to help someone is called A) social cognition. B) social comparison. C) relational aggression. D) prosocial reasoning. Answer: D) prosocial reasoning. 34. According to Eisenberg's theory of prosocial reasoning, at what age are individuals concerned with the needs of others—even if it is different from their own needs? A) preschool years B) older elementary; some middle school students C) high school to college aged individuals D) some preschool children; many elementary school children Answer: D) some preschool children; many elementary school children The needs-of-others orientation begins to develop between the ages of 5 and 7. 35. As they are running out to the playground, 9-year-old Tasha notices that another child has fallen down and is lying in the hallway. According to Eisenberg's theory of prosocial reasoning, what level is Tasha at if she thinks to herself "I understand that it really hurts to fall, so I should help her stand up"? A) hedonistic orientation B) needs-of-other orientation C) approval and/or stereotyped orientation D) empathic orientation Answer: D) empathic orientation During the level of empathic orientation, child show sympathy for the other person’s situation, and they express positive feelings for helping others. 36. All of the following are levels of Eisenberg's theory of prosocial reasoning EXCEPT A) hedonistic orientation. B) empathic orientation. C) guilt orientation. D) needs-of-others orientation. Answer: C) guilt orientation. Guilt orientation is not one of Eisenberg’s levels. 37. Eisenberg's theory of prosocial reasoning has several similarities to whose theory? A) Piaget B) Kohlberg C) Vygotsky D) Skinner Answer: B) Kohlberg As in Kohlberg’s theory, Eisenberg’s theory views overall cognitive development and perspective-taking ability as important in the development of prosocial reasoning. 38. According to Eisenberg's theory, what factors are important to the development of prosocial reasoning? A) peer relationships and the media B) parenting and empathy C) the media and parenting D) empathy and peer relationships Answer: B) parenting and empathy According to Eisenberg, both environmental and emotional factors, such as parenting and feelings of empathy, affect the development and use of prosocial reasoning. 39. The development of prosocial reasoning is influenced by A) the culture in which a child is raised. B) the way in which a request for help is framed. C) the quality of the parental relationship. D) all of the above. Answer: D) all of the above. 40. Which factor reduces the likelihood of helping another person, both in terms of noticing when help is needed and how long it takes to help? A) cultural beliefs that emphasize communal values and equality B) exposure to violence in movies and video games C) families that value, model, expect, encourage, and discuss good behavior D) parenting that is warm in emotional tone Answer: B) exposure to violence in movies and video games 41. One longitudinal study depicted in this chapter that assessed aggressive behavior over a 22-year time period found that A) children who were aggressive at age 8 were more likely to be convicted of criminal offenses later in life. B) children who were aggressive at age 5 were more likely to be involved in domestic violence later in life. C) children who were aggressive at age 10 were more likely to be watch violent television shows and movies later in life. D) children who were aggressive at age 3 are likely to have a genetic component to their aggression. Answer: A) children who were aggressive at age 8 were more likely to be convicted of criminal offenses later in life. 42. A coercive home environment has been linked to an increase in children's A) prosocial behavior. B) aggression. C) emotional development. D) self-esteem. Answer: B) aggression. 43. All of the following parenting techniques have been associated with childhood aggression EXCEPT A) rarely reinforcing prosocial behaviours. B) placing appropriate limits on children's behaviours. C) lack of supervision of children's activities and social relationships. D) conflict resolution strategies such as threats and physical punishment. Answer: B) placing appropriate limits on children's behaviours. 44. Exposure to which type of violence can increase the likelihood of aggressive behavior in children of all ages? A) community B) domestic C) peer D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above 45. While some subcultures within the United States are more aggressive than others, _________ is an important factor that may help to explain these differences. A) poverty B) language C) age D) gender Answer: A) poverty 46. The general category of rule-breaking behaviours in which children yell, throw temper tantrums, and are destructive and sometimes highly aggressive is called A) substance-related disorders. B) obsessive-compulsive behaviours. C) aggression difficulties. D) conduct problems. Answer: D) conduct problems. 47. Ongoing verbal or physical aggression that is aimed at particular victims is called ______. A) bullying. B) oppositional defiant disorder. C) conduct disorder. D) attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Answer: A) bullying. 48. Ten-year-old Xavier sends mass emails to his friends spreading rumours about a classmate he does not like. Xavier is engaging in_______. A) obsessive-compulsive disorder. B) cyber-bullying. C) hazing. D) aggression. Answer: B) cyber-bullying. Xavier’s behavior fits the definition cyber-bullying, where bullying can take place over the Internet. 49. What behavior pattern is a common outcome of bullying? A) Bullies never carry weapons B) Bullies are liked by peers because they protect them. C) Bullies are at a higher risk of dropping out of school. D) Bullies do not engage in physical fights; they only engage in verbal aggression Answer: C) Bullies are at a higher risk of dropping out of school. 50. National surveys estimate that as many as ____ of U.S. students have either bullied, been a victim, or both. A) a quarter B) one-third C) half D) two-thirds Answer: B) one-third 51. Allison is anxious, lonely, and depressed. Allison is most likely _______. A) involved in bullying others. B) a resilient child. C) a victim of bullying. D) a hardy child. Answer: C) a victim of bullying. Allison’s behavior fits the description of a victim of bullying, who are often more anxious, lonely, and appear more vulnerable. 52. Children who grow up under negative conditions but still have positive developmental outcomes are called ________ children. A) resilient B) easy temperament C) optimistic D) outgoing Answer: A) resilient 53. Werner's longitudinal study examining resilient children in Hawaii found that the children were likely to have all of the following EXCEPT A) pleasant personalities. B) a positive relationship with a family member or another adult in the community. C) average or above average intelligence. D) an average peer status. Answer: D) an average peer status. 54. In Werner’s study, approximately ______ of the children had positive developmental outcomes despite being born into poverty, having mothers with little education, and growing up in families with considerable distress. A) 2% B) 10% C) 30% D) 80% Answer: B) 10% 55. Each year in the United States, about ________ marriages end in divorce. A) 10% B) 25% C) 45% D) 55% Answer: C) 45% 56. In 2011, ______________ of African American children lived with one parent. A) 10% B) 25% C) 55% D) 75% Answer: C) 55% 57. Hannah seems to be coping well with her parents’ divorce. However, she sometimes feels uncomfortable when her mom talks to her about the divorce. Her mom asks her opinions, and often Hannah is the one consoling her mom. This is most likely an example of A) emotional parentification. B) instrumental parentification. C) a sleeper effect. D) a conduct problem. Answer: A) emotional parentification. During emotional parentification, a child provides emotional support or acts as an advisor or confidant for a parent. 58. Emily's mother is clinically depressed and unable to meet the demands of being a parent, so Emily has been placed in the role of caretaker for both her mother and her three younger siblings. This role reversal is referred to as A) emotional parentification. B) behavioral parentification. C) instrumental parentification. D) expressive parentification. Answer: C) instrumental parentification. Because Emily has taken on the family responsibilities of her mother, her behavior illustrates instrumental parentification. 59. _____________ levels of parentification can have positive effects for both boys and girls. A) Low B) Moderate C) High D) none of the above Answer: B) Moderate 60. Some research indicates that there are sleeper effects related to parental divorce. Studies examining college students whose parents divorced during their childhood years found that these students A) have lower scores on academic performance measures. B) still harbor painful feelings about their parents' divorce. C) have feelings that their parents' divorce was the wrong thing for their family. D) have problems with social skills and forming friendships during college. Answer: B) still harbor painful feelings about their parents' divorce. 61. Which of the following is the BEST example of a sleeper effect of divorce? A) Sixteen-year-old Matt is failing 10th grade following his parents’ divorce six months ago. B) Thirty-year-old Megan, whose parents divorced when she was ten, has been married four different times. C) Fifteen-year-old Teresa got pregnant three months after her mother and father divorced. D) Seventeen-year-old Patrick is depressed and rebellious as a result of his father's emotional dependency. Answer: B) Thirty-year-old Megan, whose parents divorced when she was ten, has been married four different times. The signs of sleeper effect do not typically emerge until several years after a divorce, when children reach adolescence or adulthood. 62. Which of the following statements regarding the psychological outcomes of divorce is false? A) Children of divorced parents are more likely to exhibit juvenile delinquency than other children. B) Children of divorced parents are more likely to be diagnosed with clinical depression than other children. C) Children of divorced parents are less likely to marry than children of continuously married parents. D) Children of divorced parents often have painful feelings about the divorce when they are college-aged. Answer: B) Children of divorced parents are more likely to be diagnosed with clinical depression than other children. While children of divorced parents may experience more feelings of depression, distress, and grief, they are not necessarily at higher risk for clinical depression. 63. All of the following are factors related to positive or negative outcomes of a parental divorce EXCEPT A) financial strain. B) parenting quality. C) community connections. D) friendships. Answer: D) friendships. 64. Both the divorce-stress-adjustment perspective and the selection model attempt to A) explain why parents get divorced. B) describe how children contribute to divorce. C) predict which families are most likely to experience divorce. D) understand the effects of divorce. Answer: D) understand the effects of divorce. The divorce-stress-adjustment perspective and the selection model are used to understand the outcomes of divorce. 65. The divorce-stress-adjustment perspective asserts that A) the process of divorce is responsible for the stressful events parents and children experience. B) it is certain characteristics of the parents that cause divorce and relate to children's problems. C) children and parents are never able to fully adjust to a divorce. D) the stress of the parent-child relationship sometimes leads to divorce. Answer: A) the process of divorce is responsible for the stressful events parents and children experience. The divorce-stress-adjustment perceptive emphasizes that a complex interaction of stressors, specific vulnerabilities, and protective factors determine an individual child’s adjustment to divorce. 66. The selection model of divorce asserts that A) the process of divorce is responsible for the stressful events parents and children experience. B) it is certain characteristics of the parents that cause divorce and relate to children's problems. C) children and parents are never able to fully adjust to a divorce. D) the stress of the parent-child relationship sometimes leads to divorce. Answer: B) it is certain characteristics of the parents that cause divorce and relate to children's problems. The selection model of divorce emphasizes that certain characteristics of parents (e.g., abusiveness) rather than the divorce itself cause children’s negative outcomes. 67. If children show negative effects after their parents' divorce, the effects may result more from having lived with a parent or parents who had problems rather than from the divorce itself. This statement is consistent with which model of divorce? A) divorce-stress-adjustment model B) sleeper effect model C) selection model D) parentification model Answer: C) selection model. The selection model of divorce emphasizes that certain characteristics of parents (e.g., abusiveness) rather than the divorce itself cause children’s negative outcomes. 68. Francesca is in junior high, and her parents have decided to divorce due to a high-conflict marriage. Despite the difficulty of adjusting, Francesca may be better off because children in high-conflict intact families ____________ than children in divorced families. A) have higher academic performance B) score significantly lower on tests of psychological adjustment and self-esteem C) have lower rates of depression and anxiety D) are more likely to develop problems with alcohol as adults Answer: B) score significantly lower on tests of psychological adjustment and self-esteem The ending of a high-conflict marriage can produce beneficial effects, provided that the divorce reduces the degree of conflict. 69. All of the following are mediators in the divorce-stress-adjustment perspective EXCEPT A) decline in parental support. B) decrease in contact with one parent. C) relocation. D) effective coping skills. Answer: D) effective coping skills. Effective coping skills are a protective factor. 70. All of the following are protective factors in the divorce-stress-adjustment perspective EXCEPT A) child and adult temperaments. B) social support. C) safe, stable neighbourhoods. D) effective coping skills. Answer: A) child and adult temperaments. Child and adult temperaments are specific vulnerabilities. 71. Which of the following is a risk factor or specific vulnerability for children during divorce? A) temperament B) disabilities C) predisposition to psychological problems D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above Specific vulnerabilities include each of the factors listed above. 72. The divorce-stress-adjustment perspective asserts that a child's adjustment to divorce is influenced by A) only the level of resiliency of the child. B) different vulnerabilities and protective factors. C) only parental characteristics such as abusiveness. D) the children's biological stress response to conflict. Answer: B) different vulnerabilities and protective factors. The outcome of the divorce process is viewed as complex interaction of stressors, specific vulnerabilities, and protective factors determine an individual child’s adjustment to divorce. 73. Which of the following suggestions is designed to help children cope with divorce? A) minimize conflict during and after divorce B) allow children to become family caretakers C) seek help and support once problems are severe D) encourage each parent to have separate rules for behavior and expectations Answer: A) minimize conflict during and after divorce Minimizing conflict includes placing the child’s needs above the parents’, avoiding belittling the ex-spouse, and not placing children in the middle of parental disputes. 74. Christine’s parents are divorced but live near each other. This allows her to split her time between the two homes, while staying at one school. According to Table 12.5 (Helping Children Cope with Divorce), a benefit of this arrangement is it A) minimizes financial decline as much as possible. B) helps her maintain consistent contact with both parents. C) helps her develop positive interpersonal skills. D) develops and maintains an effective parenting style for her parents. Answer: B) helps her maintain consistent contact with both parents. By maintaining consistent contact with both parents, Christine will be able to benefit from the relationship with both her mother and father as she develops. 75. In the year 2010, what percent of children were born to mothers who were never married? A) 2% B) 18% C) 41% D) 61% Answer: C) 41% 76. Like divorced single parents, never-married single parents tend to A) have fewer parenting resources and thus show less effective parenting. B) tend to move more frequently, which reduces their access to community connections. C) tend to have relatively low incomes. D) all of the above. Answer: D) all of the above. 77. Which of the following statements regarding child outcomes associated with stepfamilies is true? A) Living with a stepfather decreases a boy's chances of finishing high school. B) Most stepchildren have extremely negative attitudes toward their stepfathers. C) Competition may exist between children and a stepfather over the mother's time. D) Stepfathers provide as much discipline and supervision as married biological fathers. Answer: C) Competition may exist between children and a stepfather over the mother's time. 78. When fathers remarry, there is an increased financial risk to the children from their previous marriage. This is because remarried fathers A) may feel more pressure to provide for the children in their new family. B) typically have poor relationships with their stepchildren. C) tend to adopt the family rules and expectations of their new spouse. D) do not compete with their stepchildren for their spouse’s time and attention. Answer: A) may feel more pressure to provide for the children in their new family. 79. Which of following is true of stepfathers, in comparison to continuously married biological fathers? A) They tend to be more involved. B) They provide less discipline of children. C) They provide more supervision of children. D) They are more emotionally supportive. Answer: B) They provide less discipline of children. 80. Compared to early childhood, play during middle childhood is A) more logical and less fantasy oriented. B) more likely to be played in large groups. C) relies on more unstructured activities. D) more likely to involve both boys and girls. Answer: A) more logical and less fantasy oriented. As middle childhood reflects the development of concrete operational thought, children become logical and realistic. 81. Children’s play becomes more rule-bound in middle childhood. For example, negotiating trades and developing strategies for improving collections (e.g., baseball cards) are important exercises in A) self-esteem. B) self-fulfilling prophecies. C) logical thought. D) ability grouping. Answer: C) logical thought. As an example of their developing logical thought, during middle childhood children become interested in forming and maintaining collections (e.g., baseball cards). 82. Developing physical skill in middle childhood may have an effect on social relations. For example, jumping a ramp on a skateboard or hanging by a knee from a tree may help children A) impress peers. B) establish their position in peer groups. C) develop a sense of accomplishment. D) all of the above. Answer: D) all of the above. As children develop physical skill during middle childhood, there are many benefits, including impressing peers, establishing their position in a social group, and developing a sense of accomplishment. 83. Who is MOST likely to mention intimacy as an important characteristic in a best friend? A) a second-grade boy B) a second-grade girl C) a sixth-grade boy D) a sixth-grade girl Answer: D) a sixth-grade girl 84. The number of best friends that children have tends to increase until about age _______, and then children become much more selective in whom they designate as their best friends. A) 4 B) 7 C) 11 D) 16 Answer: C) 11 85. When naming characteristics important in a best friend, children are likely to mention all of the following EXCEPT A) admirable character. B) common activities. C) shared personal characteristics. D) loyalty and commitment. Answer: C) shared personal characteristics. 86. Bigelow's (1977) study examining friendships found that first-graders most frequently report ________ as the most important characteristic in a best friend. A) physical appearance B) common activities C) shared personal characteristics D) social status Answer: B) common activities 87. An interesting result of Bigelow's (1977) study examining friendships is that children rarely mentioned _______________ as an important characteristic in best friends. A) physical attractiveness B) acceptance C) loyalty D) having an admirable character Answer: A) physical attractiveness 88. Ms. Carter is examining peer popularity in a second-grade classroom. She has explained to the class that she wants them to write down the names of the five students they like the best and the five students they like the least in their class. Ms. Carter is most likely using the A) friendship inventory. B) social selection method. C) peer status procedure. D) peer nomination technique. Answer: D) peer nomination technique. The peer nomination technique is a polling technique used to identify categories of popular and unpopular children. 89. Using the peer nomination technique, children can be categorized into all of the following social statuses EXCEPT A) rejected. B) popular. C) normal. D) controversial. Answer: C) normal. 90. All of the following adjectives have been used to describe "popular" children EXCEPT A) assertive. B) friendly. C) cooperative. D) aggressive. Answer: D) aggressive. 91. Marika interacts well with other children and is both a good speaker and careful listener. She is assertive in many situations but does not interfere with other children or adults. In the peer nomination technique, Marika would most likely be categorized as A) popular. B) controversial. C) rejected. D) neglected. Answer: A) popular. Popular children are friendly, cooperative, sociable, and sensitive to the needs of others. 92. An important quality of children who are rated as ___________ by their peers is that they are sensitive to social cues from others. A) rejected B) popular C) neglected D) controversial Answer: B) popular. Popular children are sensitive to social cues from other children, and they back away if others seem offended by their presence. Rather than being overbearing, popular children find a way to join activities without drawing a lot of attention to themselves. 93. The two subtypes of children in the rejected category are A) rejected-aggressive and rejected-withdrawn. B) rejected-average and rejected-controversial. C) rejected-average and rejected-aggressive. D) rejected-withdrawn and rejected-controversial. Answer: A) rejected-aggressive and rejected-withdrawn. In the rejected category, rejected-aggressive children exhibit physical or relational aggression, which rejected-withdrawn children tend to avoid social interaction. 94. Boys and girls who are classified as rejected-aggressive tend to use different styles of aggression. In particular, boys often use __________ aggression, while girls tend to use __________ aggression. A) relational; prosocial B) physical; relational C) accidental; physical D) intentional; accidental Answer: B) physical; relational 95. Which of the following statements is true about rejected children? A) Rejected children receive a large number of “like best” nominations. B) Rejected-aggressive children tend to be timid and avoid contact with others. C) The percent of rejected-aggressive children is higher than the percent of rejected-withdrawn. D) Rejected children tend to receive an even mix of “like best” and “like least” nominations. Answer: C) The percent of rejected-aggressive children is higher than the percent of rejected-withdrawn. 96. Using the peer nomination technique, student who received few "like best" or "like least" nominations are categorized as A) rejected-aggressive. B) rejected-withdrawn. C) neglected. D) controversial. Answer: C) neglected. 97. Ms. Carter is examining peer popularity in a second-grade classroom. She has asked the class to write down the names of the five students they like the best and the five students they like the least. She finds that Carmen has received a large number of nominations for being the "least liked," and Sandra has received a large number of nominations for being the "most liked." She categorizes Carmen as ________ and Sandra as ________. A) controversial; neglected B) neglected; rejected C) average; popular D) rejected; popular Answer: D) rejected; popular. Rejected children receive a large number of “like least” nominations, while popular children receive a large number of “like most” nominations. 98. Blake likes to play dodge ball, but he is always last to be chosen. He often steals the ball and demands his turn to throw. He claims to be the best player in the school and dares the other children to challenge him. In the peer nomination technique, Blake would most likely be categorized as A) popular. B) controversial. C) rejected. D) neglected. Answer: C) rejected. Blake’s pushy and self-centred behavior is likely to earn him a large number of “like least” nominations, placing him in the rejected category. 99. Timothy is known as the bully in his fourth-grade class. He is often seen on the playground pushing, hitting, and teasing other children. Using the peer nomination technique, Timothy would be categorized as A) average. B) controversial. C) rejected. D) neglected. Answer: C) rejected. Blake’s aggressive behavior is likely to earn him a large number of “like least” nominations, placing him in the rejected category. 100. Carrie is described by her teachers as a child who is not very sociable. She is not particularly shy—just seems to avoid social interactions, especially ones in which there would be a confrontation. Using the peer nomination technique, Carrie would be categorized as A) average. B) controversial. C) neglected. D) rejected. Answer: C) neglected. Because she does not interact much with her classmates, Carrie is unlikely to receive many nominations—either positive or negative—meaning that she will probably be placed in the neglected category. 101. Children who are categorized as controversial are often described as A) friendly and sociable. B) cooperative leaders. C) shy and withdrawn. D) avoiding confrontations. Answer: B) cooperative leaders. 102. Children who tend to receive a large number of both “like best” and “like least” nominations are categorized as A) popular. B) neglected. C) controversial. D) rejected. Answer: C) controversial. Controversial children receive large numbers of both “like best” and “like least” nominations. 103. Which of the following is true in regard to neglected children? A) Neglected children receive mostly "like least" nominations. B) Neglected children tend to be less sociable, less negative, and less disruptive than average. C) Neglected children are more helpful and cooperative and show more leadership than average. D) Neglected children are more likely to dress or behave oddly. Answer: B) Neglected children tend to be less sociable, less negative, and less disruptive than average. 104. Personality characteristics and peer nomination categories are strongly associated (e.g., popular children tend to be sociable and friendly). Based on these associations, we can conclude that A) ending up in a particular category determines a child’s personality. B) a child’s personality determines how they are categorized by peer nomination. C) a third, underlying factor determines a child’s personality and peer nomination category. D) unfortunately, no conclusion is possible given correlational data. Answer: D) unfortunately, no conclusion is possible given correlational data. The data linking personality and peer nomination categories are correlational, and therefore, they do not permit any causal conclusions to be drawn. 105. When African American children are present in classrooms in low percentages, they tend to receive more negative nominations. As their percentages increase in classrooms, these children tend to A) become increasingly categorized as “rejected.” B) maintain their negative nominations. C) receive higher numbers of positive nominations. D) receive fewer nominations (both positive and negative) overall. Answer: C) receive higher numbers of positive nominations. When they feel isolated in smaller numbers, minority children may feel intimidated by the majority racial group in the class. As their percentages increase in classrooms, African American children tend to have more social interactions with classmates and more positive opportunities. 106. All of the following are steps in Dodge's social cognition model EXCEPT A) perceiving the social information. B) interpreting the information. C) comparing the current situation to past experiences. D) enacting a response to the situation. Answer: C) comparing the current situation to past experiences. Comparing the current situation to past experiences is not one of the steps in Dodge’s model of social cognition. 107. Sarah arrives at her school locker and notices that her friends have decorated it for her birthday. Which step in Dodge’s social cognition model does this illustrate? A) perceiving the social information B) interpreting the information C) storing the event in long-term memory D) enacting a response to the situation Answer: A) perceiving the social information Sarah is experiencing the first step in Dodge’s model, in which she perceives the information. 108. Keith is sitting on the bleachers waiting for the school assembly to begin when Tony walks by and bumps into him. If Keith is categorized as a rejected-aggressive child, what will his response most likely be? A) He will realize that Tony ran into him by accident and dismiss it. B) He will interpret Tony's action as deliberate and respond by yelling at him. C) He will ignore the event because he doesn't know how to interpret the situation. D) He will assume that Tony is just messing around and not react. Answer: B) He will interpret Tony's action as deliberate and respond by yelling at him. Rejected-aggressive children tend to see even innocent events as threats. For example, they might interpret an accidental bump in the school hallway as a provocation to fight. Their negative interpretations lead to aggressive responses—to revenge, attack, or self-defence. 109. Research using Dodge's social cognition model finds that rejected-aggressive children A) have a positive bias, tending to perceive social situations as friendly. B) do not know how to act in social situations. C) have a negative bias, tending to perceive even innocent events as threatening. D) do not have any biases in social situations. Answer: C) have a negative bias, tending to perceive even innocent events as threatening. Rejected-aggressive children tend to see even innocent events as threats. For example, they might interpret an accidental bump in the school hallway as a provocation to fight. Their negative interpretations lead to aggressive responses—to revenge, attack, or self-defence. 110. Being less accepted by one's classmates has been correlated with A) lower grades in school. B) delinquency and substance abuse. C) anxiety and depression. D) all of the above. Answer: D) all of the above. 111. Which of the following is a FALSE statement regarding peer rejection? A) Peer rejection as a child can lead to negative social experiences in later years. B) Peer rejection is a powerful force in adolescent life. C) Rejected children are less likely to drop out of school than popular children. D) Peer rejection has been linked to delinquency, isolation, and loneliness. Answer: C) Rejected children are less likely to drop out of school than popular children. Rejected children are in fact more likely to drop out of school than popular children. 112. Pietro is never discouraged by low test scores and always works hard. The fact that he persists on challenging tasks means that he has a high degree of A) achievement motivation. B) helpless orientation. C) conduct problems. D) prosocial reasoning. Answer: A) achievement motivation. Pietro’s achievement motivation reflects the degree to which he chooses to engage in and keep trying to accomplish challenging tasks. 113. Which of the following is the BEST example of an internal attribution? A) "I made an A on the spelling test because I'm lucky." B) "I can hit a baseball because I practice a lot." C) "I have a hard time tying my shoes because it's difficult to do." D) "I failed the math test because the teacher didn't teach well." Answer: B) "I can hit a baseball because I practice a lot." Internal attributions focus on one’s ability, effort, or strategy use. 114. Which of the following is the best example of a stable attribution? A) "I usually do well on spelling tests, but the last test was hard!" B) "I don't have a lot of talent at sports, but if I work hard, I'll get better." C) "I have the worst luck of anyone I know!" D) "I didn't play well at the recital because I didn't sleep well the night before." Answer: C) "I have the worst luck of anyone I know!" Stable attributions focus on factors or circumstances that tend to say constant over repeated attempts. 115. Individuals who have a helpless orientation attribute their successes to ________ factors. A) external and controllable B) external and uncontrollable C) internal and controllable D) internal and uncontrollable Answer: B) external and uncontrollable Children with a helpless orientation attribute their failures to their own basic lack of ability, and they attribute successes to external and uncontrollable factors such as luck. 116. Individuals who have a mastery orientation attribute their successes to ________ factors. A) external and controllable B) external and uncontrollable C) internal and controllable D) internal and uncontrollable Answer: C) internal and controllable These children attribute their successes to their own hard work and abilities—internal and controllable factors—and their failures to factors that they can either control (such as effort or strategy) or change (such as task difficulty). 117. Individuals who have a mastery orientation attribute their failures to A) luck. B) factors that they can control or change. C) other people in their lives. D) They don't have failures because they avoid challenging tasks. Answer: B) factors that they can control or change. These children attribute their successes to their own hard work and abilities—internal and controllable factors—and their failures to factors that they can either control (such as effort or strategy) or change (such as task difficulty). 118. Ramon got his grade on his last science test; he earned a D+. He thinks to himself, "I am horrible at science!" Last week when he received an A on a math test, he told his friend "I guess I just got lucky." Which orientation concerning achievement is Ramon exhibiting? A) mastery orientation B) internal orientation C) helpless orientation D) performance orientation Answer: C) helpless orientation Children with a helpless orientation attribute their failures to their own basic lack of ability, and they attribute successes to external and uncontrollable factors such as luck. 119. Barbara received a C- on her English test last week. After her mom saw the test, Barbara tried to explain, "Ms. Clark is always giving us hard tests!" Which type of attribution is Barbara making? A) internal, stable B) internal, unstable C) external, stable D) external, unstable Answer: C) external, stable Barbara is attributing her test score to factors outside her control that remain stable over time. 120. Children who focus on learning goals are using the ________ orientation, whereas children who focus on performance goals are using the ________ orientation. A) helpless; controlling B) helpless; mastery C) mastery; helpless D) mastery; controlling Answer: C) mastery; helpless Learning goals are associated with children who enjoy being challenged and seek to increase their overall abilities, while performance goals are associated with children who focus on praise and approval from others. 121. Which of the following is the best example of a child expressing a performance goal orientation? A) "I like to do math because it's easy." B) "Science is interesting because I learn something new." C) "Difficult tasks are a challenge to finish." D) "I like to read because it makes me smarter." Answer: A) "I like to do math because it's easy." Children who focus on performance goals tend to select tasks that are easy. 122. A recent study by Li (2004) suggests that Chinese children view learning as a ___________ while American children view it as a ___________. A) female skill; male skill B) moral value; practical task to be accomplished C) solitary activity; communal activity D) boring task; fun task Answer: B) moral value; practical task to be accomplished 123. Which of the following statements is true regarding teachers who take the constructivist perspective? A) They tend to discourage student exploration and questioning. B) They minimize the value of students’ perspectives. C) They emphasize final answers rather than thinking processes. D) They think of themselves as guides for learning. Answer: D) They think of themselves as guides for learning. 124. In Rosenthal and Jacobson's (1968) classic study, teachers were told at the beginning of the school year that some of their students were "intellectual bloomers." This study found that A) those students who were labelled as bloomers had higher IQ scores by the end of the year. B) those students who were not labelled as bloomers had better achievement scores throughout the year. C) teachers' expectations did not influence student performance. D) those students who were labelled as bloomers actually had lower IQ scores by the end of the year. Answer: A) those students who were labelled as bloomers had higher IQ scores by the end of the year. 125. Alex's parents tell her that she is one of the brightest kids at her school. They are pleased to see that Alex is taking school seriously, working hard, and doing her homework every night. If Alex is doing well in school because of her parents' prediction, this example illustrates a(n) A) helpless orientation. B) social comparison. C) ability grouping. D) self-fulfilling prophecy. Answer: D) self-fulfilling prophecy. Alex’s parents influence her success by stating an expectation that she will do well. In particular, their self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that comes true because Alex believes the prediction and behaves in ways that produce the expected outcome. 126. Rebecca gets high scores because her teacher constantly tells her that she is the best in the class. Rebecca’s performance is indicative of A) mastery orientation. B) self-fulfilling prophecy. C) achievement motivation. D) external attributions. Answer: B) self-fulfilling prophecy. Self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that comes true because people believe the prediction and behave in ways that produce the expected outcome. 127. Which of the following factors influences classroom climate? A) student characteristics and behavior B) teacher characteristics C) the physical arrangement of the classroom D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above 128. ________ is the degree to which a person chooses to engage in and keep trying to accomplish challenging tasks. A) Achievement motivation B) Mastery orientation C) Self-fulfilling prophecy D) Strong academic motivation Answer: A) Achievement motivation 129. Lily's fourth-grade class is mainly made up of children whose primary language is Spanish. Her teacher spends the majority of class time speaking in Spanish and is gradually increasing the amount of English that is spoken. Which type of bilingual education is Lily's teaching using? A) secondarily bilingual education B) transitional bilingual education C) structured English immersion D) primary language immersion Answer: B) transitional bilingual education. In transitional bilingual education (TBE), instruction is mostly in the child’s native language. TBE provides some English instruction and gradually increases the use of English as students’ English skills increase. 130. When bilingual education is mostly in English and teachers only use children's native language when needed, it is called A) secondarily bilingual education. B) transitional bilingual education. C) structured English immersion (SEI). D) primary language immersion. Answer: C) structured English immersion. 131. During middle childhood, what is the average number of hours children spend every day watching television? A) 1 to 2 hours B) 2 to 3 hours C) 3 to 4 hours D) 4 to 5 hours Answer: D) 4 to 5 hours 132. During middle childhood, boys spend more time ________, whereas girls spend more time ________. A) watching television; on the internet B) on the internet; watching television C) playing video games; playing handheld games D) listening to music CDs; reading print media Answer: C) playing video games; playing handheld games 133. African-American and Hispanic youth spend about _____ hours per day using media, especially television and music, compared to White youth, who spend about _____ hours per day using media. A) 2;4 B) 6;2 C) 13;9 D) 8;12 Answer: C) 13;9 134. Which of the following statements regarding TV aggression is true? A) By the time children in the United States leave elementary school, they have watched more than 8,000 TV murders. B) Adult-focused prime time television dramas contain much more aggression than children's cartoons. C) In general, television shows depict violence and aggressive behavior in a true-to-life manner. D) Researchers have found no evidence that TV aggression affects children's thoughts, feelings, or behaviours. Answer: A) By the time children in the United States leave elementary school, they have watched more than 8,000 TV murders. 135. Which of the following types of television programming has high rates of violent acts? A) Saturday-morning cartoons B) late-afternoon programs C) early-evening programs D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above 136. Meta-analyses of studies that have investigated the effect of educational programs on behavior suggest that A) the effect is stronger on girls than boys. B) the effect is larger for adults than children. C) violent TV activates different areas of children’s brains than nonviolent TV. D) educational programs have a positive impact on children’s behavior. Answer: D) educational programs have a positive impact on children’s behavior. 137. One longitudinal study examining the relationship between the amount of violent television individuals watched at age 8 and aggressive behavior during adulthood found that A) watching violent TV shows during childhood predicted aggressiveness at age 18. B) there is no relationship between TV watching in childhood and outcomes during adulthood. C) watching violent TV shows during childhood predicted seriousness of criminal activity in adulthood. D) both A and C. Answer: D) both A and C. 138. Bandura's research examining the effects of violent television on aggression found that A) children who viewed violent video clips were more likely to model aggressive behaviours. B) children who viewed nonviolent video clips were more likely to exhibit helping behaviours. C) there was no effect of viewing violent or nonviolent video clips on children's levels of aggressiveness. D) children who viewed violent video clips were more likely to show aggressive behaviours in school the next day. Answer: A) children who viewed violent video clips were more likely to model aggressive behaviours. 139. Bandura found that children were likely to imitate aggressive acts seen on TV equally across A) genders. B) ethnicities. C) children who showed preexisting aggressive tendencies. D) all of the above. Answer: D) all of the above. 140. Which of the following statements regarding the effects of TV on children is true? A) Research has not shown any positive effects of TV on children's cognitive skills and achievement. B) Experimental and correlational research indicates that educational TV can enhance children's cognitive skills. C) Educational programming has the greatest positive effect for children from lower-income homes. D) Educational TV appears to have its strongest positive effects among children who are 10 years of age or older. Answer: B) Experimental and correlational research indicates that educational TV can enhance children's cognitive skills. 141. Which of the following statements regarding the relationship between ethnicity and educational programming is FALSE? A) The presence of African American characters can have a positive effect on African American children's self-esteem. B) African American children's self-esteem is lower when they watch music videos. C) African American children's self-esteem is higher when they watch sporting events. D) Identifying with Caucasian TV characters tends to lower African American children's self-esteem. Answer: C) African American children's self-esteem is higher when they watch sporting events. 142. The American Academy of Paediatrics discourages TV viewing for children under the age of A) 1. B) 2. C) 5. D) 8. Answer: B) 2. 143. A typical boy between 8 and 12 years old plays video games ___________ per day. A) a little more than one hour B) between 2 and 5 hours C) between 6 and 10 hours D) more than 10 hours Answer: A) a little more than one hour 144. Several studies suggest that playing action video games may A) interfere with language development. B) delay the development of memory. C) decrease aggressive behavior. D) improve both visual-spatial and motor skills. Answer: D) improve both visual-spatial and motor skills. 145. Which of the following statements regarding newer forms of media is FALSE? A) Children who play video games are more likely to be rejected by their peers. B) Computer software games are more educationally oriented than video games. C) Playing a violent video game can increase a person's aggressive thoughts. D) The amount of aggression in video games has been steadily increasing. Answer: A) Children who play video games are more likely to be rejected by their peers. 146. Neuroscience and physiological studies examining chronic exposure to violent video games have found A) increased activation in brain areas involved in evaluating emotional information. B) decreased activation in brain areas involved in self-control. C) more physiological arousal when presented with violent stimuli. D) all of the above. Answer: B) decreased activation in brain areas involved in self-control. 147. Which of the following statements concerning Internet use is FALSE? A) Greater use of the Internet has been associated with increased depression and loneliness. B) Children report using the Internet only rarely to communicate with friends. C) Greater use of the Internet has been associated with decreased face-to-face interactions. D) Children are often using the Internet for homework purposes. Answer: B) Children report using the Internet only rarely to communicate with friends. 148. Rachel has many friends. She enjoys chatting with them at school, as well as exchanging emails and pictures online. The fact that Rachel’s use of the Internet may strengthen the connections she has with her friends is consistent with the ______________ hypothesis. A) rich-get-richer B) self-fulfilling prophecy C) relational aggression D) social compensation Answer: A) rich-get-richer According to the rich-get-richer hypothesis, adolescents use the Internet most often to communicate with people they already know and are friends with, serving to strengthen the closeness of their friendships. 149. A risk of Internet use, according to the ______________ hypothesis, is that children with poor social skills who are already withdrawn may be more likely to choose Internet over face-to-face involvement, substituting online activity for social interactions. A) helpless orientation B) selection model C) social compensation D) rich-get-richer Answer: C) social compensation The social compensation hypothesis suggests that teens who are lonely and have few friends to begin with are more likely to choose Internet over face-to- face involvement, substituting online activity for social interactions. 150. In “Career Focus: Meet a Marketing Executive,” a campaign for reaching tweens (8- to 12-year-olds) is described. Which of the following traits characterizes children in this group? A) a loose group of friends and acquaintances B) looking for social acceptance C) relatively little concern with appearance D) knowing the rules and avoiding pushing the limits Answer: B) looking for social acceptance One of the main characteristics of tweens is the desire to find social acceptance. 12.2 True/False Questions 1. The terms self-representation and self-concept can be used interchangeably. Answer: True 2. A person's self-representation is the judgment that they make about themselves, whereas their self-esteem is the way they describe themselves. Answer: False 3. Boys report more dissatisfaction with their physical selves than do girls. Answer: False 4. Children sometimes have difficulty reading the emotions of others who have ethnic backgrounds different from their own. Answer: True 5. Girls are significantly more likely than boys to be relationally aggressive. Answer: True 6. Compared to boys, girls are significantly more likely to perform helping behaviours. Answer: False 7. Caucasian children living in poverty are just as likely to be aggressive as African American living in poverty. Answer: True 8. The majority of children in the United States live in two-parent families. Answer: True 9. Children from divorced homes display more externalizing behaviours than children from intact homes. Answer: True 10. Adult children of parental divorce are less likely to marry (and when they do marry, they are more likely to get divorced themselves) compared to adult children of continuously married parents. Answer: True 11. Most stepchildren report overall positive views of their stepfathers. Answer: True 12. Living with a stepfather decreases a boy's chances of finishing high school. Answer: False 13. Teachers' beliefs about their own teaching effectiveness has been found to correlate to how well their students' perform in the classroom. Answer: True 14. A warm and friendly teacher has been found to be the only factor responsible for having a positive classroom climate. Answer: False 15. Tracking occurs when students of different grade levels attend separate classes based on their ability levels. Answer: False 16. Programs with the highest rates of violence are aired at a time when children are the least likely to be watching television—late at night. Answer: False 17. Research indicates a bidirectional effect between television violence and children's aggression: Aggressive children prefer violent TV, and watching violence on TV increases their aggressiveness even more. Answer: True 18. Most boys ages 8 to 12 years of age spend an average of 4 hours per day playing video games. Answer: False 19. Video games can improve children's spatial skills and response times to visual targets. Answer: True 20. Video games are the most popular among girls ages 8 to 12 years old. Answer: False 12.3 Short Answer Questions 1. According to Harter, your overall evaluation of yourself is called ________. Answer: global self-evaluation 2. Girls whose self-esteem is mainly based on their ________ show especially low levels of self-esteem Answer: physical appearance 3. The thought process involved in deciding whether or not to help someone is called ________. Answer: prosocial reasoning 4. Family situations in which yelling, threats, commands, and physical punishment are commonplace are referred to as ________. Answer: coercive home environments 5. The reversal of roles in which children of divorced parents take on parental responsibilities such as sibling care and household tasks is called ________. Answer: parentification 6. The method most often used by researchers to assess peer social status during childhood is the ________. Answer: peer nomination technique 7. Using the peer nomination technique, a child who receives a large number of both positive and negative nominations would be categorized as ________. Answer: controversial 8. Using the peer nomination technique, a child who received moderate numbers of both "like best" and "like least" nominations would be categorized as ________. Answer: average 9. Dodge's theory discussing how children perceive, interpret, and react to social situation is called the ________. Answer: social cognition model 10. The degree to which a person attempts to accomplish a challenging task is called his or her ________. Answer: achievement motivation 11. When individuals attribute their success to their own hard work and their failures to factors that they can control, they are using the ________ orientation. Answer: mastery 12. Individuals’ beliefs about why they or others succeed or fail are referred to as ________. Answer: attributions 12.4 Essay Questions 1. As a developmental psychologist, you are asked to give several parents suggestions for fostering positive self-evaluations in their children. Based on previous research, what would be your advice? Answer: Refer to Table 12.1. Possible answers: Early care-giving promotes a secure emotional attachment and provides positive support and encouragement, outcomes may matter, but also stress effort and improvement, provide instruction and guidance to help your child improve, give honest feedback, teach goal-setting. To foster positive self-evaluations in children, parents can: 1. Provide specific praise: Focus on effort and achievements rather than inherent traits (e.g., "You worked hard on that project" instead of "You're so smart"). 2. Encourage autonomy: Allow children to make choices and take on age-appropriate responsibilities to build confidence. 3. Model positive self-talk: Demonstrate how to handle mistakes constructively and speak kindly about oneself. 4. Create a supportive environment: Offer a safe space where children feel valued and respected. 5. Set realistic goals: Help children set and achieve attainable goals to experience success and build self-efficacy. 2. Describe, using examples, the difference between physical aggression and relational aggression. What is the gender difference associated with each type of aggression? Answer: Physical aggression is exhibiting aggression physically (e.g., hitting or kicking). Relational aggression is exhibiting aggression by attempting to harm social relationships (e.g., gossiping, threats to withdraw friendship, spreading rumours). Boys tend to exhibit more physical aggression, and girls engage in more relational aggression. 3. List and describe the five levels in Eisenberg's theory of prosocial reasoning. Answer: Refer to Table 12.2. Eisenberg's theory of prosocial reasoning includes five levels: 1. Hedonistic or Self-Focused Orientation: Actions are motivated by self-interest and personal gain. 2. Needs-Based Orientation: Actions are guided by recognition of others' needs, even if these needs conflict with one's own. 3. Approval and Interpersonal Orientation: Behavior is influenced by the desire for social approval and maintaining good relationships. 4. Self-Reflective Empathetic Orientation: Actions are based on empathy, perspective-taking, and understanding the feelings and needs of others. 5. Internalized Values Orientation: Prosocial behavior is guided by internalized principles and values, such as justice and caring, beyond external approval or rewards. 4. What is the difference between the divorce-stress-adjustment perspective and the selection model of divorce? Answer: The divorce-stress-adjustment perspective asserts that the divorce process itself initiates many stressful events for both children and parents. The overall effects of divorce depend on several factors including mediating variables (e.g., effectiveness of parenting or the degree of parental conflict), the individual child's specific vulnerabilities (e.g., temperament), and protective factors (e.g., good coping skills and social support). The selection model takes a more specific viewpoint, emphasizing that it is not the divorce process itself that is to blame but instead specific parental characteristics. For example, a parent with an antisocial personality or poor parenting skills can cause both divorce and subsequent negative outcomes for children. 5. What are the behavioral and psychological outcomes for children of divorced parents? Answer: Compared to children of continuously married parents, children of divorced families show more externalizing problems, as adolescents are at higher risks for teen pregnancy, often feel pressure to grow up faster, and may take on adult responsibilities (parentification). As adults they may be less likely to marry and (when they do marry) may have higher rates of divorce. Some positive outcomes related to parental divorce are greater social responsibility, competence, and empathy during adulthood. Especially for daughters, the divorce may lead to a closer relationship with their mothers. 6. List the three major factors related to whether children of parental divorce experience positive or negative outcomes? Describe how each of the factors impacts childhood outcomes from divorce. Answer: There seem to be three major intervening factors that are especially important: money, parenting quality, and community connections. Lack of money impacts children's access to clothes, toys, health care, and educational opportunities. A decline in the quality and quantity of parenting impacts the amount of conflict a child experiences, parenting style, and parental responsiveness. Divorce also affects a child's community connections. Divorce often leads to residential moves, which decrease the family's knowledge of and access to community resources. 7. List and describe the five peer status categories assessed by the peer nomination technique. What are the characteristics associated with each peer status category? Answer: Popular children are the ones who receive a large number of "like best" nominations. They are generally friendly, cooperative, sociable, and sensitive to the needs of others. Rejected children receive a large number of "like least" nominations. These children are often divided into two categories. Rejected-aggressive children are physically aggressive and/or verbally abusive. Rejected-withdrawn children are withdrawn and timid. Controversial children receive large numbers of both positive and negative nominations. They tend to be aggressive, disruptive, and angry, yet also helpful and cooperative. Average children receive a moderate number of both "like best" and "like least" nominations. They tend to show good social skills. Neglected children receive very few nominations. They tend to be less sociable, less negative, disruptive, and aggressive. 8. What is the difference between a mastery orientation and a helpless orientation for achievement attributions? Answer: Children who develop a mastery orientation attribute their successes to their own hard work (internal and controllable factors) and their failures to factors that they can either control or change. They focus on learning goals. Children who develop a helpless orientation attribute their failures to their own lack of ability and attribute successes to external and uncontrollable factors such as luck. They focus on performance goals. 12.5 MyDevelopmentLab Questions 1. Consider the video of young boys playing football on a playground. Notice that one of the boys remains on the side and is not invited to participate. In relation to how he is treated by the other boys, what peer nomination category do you think he is likely to receive? Explain how it might be measured. Answer: It is likely the boy not invited to play would be assigned to the “neglected” category. This might be determined by asking all of the boys in the group to nominate the person who they would most (or least) like to play with or have for a friend (e.g., “Of these boys, who do you consider your best friend?”). If he were neglected, the boy not invited to play would receive few or no nominations (neither positive nor negative). 2. Dr. Susan Ferguson describes the increasing trend of adults who are delaying marriage or are never marrying. Briefly discuss the impact this trend has on children in never-married households. Answer: In 2007, 40% of the children born in the United States were born to unmarried mothers. In general, the experiences of children in never-married (single-parent) households are similar to children of divorced parents, though in some circumstances, it can be worse. Some of the increased risks of raising a child in a never-married household include: (1) low financial security, (2) fewer parenting resources, and (3) less effective parenting. 3. After viewing the simulation on media violence, briefly summarize some of the main ideas and research findings. Answer: Studies investigating the relationship between media violence and aggression have used by correlational and experimental methods. First, while several correlational studies have demonstrated a clear association between viewing media violence (e.g., on TV, in video games) and aggressive behavior, these studies are also limited by the fact that they cannot determine which factor is the cause and which the effect. Second, experimental studies have used random assignment (and control conditions) to isolate the effect of viewing violence and have shown that doing so increases aggressive behavior. However, this effect is not the same in all people (e.g., boys are more influenced by media violence than girls). Another limitation of experimental studies is that they are conducted over brief periods of time and may not accurately measure the long-term influence of viewing media violence. Test Bank for The World of Children Joan Littlefield Cook, Greg Cook 9780205953738