CH-12-13 Politics, Power, War, and Peace – Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge : Exam Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 12 to 13 Chapter 12 – Politics, Power, War, and Peace MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The ability of individuals or groups to impose their will upon others and make them do things even against their own will is called A. power. B. force. C. coercion. D. legitimacy. E. authority. Answer: A 2. Politics is best defined as A. the process of electing officials and making decisions. B. the process determining who gets what, when, and how. C. the structure that determines the authority for any society. D. how a society determines centralized leadership and control. E. how decisions are made in every centralized type of social organization. Answer: B 3. Which term refers to the way power, or the ability to control others’ behavior, is distributed or embedded in society? A. Social structure B. Political control C. Political organization D. Dictatorship E. Power relations Answer: C 4. Which of the following is not a form of political organization? A. Band B. Tribe C. Chiefdom D. Group E. State Answer: D 5. An egalitarian, autonomous group composed of related people who occupy a single region is called a A. government. B. state. C. tribe. D. chiefdom. E. band. Answer: E 6. All of the following are characteristics of a band society except: A. they have no need for formal conflict resolution. B. decisions are made through consensus. C. the head leader is in charge of disciplining members only during high levels of conflict. D. they have leaders, although the leaders have no formal authority. E. they periodically break into smaller units. Answer: C 7. Bands and tribes are both A. centralized forms of leadership. B. associated with early industrialism. C. dependent on age groups for political organization D. uncentralized and egalitarian. E. hierarchical in social organization. Answer: D 8. A horticultural or pastoral society is most likely to be politically organized as a A. state. B. chiefdom. C. band. D. tribe. E. commercial society. Answer: D 9. Tribal societies use all of the following types of political integration mechanisms except: A. age sets. B. clans. C. common-interest associations. D. age grades. E. diverse ethnic groups. Answer: E 10. The primary means of exchange or distributing goods in a chiefdom is A. redistribution. B. negative reciprocity. C. generalized reciprocity. D. balanced reciprocity. E. tribute. Answer: A 11. The tonowi of the Kapauku of New Guinea acquires political power by all of the following except: A. being generous. B. being coercive. C. being a good talker. D. being wealthy. E. being a male. Answer: B 12. The source of the Kapauku tonowi’s wealth is A. money. B. cows. C. pigs. D. land. E. shell necklace. Answer: C 13. A ranked society in which every member has a position in the hierarchy and an individual’s status is determined by membership in a descent group is called a A. band. B. tribe. C. chiefdom. D. state. E. kindred. Answer: C 14. Liberia is a pluralistic country with some 30 different ethnic groups. Which one is the largest? A. Tiriki B. Kapauku C. Kpelle D. Kayapo E. Ilongot Answer: C 15. Regarding the Kpelle of West Africa, which of the following statements is incorrect? A. The Kpelle chief has uniformed messengers that deliver his communications B. The Kpelle chief has many wives, which indicates his comparative wealth C. Kpelle chiefs have served as salaried state officials in more recent history D. The Kpelle chief engages in manual labor daily in order to set an example for his people E. The Kpelle chief receives a commission from the government on how much taxes and laborers he provides Answer: D 16. The most formal of political organizations and one of the hallmarks of civilization, this type of political organization has a centralized government that may legitimately use force to regulate the affairs of its citizens, as well as its relations with other similar political systems. It is called a A. state. B. band. C. chiefdom. D. tribe. E. nation. Answer: A 17. The imposition of obedience or submission by force or intimidation is called A. authority. B. power. C. coercion. D. legitimacy. E. violence. Answer: C 18. How is a theocracy distinct from a democracy and an aristocracy? A. It is a state within a single ethnic group within the nation B. It is a state whose legitimacy is based on ancestry C. It is a state that claims legitimacy based on representation of its citizens D. It is a state headed by a single ruler E. It is a state whose legitimacy is proclaimed by sacred doctrine Answer: E 19. Laura Nader called upon her colleagues at Berkeley to A. protest wars within state societies. B. demonstrate for civil rights. C. develop new political theories for state societies. D. examine the politics of Native Americans. E. “study up” and do research on the world’s power elite. Answer: E 20. Playing a leading role in the development of the anthropology of law, _____ has taken on specialists in the fields of law, children’s issues, nuclear energy, and science, critically questioning the basic assumptions under which these experts operate. A. Ralph Nader B. Margaret Mead C. Martha Knack D. Laura Nader E. Ruth Benedict Answer: D 21. The use of wealth to support the tonowi’s power, the belief in the divine right of kings to rule, and the choice of the oldest living male becoming the head of the Dahomey state of West Africa all have in common that they A. have to do with a system of centralized authority. B. represent what is considered to be the legitimate basis of political authority in that particular society. C. all have to do with the use of force as a legitimate basis of both current and future projected political leadership. D. all have to do with non-Western forms of political power. E. all are associated with food foraging. Answer: B 22. Among the Igbo of Nigeria, A. men and women each had separate, autonomous spheres of political activity. B. women were bought and sold as slaves. C. women were imprisoned in their homes and allowed out only on marketing days. D. men and women lived in separate villages. E. men had no political role in the village, which was controlled and ruled by women. Answer: A 23. When the British imposed colonial rule on the Igbo of Nigeria, A. they put women in charge of all educational institutions. B. they introduced changes that sustained the equality of political power between the sexes. C. they introduced changes that made women more powerful than men. D. they did not recognize the political power of women, and introduced changes that resulted in women becoming subordinate to men. E. they introduced changes that caused men to change into women. Answer: D 24. Sanctions are A. internalized social controls. B. classified social controls. C. externalized social controls. D. external behavior. E. religious behavior. Answer: C 25. _____ sanctions attempt to precisely and explicitly regulate people’s behavior. They can be positive (such as military decorations) or negative (such as imprisonment). A. Hierarchical B. Egalitarian C. Casual D. Informal E. Formal Answer: E 26. Which of the following would invoke informal sanctions against an individual in a restaurant in the United States? A. Tearing up tables and chairs B. Fighting C. Threatening customers D. Stealing food E. Going barefoot Answer: E 27. Wape villagers avoid quarreling with each other because A. they are afraid that a ghost will misdirect a bullet and kill a quarreling person during hunting. B. they believe that a hunter misses his prey only because of the intervention of ancestral ghosts who are angry with quarreling in the community. C. they know they will be put in jail by the New Guinea government. D. a hunter will refuse to loan his gun to a quarreling person. E. the ancestors will go away from their villages if they quarrel. Answer: B 28. Once two Inuit individuals are involved in a dispute and become peaceful by engaging in a singing contest, the affair is considered A. open to negotiation by both individual’s families. B. open to negotiation by the individuals involved. C. closed and resolved. D. closed to legal repercussions. E. delayed until further notice. Answer: C 29. A key point in William Ury’s 2002 book, Must We Fight? was that, “Conflict is not going to end, but _____ can.” A. starvation B. ethnic repression C. violence D. illiteracy E. rebellions Answer: C 30. Pirate gangs based out of Somalia are thought to be bankrolled and supplied with arms and supplies by A. stolen gold from Somalia. B. stolen gems from Africa. C. their families. D. Tanzanian arms dealers. E. Somali investors living overseas. Answer: E 31. Based on primatological studies, what does Richard Wrangham conclude about human violence and sexual selection? A. Males are better at diplomacy than females B. Sexual selection has no effect on biological differences C. There are no differences between males and females D. Females’ evolutionary interests cannot be met without cooperation from males E. Females are far more aggressive than males Answer: D 32. We have ample reason to suppose war has become a problem only in the past _____ years, since the invention of food-production techniques and especially centralized states. A. 5,000 B. 50,000 C. 10,000 D. 100,000 E. 150 Answer: C 33. Darwin argued that the large physical size of males was a physical specialization to aid in competition between males for females. He called this theory A. sexual selection. B. natural selection. C. hybrid selection. D. reproductive selection. E. intra-species competitive selection. Answer: A 34. The most widely known act of genocide in recent history was the attempt of the Nazis during World War II to kill A. European Jews and Roma. B. European Jews and Israelites. C. Gypsies. D. Polish people. E. Jews and Gentiles. Answer: A 35. Justifications for war are embedded in a society’s A. religious beliefs. B. class structure. C. worldview. D. political organization. E. perspective of sanctions. Answer: C 36. In 1986, an Acholi named Alice Auma believed she was visited by a spirit she called Lakwena. This spirit messenger revealed to her that she should work to liberate her homeland and found a Christian theocracy. Today, this movement continues through the resistance of Joseph Kony. In which country did this occur? A. Congo B. Yugoslavia C. Uganda D. Paraguay E. Trinidad Answer: C 37. In cases of warfare in regions deemed strategically important or rich in natural resources, what additional action is also most likely to occur today? A. Universal sanctions on economic incentives B. Political aggression from neighboring countries C. Economic monopolies on lucrative market products D. Rise of ethnic minorities E. Foreign military intervention Answer: E 38. A contract or formal agreement between two or more independent groups that are self-governing is called a(n) A. treaty. B. pact. C. truce. D. settlement. E. agreement. Answer: A 39. Gandhi built a movement to fight colonial repression and injustice based on the concept of satyagraha. What did he mean by this term? A. Political junta to overthrow the government B. Economic movement based on creating an international embargo C. Religious movement of prayer and contemplation D. Movement of nonviolent resistance E. Movement of violent confrontation Answer: D 40. Aung San Suu Kyi is a current coordinator of nonviolent resistance. All of the following statements about her are correct except: A. she was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize. B. she was trained at Oxford University in England. C. she founded the National League for Democracy and won a seat in Parliament to represent this Party. D. she was placed under house arrest in1990 and confined for 15 years. E. she is the leader of the opposition party in Thailand. Answer: E TRUE/FALSE 1. All social relations involve power. Answer: True 2. “Political organization” refers to the way power has evolved, whether from war, political intrigue, or by ascription. Answer: False 3. Bands have formal leadership, although it changes when necessary. Answer: False 4. Relationships among members of a chiefdom are egalitarian. Answer: False 5. Leadership in a tribe is formal. Answer: False 6. An example of tribal leadership is the concept of the “Big Man.” Answer: True 7. A chief can expect his authority to remain unchallenged during his lifetime, unlike the tonowi, who is in constant danger of being thrown down from his pedestal. Answer: False 8. A nation is a centralized polity involving a large number of people spread over a geographically diverse landscape. Answer: False 9. Since their appearance some 5,000 years ago, states have proven to be stable political systems. Answer: False 10. Religion is often intricately connected with politics. Answer: True 11. Among the traditional Igbo of Midwestern Nigeria, women were not allowed positions in the administrative hierarchy. Answer: False 12. Cultural control is control through external sanctions against individual misbehavior. Answer: False 13. The Azande use a talking circle in order to detect who is accused of wrong-doing. Answer: False 14. Punitive justice has been extremely successful in changing criminal behavior in state societies. Answer: False 15. What anthropologists involved with dispute management are trying to do is to help create a culture of negotiation in a world where adversarial, win-lose attitudes are out of step with the increasingly interdependent relations between people. Answer: True 16. War is a universal phenomenon. Answer: False 17. Warfare is more prominent among foragers than horticulturalists. Answer: False 18. Justifications for warfare are part of a society’s worldview. Answer: True 19. British occupation of Tasmania resulted in genocide of the Palawa hunters-gatherers who were living there. Answer: True 20. Treaties between two sovereign parties are known as bilateral treaties. Answer: True SHORT ANSWER 1. What is power, and how is it related to politics? Answer: • Power: Refers to the ability to influence or control the behavior of others, either through coercion, persuasion, or authority. • Relation to Politics: Politics involves the distribution and exercise of power within a society or organization. It determines how decisions are made, resources allocated, and societal goals achieved through negotiation, competition, and governance. 2. Why do anthropologists use the term “political organization” rather than “government”? Answer: Anthropologists use "political organization" to encompass diverse forms of social organization beyond formal government structures. It includes informal leadership, decision-making processes, and power dynamics within societies that may not fit traditional governmental models found in modern states. 3. Explain the political organization of the Ju/’hoansi. Answer: The Ju/’hoansi are traditionally organized into bands of hunter-gatherers, characterized by: • Egalitarianism: Decision-making through consensus, with informal leaders (often elders) influencing group decisions. • Reciprocity: Sharing resources and labor based on social relationships rather than hierarchical authority. • Flexibility: Leadership roles based on situational expertise rather than permanent positions, ensuring adaptability to environmental and social changes. 4. Compare and contrast political organization in tribes and bands. Answer: • Tribes: Larger than bands, tribes have more formalized leadership structures and social hierarchies. Leadership is often based on kinship or achieved status, with chiefs or elders making decisions. • Bands: Smaller and more egalitarian, bands typically lack formal leadership roles and make decisions through consensus. Leadership is based on personal influence rather than formal authority. Both tribes and bands rely on social norms, reciprocity, and kinship ties to maintain cohesion and resolve disputes. 5. What mechanisms do tribes use to create political integration? Answer: Tribes create political integration through: • Kinship and Marriage Alliances: Cementing relationships and alliances through intermarriage and kinship ties. • Ceremonies and Rituals: Reinforcing group identity and social cohesion through shared rituals and ceremonies. • Conflict Resolution: Resolving disputes through mediation, consensus-building, or informal leadership. • Resource Distribution: Redistributing resources to maintain social balance and solidarity within the community. These mechanisms foster unity and collective action among tribe members. 6. Discuss the tribal leadership of the Melanesian Big Man. Answer: The Melanesian Big Man is a charismatic leader who: • Accumulates Prestige: Through generosity, prowess, and social networking, gaining followers and influence. • Mediates Disputes: Resolving conflicts and maintaining social order through negotiation and personal authority. • Mobilizes Resources: Organizing labor, redistribution, and collective action for community benefit. • Lacks Formal Authority: Leadership is based on personal charisma and achievement rather than formal political office. 7. Describe the role of the paramount chief in society. Answer: A paramount chief: • Exercises Authority: Holds significant political, ceremonial, and often religious authority over multiple villages or tribes. • Mediates Conflicts: Resolves disputes, maintains order, and ensures the welfare of their people. • Represents Unity: Symbolizes unity and collective identity among diverse communities. • Preserves Tradition: Upholds cultural practices, rituals, and ancestral wisdom, ensuring continuity and cohesion within the society. 8. Explain the differences and similarities between chiefdoms and states. Answer: • Chiefdoms: Political systems with centralized leadership (chief) but lacking bureaucracy and formal institutions found in states. Chiefdoms rely on kinship ties, redistribution, and personal authority. • States: Complex societies with centralized political authority, bureaucratic administration, and formal laws. States govern larger populations, maintain standing armies, and regulate economic activities. Similarities: Both chiefdoms and states involve centralized authority, social hierarchy, and mechanisms for resource distribution and conflict resolution. 9. What are the distinctions between a nation and a state? Answer: • Nation: Refers to a group of people sharing a common identity, culture, language, or history. Nations may or may not have a corresponding state. • State: Refers to a political entity with defined borders, recognized sovereignty, and centralized authority over a population within those borders. Distinction: A nation-state combines both concepts, representing a political entity that aligns with a distinct national identity. 10. What is the relationship between legitimacy and authority? Answer: • Legitimacy: Refers to the perceived or actual right to rule, derived from cultural norms, traditions, or legal frameworks. • Authority: Refers to the rightful power to enforce laws, make decisions, and command obedience. Relationship: Legitimacy enhances authority by ensuring that individuals or institutions are recognized as rightful wielders of power. Legitimacy can be derived from tradition, legal frameworks, charisma, or democratic processes, reinforcing authority and social order within societies. 11. Explain the significance of Queen Victoria’s rule as monarch in comparison to other culturally typical gender-related political leadership roles. Answer: Queen Victoria's rule was significant as she became a symbol of stability and continuity for the British Empire during the Victorian era. Her long reign (1837-1901) defied cultural norms of the time by demonstrating that women could lead nations effectively, challenging traditional gender roles and perceptions of female leadership capabilities. 12. Distinguish between externalized and internalized controls, giving examples of each. Answer: Externalized controls are societal or institutional rules and regulations that govern behavior, such as laws, norms, and formal sanctions (e.g., legal penalties for theft). Internalized controls are internal moral or ethical codes that guide behavior, like personal values or conscience (e.g., guilt for lying). 13. What is the Native American “talking circle”? Answer: The Native American talking circle is a traditional gathering where participants sit in a circle to discuss and resolve issues through respectful dialogue, listening, and consensus-building. It emphasizes egalitarianism, communal decision-making, and honoring diverse perspectives. 14. Describe an Inuit song duel. Answer: An Inuit song duel, or "piqqusiit," is a traditional form of competition where two individuals or groups take turns improvising songs to entertain and challenge each other. It showcases creativity, linguistic skills, and cultural values while sometimes addressing personal or community issues through metaphorical lyrics. 15. What role can anthropologists play in dispute resolutions? Discuss the example provided in your text. Answer: Anthropologists can facilitate dispute resolutions by understanding cultural contexts, mediating conflicts, and promoting mutual understanding among parties. For example, in Papua New Guinea, anthropologists helped resolve land disputes by documenting customary land tenure systems and facilitating dialogue between disputing groups based on cultural norms and traditions. 16. Give two reasons why aggressive wars may occur. Answer: Aggressive wars may occur due to territorial expansionism, resource acquisition (e.g., oil, minerals), ideological conflicts (e.g., political beliefs, religious differences), ethnic tensions, or perceived threats to national security. 17. Who are thought to be supplying Somali pirates with arms and supplies, and why? Answer: Somali pirates are believed to receive arms and supplies from various sources, including illegal arms traffickers, corrupt officials, and sometimes foreign interests seeking to destabilize regional security or exploit maritime vulnerabilities for profit. 18. Describe what is meant by an “ideology of aggression.” Answer: An ideology of aggression refers to beliefs or doctrines that justify or promote aggressive actions, such as war or conquest, often rooted in nationalistic fervor, perceived superiority, historical grievances, or ideological extremism. 19. What is genocide? Give an example and discuss. Answer: Genocide is the deliberate and systematic extermination of a national, racial, ethnic, or religious group. An example is the Rwandan Genocide (1994), where Hutu extremists targeted and killed an estimated 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus in a state-sponsored campaign of violence and ethnic cleansing. 20. How can diplomacy be used to negotiate peace? Answer: Diplomacy involves negotiation, mediation, and dialogue between conflicting parties to resolve disputes peacefully. It can facilitate ceasefires, peace treaties, and reconciliation processes by addressing grievances, promoting mutual trust, and fostering long-term stability through international cooperation and diplomacy. ESSAY 1. Power is part of all types of social relations. Discuss what power is and how it is used differentially across societies. Answer: • Power Definition: Power refers to the ability of individuals or groups to influence or control the behavior of others, whether through coercion, persuasion, or authority. • Differential Use Across Societies: Power dynamics vary significantly across societies based on cultural norms, economic systems, political structures, and historical contexts. • Examples: In egalitarian societies like some hunter-gatherer bands, power is often based on consensus-building and achieved status rather than formal authority. In contrast, centralized states may employ hierarchical structures with formalized positions of power such as kings or presidents. Economic power can also influence social relations, with disparities in wealth leading to unequal access to resources and opportunities. • Impact: Power shapes social roles, economic distribution, and political decision-making, reflecting and reinforcing societal values and inequalities. 2. Although they are distinct along various lines, many anthropologists argue that the band functions quite similarly to a nuclear family. Do you agree with this? Why or why not? Cite examples to support your opinion. Answer: • Agreement: I agree with the argument to some extent, as both bands and nuclear families share characteristics of small, kin-based groups with overlapping social and economic roles. • Similarities: Both bands and nuclear families emphasize kinship ties, reciprocity, and shared responsibilities. For example, among the !Kung San of Africa, band members collaborate in hunting and food-sharing akin to family cooperation in domestic chores and childcare. • Differences: Bands often include multiple families and may exhibit more fluid leadership and decision-making processes compared to the nuclear family's hierarchical structure. Bands also adapt collectively to environmental changes, contrasting with the nuclear family's focus on household-level stability. • Conclusion: While bands and nuclear families differ in scale and complexity, their emphasis on kinship, cooperation, and mutual support highlights shared social functions and adaptive strategies in diverse cultural contexts. 3. Choose two cultural groups that pertain to different types of political organization, and describe how their political structure affects social and economic life. Answer: • Example 1: Band Society (Inuit): Inuit societies in the Arctic exhibit decentralized political structures based on kinship and consensus-building. Leadership roles are informal and based on respect, with decisions made collectively to ensure survival in harsh environments. This political organization fosters egalitarianism and resource-sharing, critical for maintaining social cohesion and economic resilience. • Example 2: State Society (Ancient Egypt): Ancient Egypt exemplifies centralized political power with a hierarchical structure centered on pharaohs and bureaucracies. This political organization enabled large-scale infrastructure projects, agricultural management, and trade networks, enhancing economic productivity and cultural development. However, it also reinforced social stratification and tribute extraction, influencing wealth distribution and labor allocation. Both examples illustrate how political organization shapes social norms, economic activities, and community resilience, reflecting adaptive responses to environmental challenges and cultural values. 4. How is centralized political power different from uncentralized? Consider your own community and family life: how are both of these exhibited also in your daily life? Answer: • Centralized Political Power: Involves concentrated authority and decision-making at a central level, often with formal institutions and hierarchical structures (e.g., national governments). This structure can streamline policies, enforce laws uniformly, and mobilize resources for large-scale projects. In my community, centralized power is evident in local government regulations, public services, and infrastructure development. • Uncentralized Political Power: Features dispersed authority and decision-making across various localities or groups without a single central authority (e.g., tribal councils or neighborhood associations). This structure promotes autonomy, diversity of opinions, and localized solutions to community issues. In my family life, decision-making involves shared responsibilities and consensus-building similar to uncentralized political systems, fostering cooperation and mutual support among family members. Both centralized and uncentralized political powers influence governance styles, resource allocation, and community cohesion, shaping everyday interactions and collective outcomes. 5. Compare and contrast political organization in bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states. Answer: • Bands: Small, egalitarian groups with informal leadership and kin-based cooperation (e.g., !Kung San). • Tribes: Larger than bands, with more formalized leadership and kinship ties influencing decision-making (e.g., Native American tribes). • Chiefdoms: Centralized political systems with hereditary leadership and social hierarchy, redistributing resources (e.g., Polynesian chiefdoms). • States: Complex societies with centralized authority, bureaucratic institutions, and legal systems governing large populations (e.g., ancient Mesopotamia). Comparison: All feature social stratification and political organization, varying in scale, leadership structure, and governance complexity. Contrast: Bands and tribes emphasize kinship and consensus, while chiefdoms and states incorporate formalized leadership, legal frameworks, and territorial control. These distinctions influence economic activities, cultural practices, and social inequalities within societies. 6. Commentators have called the latter part of the 20th century the era of the re-emergence of nationalism. Using your text’s distinction between “nation” and “state,” consider why and how nationalism or ethnicity has reappeared on the global scene. Answer: • Nation: Refers to a community sharing common cultural, ethnic, or historical traits. • State: Refers to a political entity with defined borders, governing a population under a centralized authority. Re-emergence of Nationalism: Factors include: • Globalization: Heightened interconnectedness challenges national identities, prompting cultural and ethnic groups to assert distinctiveness. • Identity Politics: Groups seek recognition and autonomy within states, influencing policies on language, education, and cultural heritage. • Historical Grievances: Ethnic conflicts and colonial legacies fuel nationalist sentiments, demanding self-determination and sovereignty. • Political Movements: Nationalist parties capitalize on economic anxieties and migration concerns, advocating protectionism and cultural preservation. Nationalism reasserts cultural pride and political autonomy, shaping international relations and domestic policies amid globalization’s economic and social transformations. 7. Why do you think religion is so often part of legitimate political authority? Answer: • Legitimacy: Religion provides moral and spiritual legitimacy, linking political authority to divine or sacred principles. • Historical Precedent: Throughout history, religious institutions have influenced governance, law-making, and social norms. • Social Cohesion: Shared religious beliefs foster community solidarity and obedience to political leaders perceived as divinely sanctioned. • Cultural Identity: Religion shapes national identity, rituals, and symbols, influencing political rhetoric and public policies. Religion’s role in political authority reflects cultural values, historical traditions, and societal expectations, integrating spiritual guidance with governance and societal order. 8. Discuss the relationship between gender and political leadership, and use the example of the Igbo to illustrate the effect that imposition of the Western system of the state has had on women’s political roles. Answer: • Gender and Political Leadership: Historically, political leadership roles have been dominated by men in many societies, reflecting patriarchal norms and structural inequalities. Women often face barriers to accessing positions of power due to cultural biases, discriminatory laws, and limited opportunities for political participation. • Example of the Igbo: Among the Igbo of Nigeria, pre-colonial societies featured decentralized political systems where women held significant economic and ritual authority within their kinship groups. With the imposition of colonial rule and later the Western state system, Igbo women's political roles were marginalized as colonial administrators and later Nigerian state structures favored male-dominated governance models. • Impact: Women’s exclusion from formal political institutions reduced their influence in decision-making processes and limited their ability to challenge patriarchal norms. However, efforts in post-colonial Nigeria and globally have sought to empower women politically through legal reforms, affirmative action, and grassroots activism. 9. Explain the difference of internalized controls in comparison to externalized controls when maintaining political order in society. Answer: • Internalized Controls: Refer to individual adherence to societal norms, values, and moral codes through personal conviction and socialization. These controls shape behavior based on internal beliefs and ethical principles, promoting self-regulation and conformity without external coercion. • Externalized Controls: Involve mechanisms of social control imposed externally by institutions, laws, and authorities to maintain political order. Externalized controls include legal sanctions, policing, and formal regulations enforcing compliance and deterrence. Difference: Internalized controls foster voluntary compliance and moral consensus within communities, while externalized controls rely on authority and punitive measures to enforce social order and uphold legal frameworks. Both mechanisms are essential for societal stability and governance, balancing individual autonomy with collective responsibility. 10. How is authority delegated differently in different types of states? Answer: • Democratic States: Delegate authority through electoral processes, where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Authority is decentralized through legislative bodies, executive branches, and judicial systems, promoting checks and balances. • Authoritarian States: Concentrate authority in centralized leadership, where political power is vested in a single ruler or ruling party. Authority is often exercised through executive decrees, state control over media, and limited political pluralism. • Federal States: Delegate authority between central and regional governments, distributing power across multiple levels of governance. Authority is shared through constitutional frameworks, state autonomy, and intergovernmental cooperation. Variation: Authority delegation varies by state type, influencing governance structures, policy-making processes, and citizen participation in political decision-making. 11. What role can anthropology play in dispute resolution? What perspectives does this discipline have that can help in negotiating understanding between cultures? Answer: • Role of Anthropology: Anthropology offers insights into cultural norms, values, and social dynamics that underpin disputes. By studying cultural practices, belief systems, and historical contexts, anthropologists can facilitate: • Cultural Sensitivity: Understanding diverse perspectives and motivations influencing conflict. • Mediation: Acting as impartial mediators to bridge cultural divides and facilitate dialogue. • Conflict Resolution Strategies: Developing context-specific solutions that respect cultural diversity and promote sustainable peace. • Perspectives: Anthropology emphasizes cultural relativism, challenging ethnocentric biases and promoting empathy and mutual respect in conflict resolution efforts. By contextualizing grievances within broader socio-cultural frameworks, anthropology contributes to conflict transformation and reconciliation processes across diverse communities. 12. What are the arguments that support the view that humans are innately warlike? Answer: • Evolutionary Perspectives: Some argue that aggression and conflict have evolutionary roots, shaped by competition for resources, territorial disputes, and reproductive success. • Anthropological Evidence: Studies of prehistoric societies and ethnographic research suggest that warfare has been a recurrent feature in human history, linked to social cohesion, resource acquisition, and group identity. • Psychological Theories: Theorists posit that innate tendencies towards aggression and dominance play roles in intergroup conflicts and hierarchical formations. Support: Historical records, archaeological findings, and cross-cultural studies provide evidence of warfare across diverse societies, suggesting that conflict may be inherent to human social behavior under certain conditions. 13. Why do wars occur? Is the need to wage war an instinctive feature of the human personality? Answer: • Causes of Wars: Wars occur due to diverse factors such as competition over resources (land, water, minerals), political ideologies, ethnic or religious tensions, territorial disputes, and economic interests. • Complexity: While some argue that conflict is driven by innate instincts for survival, defense, or dominance, others emphasize socio-political factors, historical grievances, and geopolitical strategies shaping war motivations. • Debate: The extent to which war is instinctive remains debated, with perspectives varying on whether conflict arises primarily from biological imperatives or learned behaviors influenced by cultural norms and political dynamics. Conclusion: Wars result from multifaceted interactions of human agency, societal structures, and historical contingencies, challenging simplistic explanations of innate predispositions towards violence. 14. Discuss the history of genocide from an anthropological perspective. Answer: • Anthropological Lens: Genocide involves systematic destruction of a targeted group based on ethnicity, religion, or nationality, violating human rights and cultural diversity. • Historical Contexts: Examples include European colonization of the Americas, resulting in decimation of indigenous populations through violence, disease, and displacement. • Case Studies: Nazi Germany’s Holocaust targeted Jews, Roma, and others deemed racially inferior, illustrating state-sponsored genocide’s impact on identity, memory, and cultural heritage. • Ethnographic Research: Anthropologists study genocidal processes, perpetrator motivations, survivor testimonies, and post-conflict reconciliation efforts to understand impacts on affected communities and promote justice and healing. Perspective: Anthropology highlights genocide’s cultural, social, and political dimensions, advocating for human rights, cultural preservation, and global awareness to prevent future atrocities. 15. What is nonviolent resistance, and what role has it played in worldwide conflict over more recent years? Answer: • Nonviolent Resistance: Involves peaceful protest, civil disobedience, and non-cooperation to challenge oppression, injustice, and authoritarian regimes. • Role: Nonviolent movements have influenced global conflicts by: • Mobilizing Mass Participation: Engaging diverse communities in collective action for social change. • Promoting Democratic Values: Advocating for human rights, civil liberties, and political reforms through inclusive strategies. • Achieving Political Transitions: Contributing to regime changes, democratization processes, and conflict resolution efforts. • Examples: Civil rights movements, anti-colonial struggles, and environmental activism demonstrate nonviolent resistance’s impact on policy reforms, public opinion, and international solidarity. Impact: Nonviolent resistance promotes dialogue, social justice, and sustainable peace, challenging systemic inequalities and advancing democratic governance in global contexts. Chapter 13 – Spirituality, Religion, and Shamanism MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Anthropology examines spirituality and religion in terms of the society’s A. traditions. B. expectations. C. worldview. D. belief systems. E. sacred places. Answer: C 2. All of the following constitute a definition of religion except: A. a means by which people deal with things beyond their control. B. a group of associated ceremonial practices. C. a system by which people interpret aspects of the universe. D. a sacred narrative that explains our origin. E. an organized system of ideas. Answer: D 3. Religion serves various functions in society, including each of the following except: A. it provides a path of hope. B. it unites people worldwide in a belief system. C. it provides moral guidelines for personal conduct. D. it provides an orderly view of the universe. E. reinforces community values. Answer: B 4. Which of the following is least likely to be extensively involved in formal religious beliefs and activities? A. Horticulturalists in a tropical rain forest environment B. Members of food-foraging societies with limited scientific knowledge C. Peasants in a feudal society D. Members of lower classes in an urban-industrial society E. Wealthy members of urban-industrial societies with advanced scientific knowledge Answer: E 5. A holistic spiritual worldview that is found in egalitarian societies and which permeates all daily activities is called A. positivistic. B. spiritualistic. C. naturalistic. D. monistic. E. dualistic. Answer: C 6. A sacred narrative that explains the fundamentals of human existence is called a(n) A. legend. B. parable. C. religious text. D. ritual. E. myth. Answer: E 7. Belief in _____ is found in societies in which women make a major contribution to the economy and are relatively equal to men in power and authority. A. mana B. gods C. goddesses D. fetishes E. ancestral spirits Answer: C 8. A people’s collection of gods and goddesses is called a(n) A. mana. B. collective. C. pantheon. D. fetish. E. altar. Answer: C 9. If religious belief reflects the structure of society, in which types of society would you expect to find widespread belief in ancestral spirits? A. Those in which descent groups play a major role in social organization B. Those that have a disproportionately large number of old people C. Those that have a disproportionately large number of young people D. Those in which neolocal marital residence is the rule E. Those with egocentric systems such as the kindred Answer: A 10. The major difference between animism and animatism has to do with whether the supernatural force that occupies an entity is A. personal or impersonal and without identity. B. natural or supernatural. C. a god or an ancestral spirit. D. a priest or a shaman. E. an example of witchcraft or of divination. Answer: A 11. A full-time religious specialist formally recognized for his or her role in guiding the religious practices of others is called a(n) A. shaman. B. priest or priestess. C. pastor. D. spiritual guide. E. preacher. Answer: B 12. Which of the following is not a change that affects women who become a Chan monastic? A. They devote themselves to their families unselfishly B. They begin to refer to each other as “brother” C. They reduce their attachment to worldly things, such as music D. They eat sparsely and lose weight E. They shave their heads Answer: A 13. Chan monastics discussed in this chapter’s Biocultural Connection are in the country of A. Cambodia. B. India. C. Taiwan. D. Thailand. E. Nepal. Answer: C 14. The widespread occurrence of shamanism and the remarkable similarities between shamanistic traditions wherever found are consequences of A. culture. B. universal neurological inheritance. C. similar ecclesiastical organization. D. diffusion. E. effects of hallucinatory drugs. Answer: B 15. Which of the following is not a major form of establishing spiritual lineage? A. Apprenticeship personally to a religious leader, as among Sufis B. Election by religious elders, as among Catholics C. Following a new charismatic prophet, as among the Raelians D. Seeking a divinely appointed individual through revelation, as among Tibetan Buddhists E. Claiming biological descent from a common ancestor, as among Israelites Answer: C 16. From his work with Conibo shamans, Michael Harner argues that A. anthropologists have seriously underestimated the significance of the shamanistic experience on Amazonian Indian ideologies and practices. B. anthropology understands shamanism quite well and has been able to contribute to its preservation worldwide. C. the hallucinogenic drugs that the Conibo shamans use are extremely powerful and should not be generally available to the uninitiated. D. shamanism should be used in daily American life because it would alleviate most of the psychosomatic illnesses that currently affect Americans. E. we need urgent worldwide action to save the shamans because they are being targeted by poor economic policies globally. Answer: A 17. Ju/’hoansi healers possess the powerful healing force called n/um, which generally remains dormant in a healer until an effort is made to activate. Among the ways to activate n/um are all of the following except: A. solo singing. B. trance dance. C. use of hallucinogens. D. instrument playing. E. medicinal curing ceremony. Answer: C 18. The Shamanic Complex is A. a psychological state in which the shaman is focused intensely on healing. B. the household and apprentices, as well as shaman, involved in healing. C. the market of magical and sorcery items that the patient must purchase for healing. D. the interrelationship of the shaman, patient, and community. E. a geographical area in which the shaman lives – believed to be a powerful symbolic field. Answer: D 19. A culturally prescribed avoidance is a(n) A. prohibition. B. taboo. C. avoidance. D. mana. E. ritual law. Answer: B 20. If a society has a taboo against eating pork and a member eats it mistakenly, what types of rituals might the person undergo to fix the transgression? A. Rites of purification B. Rites of intensification C. Rites of passage D. Magical rituals E. Rites of rebellion Answer: A 21. When an individual undergoes rituals to celebrate birth, puberty, and marriage, he or she is practicing A. rites of rebellion. B. rites of passage. C. rites of intensification. D. rites of magic. E. life stage rituals. Answer: B 22. The initiation rites for male Australian aborigines include a stage when they are isolated from the rest of society and undergo a cram course in tribal lore; the trauma associated with their ordeal is part of a teaching method that ensures that they will remember what they are taught. This particular stage in the puberty ceremony would be referred to as the stage of _____ by Arnold Van Gennep. A. initiation B. intensification C. separation D. transition E. incorporation Answer: D 23. A rite of _____ serves to help groups get through crises such as drought or some other external threat to the survival of the group. A. separation B. purification C. rebellion D. passage E. intensification Answer: E 24. After the death of a famous movie star, auctions may be held of his or her personal belongings. A few years ago, the sale of a popular actor’s shirt almost caused a riot among teenage girls who were bidding for it. The assumption that owning, touching, or wearing a person’s shirt somehow puts you in touch with him could be used as an example of A. internal magic. B. symbolic magic. C. imitative magic. D. Witchcraft. E. contagious magic. Answer: E 25. Magic based on the assumption that things that are like each other somehow have a connection with each other and if you do something to one, it will affect the other, is called A. scientific. B. imitative. C. contagious. D. rebellious. E. witchcraft. Answer: B 26. If someone takes a handful of pebbles and scatters them in order to read the pattern or design as a prediction, it is called A. chiromancy. B. scapulamancy. C. pyromancy. D. geomancy. E. hydromancy. Answer: D 27. Chiromancy is divination based on the “reading” of A. palms. B. shoulder blades. C. tea leaves. D. pebbles. E. smoke patterns. Answer: A 28. Scapulamancy, pyromancy, chiromancy, and necromancy are all examples of A. fortumancy. B. rites of passage. C. divination. D. witchcraft. E. sorcery. Answer: C 29. An explanation of misfortune based on the belief that certain individuals possess an innate, psychic power capable of causing harm, including sickness and death, is called A. sorcery. B. witchcraft. C. imitative magic. D. contagious magic. E. rites of intensification. Answer: B 30. Religion, magic, and witchcraft are all similar in which of the following ways? A. They all disappear once modern education and scientific training expand B. They all share the common goal of improving social relationships within a community C. They are all associated with morose nonconformists who try to destroy society D. They provide explanation of events and are mechanisms of social control E. They are all morally neutral Answer: D 31. Mount Kailash is a sacred site for many religious traditions. In all of the following religious traditions it is a taboo to climb Mount Kailash except: A. Jainism. B. Buddhism. C. Hinduism. D. Islam. E. Bönpo. Answer: D 32. All of the following statements about pilgrimages are correct except: A. a pilgrimage is a sacred journey involving religious drama. B. a pilgrimage demands personal sacrifices. C. pilgrims usually wear special clothing, carry amulets, or perform prescribed rituals along the way. D. pilgrims travel to sacred sites with expectations. E. pilgrimages are practiced by Christians, Buddhists, and Hindus, but not Muslims. Answer: E 33. Who is the Catholic “Black Madonna”? A. She is a brown or dark-skinned wooden statue or painted image representing Saint Mary B. She is a manifestation of Saint Mary who appeared in Africa in the late 1800s C. It is a statue of the Virgin Mary that is used for sorcery and witchcraft D. It is an ethnocentric term that non-Catholics use to refer to the Marianist focus of the Catholic Church E. She is a faith healer in Ghana who rose up in the late 1970s and now leads a revitalization movement within the Catholic Church Answer: A 34. Ideologically inspired violation of a sacred site on people believed to have evil beliefs is called A. solicitation. B. desecration. C. avoidance. D. destruction. E. restitution. Answer: B 35. Which of the following statements about revitalization movements is incorrect? A. The purpose of revitalization movements is to reform society. B. Revitalization movements always fail because they require too much change to be tolerated. C. All known major religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, began as revitalization movements. D. Revitalization movements may be completely unrealistic. E. Revitalization movements may be adaptive and give rise to long-lasting religions. Answer: B 36. Vodou is an example of what type of religion? A. Mixed B. Reactionary C. Syncretic D. Juxtaposed E. Assimilated Answer: C 37. All of the following statements about Haitian Vodou are correct except: A. it emerged in Haiti following independence. B. it is a creative blending of indigenous and foreign beliefs and practices. C. it is spreading today more widely. D. practitioners believe in spirit possession. E. believers do not adhere to beliefs of any other religious tradition. Answer: E 38. A process of cultural change in which a population tends toward a nonreligious worldview is called A. desecration. B. reaction. C. syncretism. D. secularization. E. revitalization. Answer: D 39. Islamic banking and finance are based on the religious principle of A. riba (making equity profit). B. lariba (not making asset-based profit). C. loa (lending by caste hierarchy). D. mana (magical contagion). E. kailash (prohibition on trading). Answer: B 40. All of the following are true about Islamic financing in the U.S. following the 2001 World Trade Center attack except: A. U.S. Muslim home financing increased after 2001, as Muslims were eager to demonstrate their commitment to the American dream. B. after 2001, U.S. Muslims withdrew a great deal of their monies from charities that might be misunderstood by others. C. U.S. Muslims withdrew their monies to a great extent from the stock market and began investing in real estate. D. Muslims in the U.S. stopped reporting their income to the Internal Revenue Service. E. U.S. Muslims base many of their financial decisions on religious concepts. Answer: D TRUE/FALSE 1. Twenty-five percent of the world’s population identifies itself as “non-religious.” Answer: False 2. Among food foragers, religion tends to be inseparable from daily life. Answer: True 3. Religion and spirituality are the same thing to anthropologists. Answer: False 4. The belief in ancestral spirits is associated with a dualistic approach of body/matter versus mind/soul. Answer: True 5. All religions anthropomorphize the supernatural components of their pantheon. Answer: False 6. Animatism is the belief that nature is animated by distinct spirits. Answer: False 7. Deceased ancestors have no importance in the patrilineal society of traditional China. Answer: False 8. The Dalai Lama is a spiritual leader of the Muslim Sufis. Answer: False 9. Drumming can be used to attain a shamanic state of consciousness. Answer: True 10. The shaman has a relationship with the patient and the community. Answer: True 11. The Ju/’hoansi believe that illness is caused by invisible arrows shot by spirits. Answer: True 12. A sick person who is given a medical explanation for his disease (for example, that he has tuberculosis) may still prefer to explain his illness as the result of witchcraft because it explains why he, and not someone else, got the disease. Answer: True 13. Some societies have more taboos than others. Answer: True 14. After a devastating tornado, a church met to pray for strength and unity during the crisis. This is an example of a rite of purification. Answer: False 15. Witchcraft accusations serve as a mechanism of social control. Answer: True 16. People often turn to pilgrimages in the hope of reaching a specific goal, such as the healing of physical, emotional, or social ills. Answer: True 17. One of the largest pilgrimages in the world is the hajj, a Hindu pilgrimage to a sacred temple. Answer: False 18. One of the largest desecrations of religious sites occurred during the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s in China. Answer: True 19. The African continent is 25% Christian. Answer: False 20. Muslim beliefs have an effect on Islamic banking. Answer: True SHORT ANSWER 1. What is a worldview, and how does it relate to the anthropological study of religion? Answer: • Worldview Definition: A worldview refers to a comprehensive framework of beliefs, values, perceptions, and assumptions about the universe and humanity’s place within it. • Relation to Anthropology: Anthropologists study worldviews to understand how cultures perceive and interpret reality, including religious beliefs, rituals, and cosmologies that shape social practices and individual behavior. 2. Distinguish between religion and spirituality. Answer: • Religion: Organized system of beliefs, practices, and rituals centered around a deity or deities, often involving institutional structures and communal worship. • Spirituality: Personal quest for meaning, connection with the divine, or transcendent experiences, often independent of formal religious institutions and emphasizing inner peace, meditation, or mystical insights. 3. What are the cultural purposes of religion and spirituality? Answer: • Religion: Provides social cohesion, moral guidance, rituals for life transitions (birth, marriage, death), explanations for natural phenomena, and a sense of community identity. • Spirituality: Offers personal fulfillment, emotional comfort, ethical frameworks, and a search for deeper meaning beyond material existence. 4. Give an example of a pantheon. Answer: • Example: The Greek pantheon includes gods and goddesses like Zeus, Hera, Athena, and Apollo, each with distinct attributes, roles, and domains in mythology and religious practices. 5. What are the three categories of supernatural beings? Answer: • Deities: Gods and goddesses with divine powers and roles in religious narratives. • Ancestors: Spirits of deceased relatives who influence the living and receive offerings. • Spirits: Nature spirits, demons, or mythical creatures believed to inhabit specific places or influence events. 6. Distinguish between animism and animatism. Answer: • Animism: Belief that natural objects, animals, and phenomena possess spiritual essence or souls. • Animatism: Belief in a powerful impersonal force (mana) that exists in objects and can be manipulated or harnessed through rituals. 7. What is mana, and how is it used religiously? Answer: • Mana: A concept of supernatural power or energy that resides in people, objects, or places, often believed to enhance prestige, influence success, or provide protection in religious rituals and social interactions. 8. How can karma “change your sex”? Discuss the example of the Chan monastics. Answer: • Example: In Chan Buddhism, karma is believed to influence reincarnation across genders based on ethical actions in past lives. Chan monastics aim to transcend gender distinctions through spiritual practices, emphasizing enlightenment and moral purification as paths to liberation. 9. Distinguish between priests and shamans. Answer: • Priests: Religious leaders in formalized institutional religions, performing rituals, interpreting sacred texts, and serving as intermediaries between believers and deities. • Shamans: Spiritual intermediaries in tribal or indigenous societies, often chosen through spiritual experiences or lineage, who communicate with spirits, heal, and guide rituals to address spiritual or community needs. 10. Describe the work of the Foundation for Shamanic Studies. Answer: • Foundation for Shamanic Studies: Founded by anthropologist Michael Harner, it promotes worldwide shamanic practices through workshops, training, and research to revive and preserve traditional shamanic healing, journeying techniques, and spiritual practices across cultures.. 11. How does healing occur among the Ju/’hoansi? Answer: Healing among the Ju/’hoansi, an indigenous group of Namibia and Botswana, often involves rituals performed by healers who enter trance states to communicate with spirits and diagnose illnesses. They use herbal remedies and therapeutic dances as part of their healing practices. 12. How are girls initiated into Mende society? Answer: Girls in Mende society undergo initiation through the Bondo society, where they are secluded for a period to learn about womanhood, including roles, responsibilities, and cultural practices. This initiation marks their transition into adulthood. 13. What are the three stages in a rite of passage, as defined by Van Gennep? Answer: Van Gennep identified three stages in a rite of passage: 1. Separation: The individual is removed from their previous status. 2. Transition (or liminality): A period of ambiguity where the individual has left one status but has not yet entered the next. 3. Incorporation: The individual re-enters society with a new status, having completed the rites. 14. Distinguish between imitative and contagious magic, giving examples of each. Answer: • Imitative magic involves performing rituals that mimic the desired outcome. For example, using a voodoo doll to affect a person by manipulating the doll. • Contagious magic operates on the principle that things once in contact can influence each other after separation. For instance, using hair or personal belongings to affect a person. 15. Give four examples of divination. Answer: Four examples of divination methods include: 1. Tarot cards 2. I Ching (Book of Changes) 3. Runes 4. Tea leaf reading (tasseography) 16. Who are the Navajo skin-walkers? Answer: Navajo skin-walkers are believed to be individuals with supernatural abilities to transform into animals. In Navajo culture, they are associated with malevolent acts and are considered taboo subjects. 17. How is pilgrimage “devotion in motion”? Answer: Pilgrimage is considered "devotion in motion" because it involves a journey to a sacred place or shrine undertaken for religious reasons. It combines physical movement with spiritual devotion and often includes rituals and practices along the way. 18. What is a revitalization movement? Give examples of contemporary revitalization movements. Answer: A revitalization movement is a deliberate, organized effort by a society to construct a more satisfying culture. Contemporary examples include Native American revitalization movements aiming to revive traditional languages, rituals, and cultural practices. 19. What is syncretism? Describe a syncretic religion. Answer: Syncretism is the blending of different religious beliefs and practices into a new system. A syncretic religion example is Santería, which combines elements of Yoruba religion with Roman Catholicism, particularly in Cuba and other parts of the Caribbean. 20. What does it mean to be an “Islamic financier”? Answer: An "Islamic financier" is a person involved in Islamic finance, which adheres to Sharia (Islamic law) principles regarding financial transactions. It emphasizes ethical investments and prohibits interest (riba) and speculative transactions. ESSAY 1. How does a society’s worldview shape its experience of reality? Answer: • Worldview Influence: A society’s worldview encompasses its fundamental beliefs, values, perceptions, and interpretations of reality, shaping how individuals and communities understand themselves, their place in the world, and their interactions with the supernatural, natural environment, and each other. • Impact on Experience: Worldviews dictate cultural norms, moral frameworks, rituals, and social structures that guide behavior and decision-making. They influence perceptions of time, space, causality, and the meaning of life events, fostering collective identity and shaping social cohesion and conflict resolution mechanisms. 2. Eighty-four percent of the world’s population identifies itself as religious and/or spiritual. Why do you think this percentage is so high? Why is religion so important to people? Answer: • Human Need for Meaning: Religion and spirituality address existential questions about life, death, suffering, and the unknown, offering comfort, hope, and a sense of purpose in uncertain times. • Community and Identity: Religious practices foster social bonds, community support, and cultural identity, providing frameworks for ethical behavior, rites of passage, and collective celebrations. • Psychological Benefits: Belief systems and rituals offer emotional stability, coping mechanisms, and a sense of control over life events, promoting resilience and well-being. • Historical and Cultural Continuity: Religious traditions provide continuity across generations, preserving cultural heritage, moral values, and societal norms. 3. Explain the function of religion in society from an anthropological perspective. Answer: • Social Cohesion: Religion reinforces group solidarity, shared beliefs, and moral values, promoting cooperation, trust, and collective identity within communities. • Cultural Integration: Religious rituals and symbols express cultural norms, social hierarchy, and power dynamics, maintaining social order and stability. • Psychological Support: Belief in supernatural forces and afterlife comforts individuals facing adversity, loss, or uncertainty, offering solace and hope. • Adaptation and Change: Religious practices evolve to meet societal needs, influencing social movements, political ideologies, and responses to globalization and modernization. 4. Discuss the role of ancestral spirits in the patrilineal society of traditional China. What aspects of this type of religious practice can you find in other societies? Can you make any associations with your own society? Answer: • Role of Ancestral Spirits: In traditional Chinese patrilineal societies, ancestral spirits are revered as guardians and mediators between the living and the deceased ancestors. Rituals honor ancestors, seek their guidance, and ensure their well-being in the afterlife, influencing family cohesion, moral obligations, and social status. • Comparative Practices: Similar ancestor veneration exists globally, such as in African and Native American cultures, where rituals and offerings sustain ancestral connections, moral teachings, and community cohesion. • Associations: In contemporary societies, commemorative rituals, family genealogy, and ancestor worship practices persist, reflecting cultural heritage, familial bonds, and continuity across generations, albeit often transformed by modern lifestyles and religious diversity. 5. Identify and explain the functions of religious specialists from culture to culture. Answer: • Functions: Religious specialists, such as priests, shamans, oracles, and healers, perform diverse roles: • Mediators: Intercede with supernatural forces or spirits on behalf of the community. • Ritual Experts: Conduct ceremonies marking life events, seasonal changes, or communal crises. • Healers: Treat spiritual and physical ailments through rituals, herbal remedies, or divine intervention. • Teachers: Interpret sacred texts, moral codes, and cosmological beliefs, transmitting religious knowledge and ethical values. • Cultural Variations: Specialists vary by culture, gender roles, and religious traditions, adapting roles to meet community needs and social expectations. 6. Define and explain the role of a priest or priestess in religion and how he/she is different from or similar to a shaman. Answer: • Priest/Priestess Role: A priest/priestess is a religious leader authorized by an institution to perform sacred rituals, interpret scriptures, and guide worship practices within formal religious frameworks. • Differences: Priests serve structured religious institutions, uphold doctrinal teachings, administer sacraments, and maintain religious orthodoxy, often in urban settings. • Similarities: Shamans, by contrast, are often chosen by spirits, taught through direct revelation, and considered mediators between the human and spiritual worlds. 7. Why do some cultures have shamans? How does one become a shaman? How can the widespread occurrence of shamanism be explained? Answer: • Cultural Role: Shamans in diverse cultures fulfill roles as healers, seers, and spiritual guides, communicating with spirits to address illness, spiritual imbalance, or community concerns. • Shamanic Calling: Shamans are chosen through spiritual visions, dreams, or hereditary lines, undergoing rigorous training in rituals, healing techniques, and spirit communication. • Widespread Occurrence: Shamanism’s prevalence across cultures reflects universal human experiences with illness, death, and spiritual inquiries, adapting practices to local environments, ecological knowledge, and cultural beliefs. These responses provide insights into the anthropological perspectives on religion, spirituality, and cultural practices across diverse societies. 8. Discuss the importance of the Shamanic Complex. How does community contribute to illness and healing? What is the social role of healing outside of the patient and the healer, whether it be a Western doctor or shaman? Answer: • Shamanic Complex: The shamanic complex encompasses spiritual practices, rituals, and beliefs centered around shamanic healing. Shamans address physical, mental, and spiritual ailments by communicating with spirits, performing rituals, and restoring balance to individuals and communities. • Community Contribution: Communities contribute to illness and healing through social and psychological support, shared beliefs in healing practices, and collective rituals that reinforce solidarity and promote well-being. • Social Role of Healing: Beyond the patient and healer, healing in Western and shamanic contexts involves broader social implications: • Western Medicine: Doctors and healthcare systems impact societal health through medical research, public health policies, and healthcare accessibility. • Shamanic Healing: Shamans serve as cultural mediators, preserving traditional knowledge, promoting community resilience, and addressing spiritual and existential crises. 9. What is the role of ritual in religious belief systems? Answer: • Role of Ritual: Rituals in religious belief systems serve multiple functions: • Symbolic Expression: Rituals express and reinforce religious beliefs, values, and narratives, marking significant life transitions, seasons, or spiritual milestones. • Community Cohesion: Rituals unite believers, fostering a sense of belonging, shared identity, and collective memory. • Sacred Communication: Rituals facilitate communication with deities, ancestors, or supernatural forces, seeking blessings, guidance, or reconciliation. • Cultural Continuity: Rituals transmit cultural heritage, ethical norms, and moral teachings across generations, adapting to social change while maintaining religious identity. 10. Bronislaw Malinowski, in his classic essay, “Magic, Science and Religion,” claimed that each of magic, science, and religion were each a viable mode of cognition and that most societies exhibit all of them in variable proportions. In what ways does magical thinking persist in contemporary North America? Answer: • Persistence of Magical Thinking: Magical thinking persists in contemporary North America through: • Superstitions: Beliefs in luck, charms, or omens influencing daily decisions and behaviors. • New Age Practices: Adoption of alternative therapies, crystals, or spiritual healing techniques. • Pop Culture: Fascination with paranormal phenomena, astrology, and supernatural explanations in media and entertainment. • Internet Culture: Proliferation of conspiracy theories, pseudoscientific claims, and online rituals or spells. • Social Implications: Despite scientific advancements, magical thinking reflects human desires for control, meaning, and supernatural intervention, shaping individual beliefs and societal attitudes toward uncertainty and the unknown. 11. Mark Juergensmeyer, in his book called The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State, argues that so-called “fundamentalist” religious movements in various parts of the world present a serious and persisting challenge to the Western notion of separation of church and state. How can we account for the many religious revitalizations linked to political movements happening today worldwide? Answer: • Religious Revitalizations: Religious revitalizations linked to political movements are influenced by: • Identity Politics: Religious movements assert cultural, ethnic, or national identities, challenging secular governance and advocating for religious laws or policies. • Globalization: Increased connectivity fosters religious mobilization, transnational alliances, and solidarity among believers facing perceived threats to religious freedoms or cultural values. • Political Opportunism: Leaders harness religious rhetoric, symbols, or institutions to mobilize support, gain legitimacy, and influence domestic or international policies. • Social Discontent: Economic inequality, political instability, or cultural marginalization drive religious movements seeking social justice, moral reforms, or cultural revival. • Impact: Religious nationalism reshapes governance, public policies, and international relations, challenging secularism while asserting religious authority in political arenas. 12. Discuss the role of religion in cultural change, paying particular attention to the role of globalization. Answer: • Religion in Cultural Change: Religion influences cultural change through: • Globalization: Religious movements and ideas spread across borders, adapting to diverse cultural contexts while influencing global ethics, human rights, and environmental stewardship. • Cultural Hybridization: Globalization fosters religious syncretism, blending beliefs, rituals, and practices from multiple traditions, creating new religious expressions and identities. • Social Movements: Religious groups advocate for social justice, environmental sustainability, and human rights, shaping public discourse and policy agendas globally. • Secular Challenges: Religion responds to secularism, scientific advancements, and modernization, negotiating its role in societal governance, ethical debates, and cultural preservation. • Contemporary Examples: Religious responses to climate change, migration crises, and digital technologies reflect evolving religious identities, ethical frameworks, and global solidarity in cultural change. These responses explore the multifaceted roles of religion, rituals, and cultural dynamics in shaping individual beliefs, societal norms, and global interactions across diverse contexts. 13. Consider each of the three major types of ritual, and give examples of how these are practiced in the United States. Answer: • Rites of Passage: Rites of passage mark transitions in life stages, such as birth, adolescence, marriage, and death. In the United States: • Birth: Baby showers celebrate expectant mothers and prepare for childbirth. • Marriage: Wedding ceremonies unite couples in legal and spiritual unions. • Death: Funerals honor deceased individuals and comfort grieving families. • Ceremonial Rituals: Ceremonial rituals celebrate cultural or religious events: • Religious: Mass in Catholic churches, prayer services in mosques, or Sabbath observances in synagogues. • Cultural: Fourth of July parades, Thanksgiving dinners, or New Year's Eve countdowns. • Cultural Rituals: Cultural rituals affirm group identities and values: • Sports: Tailgating before football games or victory celebrations after championships. • National Holidays: Independence Day fireworks, Memorial Day ceremonies, or Martin Luther King Jr. Day events. 14. Explain the function of sacred places in religion. Use specific examples to illustrate your answer. Answer: • Function of Sacred Places: Sacred places hold religious significance, fostering spiritual experiences, communal worship, and pilgrimages: • Examples: • Churches: Christian cathedrals like St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York City provide spaces for worship, reflection, and sacraments. • Temples: Hindu temples like the BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in Atlanta serve as centers for prayer, meditation, and religious education. • Mosques: The Islamic Center of America in Dearborn, Michigan, offers spaces for daily prayers, Friday sermons, and community gatherings. • Natural Sites: Sedona's Red Rock State Park in Arizona is revered by New Age spiritualists for its energy vortexes and healing properties. 15. Pilgrimage is an important part of many religious traditions. Why do you think pilgrimage is used as a fundamental way to practice religion? Answer: • Significance of Pilgrimage: • Spiritual Journey: Pilgrimage symbolizes devotion, penance, or seeking spiritual enlightenment, deepening religious faith and personal transformation. • Community Bonding: Pilgrims form communal bonds, share religious experiences, and unite in collective rituals, strengthening religious identity and solidarity. • Sacred Sites: Pilgrimage connects believers to sacred places, relics, or events central to religious narratives, affirming faith traditions and historical continuity. • Cultural Heritage: Pilgrimage preserves cultural traditions, customs, and rituals, promoting cultural tourism and interfaith dialogue globally. 16. Describe the role of religion in cultural stability and culture change. Use current examples to show how religion can be a force for conservatism as well as for change. Answer: • Role in Cultural Stability: • Conservatism: Religious doctrines uphold traditional values, moral teachings, and social norms, promoting stability in family structures, gender roles, and ethical standards. • Examples: Catholic teachings on marriage and abortion, Orthodox Jewish practices in gender segregation, or conservative Islamic dress codes reinforce cultural continuity and community cohesion. • Role in Culture Change: • Progressivism: Religious movements advocate for social justice, human rights, and environmental stewardship, challenging discriminatory practices, economic inequality, and environmental degradation. • Examples: Liberation theology in Latin America supports grassroots movements for land rights and economic justice. Buddhist monks in Myanmar advocate for democracy and human rights amid political unrest. LGBTQ-affirming Christian churches promote inclusivity and social acceptance. 17. What is the effect of religion today on global capitalism? Answer: • Religion and Global Capitalism: • Ethical Frameworks: Religious ethics guide economic behaviors, corporate social responsibility, and ethical investment practices, shaping business values and consumer choices. • Market Influences: Religious tourism, cultural festivals, and pilgrimage sites drive global tourism revenues, economic growth, and local development. • Social Movements: Religious groups mobilize against economic injustices, corporate exploitation, and environmental degradation, advocating for fair trade, labor rights, and sustainable development. • Interfaith Dialogue: Religious leaders engage in ethical discussions on wealth distribution, poverty alleviation, and global governance, influencing policies and international cooperation. These responses explore the multifaceted roles of rituals, sacred places, pilgrimage, cultural stability, culture change, and religion's impact on global capitalism within contemporary contexts. Test Bank for Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge William A. Haviland, Harald E. L. Prins, Bunny McBride, Walrath 9781305633797