Chapter 11: Motivation TRUE/FALSE 1. Motivation is the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal. Answer: True 2. According to some industrial psychologists, Performance = Motivation X Ability. Answer: False According to industrial psychology, Performance = Motivation X Ability X Situational Constraints. 3. According to industrial psychology, job performance is an additive function of motivation, ability, and situational constraints. Answer: False According to industrial psychology, job performance is a multiplicative function of motivation times ability times situational constraints, such that job performance will suffer if any one of these components is weak. 4. Needs are defined in the text as the physical requirements that must be met to ensure survival. Answer: False Needs are defined as the physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and well-being. 5. The use of need-satisfaction theories to determine what motivates employees is not a straightforward task because different theories have identified different needs categories. Answer: True 6. According to McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory, people are motivated by a need for power, achievement, and affiliation. Answer: True 7. In July 2007, the New York Times moved into a new $600 million, 52-story building, leaving a building that the company had hailed as exceptionally smart and environmentally friendly. All its employees want to do now is complain about the mice that infest the new building, its leaks, and its screwy elevators. The staff at the Times desires intrinsic rewards. Answer: False Working conditions are extrinsic rewards. 8. An intrinsic reward is a reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. Answer: True 9. Since higher-order needs will not motivate people as long as lower-order needs remain unsatisfied, companies should satisfy lower-order needs first.. Answer: True 10. In general, extrinsic rewards are more important to workers than intrinsic rewards. Answer: False A number of surveys suggest that both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are important. 11. The attractive power of pay and benefits as a reward to motivate workers is strong from recruitment to retirement, declines over time, and is typically only strong during the early phases of a career. Answer: False The attractive power of pay and benefits as a reward to motivate workers is only strong during the recruitment stage. 12. According to equity theory, it is objective reality, rather than employee perceptions, that determines employee motivation. Answer: False According to equity theory, it is employee perceptions, rather than objective reality, that determines employee motivation 13. The basic components of equity theory are outcomes, instrumentality, and valence. Answer: False The basic components of equity theory are inputs, outcomes, and referents. 14. Apple gave each of its 18,000 employees a free iPhone before making them available to customers. According to the equity theory, the company-wide gift was an example of an outcome. Answer: True 15. The two kinds of inequity are under reward and over reward. Answer: True 16. Over reward is more commonly associated with inequity than is under reward. Answer: False Inequity associated with under reward is much more common than inequity associated with over reward. 17. Rationalizing or distorting outcomes may be used when other ways to restore equity aren’t available. Answer: True 18. Distributive justice refers to the perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions. Answer: False This is the definition of procedural justice. Distributive justice refers to the perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated. 19. If employees perceive that their outcomes are unfair, but that the decisions and procedures leading to those outcomes were fair, they are much more likely to seek constructive ways of restoring equity. Answer: True 20. Expectancy theory describes motivation as primarily an unconscious process. Answer: False Expectancy theory holds that people make conscious choices about their motivation. 21. In June 2007, United Auto Workers (UAW) union members approved a deal that gave Delphi Corp. concessions on wages, benefits, and plant closings that the auto parts maker said it must have to exit bankruptcy. In terms of the expectancy theory, UAW members more than likely saw that the deal had a high valence. Answer: True 22. In 2007, Northwest Airlines had to cancel about one out of eight flights due to lack of flight crews as the pilots union stepped up its attempts to improve working conditions. In terms of expectancy theory, the fact the union is also openly discussing a strike indicates that its members perceive a high instrumentality for the work stoppages. Answer: False Union members would not be discussing a strike if they thought the work stoppages alone would have any effect on management. Instrumentality refers to the perceived relationship between performance and rewards. 23. According to expectancy theory, instrumentality is strong when employees believe that improved performance will lead to better and more rewards. Answer: True 24. The four kinds of reinforcement contingencies are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Answer: True 25. Both negative reinforcement and punishment weaken behavior (i.e., decrease its frequency). Answer: False While punishment weakens behavior, negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior. 26. Punishment is also called avoidance learning. Answer: False Negative reinforcement is also called avoidance learning because workers perform a behavior to avoid a negative consequence. 27. For punishment to work, the punishment must be strong enough to stop the undesired behavior and must be administered objectively, impersonally, consistently and contingently, and quickly. Answer: True 28. According to the What Really Works, “Financial, Nonfinancial, and Social Rewards,” the most effective way to motivate employees in manufacturing organizations is to reinforce their behavior with a combination of money or prizes, performance feedback, and recognition and attention. Answer: True 29. Employees at the Seattle office of the U.S. Government Accountability Office know that they have to put in 80 hours of work every two weeks. But they can configure those hours pretty much how they’d like, with the exception that one day a week their managers require all employees to be at the office at the same time. The reason that goal-setting theory could not be used to motivate these employees is that there would be no goal specificity. Answer: False There is reason that work-related goals in this situation cannot be detailed, exact, and unambiguous. 30. According to the goal-setting theory, people will be motivated to the extent to which they understand what is expected of them. Answer: False Goal-setting theory says that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement. 31. Goal specificity is the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish. Answer: False Goal difficulty is the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish. 32. One of the simplest, most effective ways to motivate workers is to give them specific, challenging goals that they accept. Answer: True 33. For goal-setting theory to motivate employees, managers must provide frequent, specific, performance-related feedback. Answer: True MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. According to the text, _____________ is the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal. A. attitude B. self-management C. persistence D. motivation E. compliance Answer: D 2. The three components of _____________ are initiation of effort, direction of effort, and persistence of effort. A. compliance B. self-management C. motivation D. performance E. efficiency Answer: C 3. According to some industrial psychologists, _____________ is a function of motivation times ability times situational constraints. A. leadership skill B. creativity C. job performance D. performance valence E. compliance Answer: C 4. According to some industrial psychologists, job performance is a(n) _____________ function of motivation, ability, and situational constraints. A. circular B. multiplicative C. nonlinear D. additive E. corollary Answer: B 5. A sales manager has carefully selected the members of two sales teams so that they have as nearly as possible identical skills and abilities. Both are assigned potential customers in the same industry. Both groups are offered the same rewards. One team makes the sale, and the other does not. This information tells you that: A. performance and motivation are unrelated B. the concept of synergy is faulty C. one of the components that leads to job performance was weak D. nothing motivates some people E. all of these are true Answer: C Job performance is how well someone performs the requirements of the job. 6. Employees at a local factory receive an extra $500 for every month they exceed production quotas. This is an example of: A. extrinsic reward B. intrinsic reward C. equity D. underreward E. satisfaction Answer: A Extrinsic rewards are tangible and visible to others and are given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors. 7. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory identifies three needs. They are the needs for: A. achievement, relatedness, and growth B. existence, relatedness, and growth C. affiliation, growth, and power D. power, self-actualization, and growth E. power, achievement, and affiliation Answer: E See Exhibit 11.4. 8. David Dworkin is the founder of a small Atlanta-based chain of retail stores called Swoozie’s. The stores target affluent women and carry eclectic lines of wrapping paper, stationery, invitations, and gifts. Dworkin has expressed a strong need to expand Swoozie’s nationwide. According to McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory, Dworkin has a need for: A. achievement B. esteem C. growth D. self-actualization E. affiliation Answer: A McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory suggests that people are motivated by the need for achievement––that is, the need to accomplish challenging goals. 9. According to Alderfer’s ERG theory, the lowest-order need is: A. existence B. relatedness C. physiological needs D. ego-related E. empathy Answer: A See Exhibit 11.4. 10. According to the model of need satisfaction, an unsatisfied need produces: A. tension B. high levels of creativity C. sacrificing acquisition D. problem-solving efficiency E. selective perception Answer: A See Exhibit 11.3. 11. Marketers often appeal to consumers’ needs as defined by Maslow’s hierarchy. Schlage, a lock manufacturer, shows how much protection its locks provide. Clorox developed several types of wipes to eliminate concerns about infectious germs. Both marketers are appealing to which need as defined by Maslow? A. Achievement B. Belongingness C. Safety D. Physiological needs E. Achievement Answer: C Consumers’ needs for safety are the marketers’ primary concerns in this case. 12. Which of the following statements about needs is true? A. In all situations, higher-order needs can be used to motivate. B. The importance of lower-order needs is identified by all needs theories. C. The relative importance of the various needs may change over time in a predictable pattern. D. Higher-order needs are concerned with survival and security. E. Higher-order needs will generally not motivate people as long as lower-order needs remain unsatisfied. Answer: E Lower-order needs are concerned with safety and physiological needs and existence requirements. Higher-order needs are concerned with relationships, challenges and accomplishments, and influence. Higher-order needs will typically not motivate people if lower-order needs are unsatisfied. 13. A glass of water and shelter from a snowstorm would be examples of _____________, and a gold necklace and tickets to see professional wrestling would not be. A. intangible motivators B. perceptional drives C. motivational cues D. performance modifiers E. lower-order needs Answer: E Lower-order needs are concerned with safety and with physiological and existence requirements. 14. On the basis of research evidence, the two basic needs categories are: A. tangible and intangible needs B. physiological and psychological needs C. higher-order and lower-order needs D. extrinsic and intrinsic needs E. realized and unrealized needs Answer: C The two basic kinds of needs categories, as indicate by studies, are lower-order and higher-order needs. 15. A group of actors gather to read the critical reviews of the new play they presented to audiences last night. The actors are looking for _____________ rewards. A. extrinsic B. psychological C. assigned D. intangible E. intrinsic Answer: A Extrinsic rewards are rewards that are tangible and visible to others, such as positive reviews. 16. Extrinsic rewards are: A. intangible B. exemplified by bonuses, trophies, and plaques C. exemplified by a sense of accomplishment at the conclusion of a difficult assignment D. rewards associated with performing a task for its own sake E. much more effective motivators than intrinsic rewards Answer: B Extrinsic rewards are rewards that are tangible and visible to others, such as bonuses, trophies, and plaques. 17. The first survey conducted since 1949 on what motivates troops to fight found that many soldiers were motivated by patriotic ideals. In other words, soldiers are motivated by _____________ rewards to serve in the military. A. extrinsic B. physiological C. tangible D. assigned E. intrinsic Answer: E Intrinsic rewards are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. 18. Which of the following is an example of an extrinsic reward? A. A sense of achievement B. A feeling of responsibility C. A salary increase D. Pride from accomplishing a difficult task E. All of these Answer: C Extrinsic rewards are rewards given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors. They are both tangible and visible. 19. A concert pianist had always wanted to play jazz when he got the opportunity to play with a group of New Orleans jazz musicians who were displaced after Hurricane Katrina. He was elated after the experience of playing with the talented jazz musicians. He experienced a(n) _____________ reward. A. extrinsic B. physiological C. assigned D. tangible E. intrinsic Answer: E Intrinsic rewards are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. 20. _____________ are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. A. Extrinsic rewards B. Intrinsic rewards C. Motivational cues D. Performance valences E. Physiological rewards Answer: B Definition of intrinsic rewards. 21. Which of the following is an example of an intrinsic reward? A. A bonus B. A contest prize C. A sense of achievement D. A trophy E. All of these Answer: C Intrinsic rewards are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. 22. Managers can motivate employees to increase their efforts by: A. relying on the innate value of extrinsic rewards B. satisfying higher-order needs first C. asking employees what their needs are then matching rewards to those needs D. expecting employees’ needs to remain stable E. doing all of these Answer: C To motivate employees to increase their effort, managers should start by asking people what their needs are. 23. What practical steps can a manager take to motivate employees to increase their effort? A. Determine how other companies within the industry are satisfying employees’ needs B. Satisfy employees’ lower-order needs before attempting to satisfy higher-order needs C. Expect employees’ needs to be stable D. Gradually replace extrinsic rewards with intrinsic rewards that are less expensive E. Do all of these Answer: B Managers can also ask employees what their needs are and should expect people’s needs to change. 24. According to _____________, people will be motivated when they perceive they are being treated fairly. A. expectancy theory B. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs C. equity theory D. Alderfer’s ERG Theory E. reinforcement theory Answer: C Definition of equity theory. 25. Although both Title IX of the 1972 Education Amendments and the advent of professional women’s sporting leagues have led to dramatic increases in opportunities for women in sports at high school, collegiate, and professional levels, significant discrepancies still exist between men’s and women’s sport. For example, women receive less media coverage, promotion, and institutional support. According to _____________, the motivation for women athletes to perform at the top of their ability is less than that for men. A. equity theory B. reinforcement theory C. goal-setting theory D. theory of procedural justice E. expectancy theory Answer: A According to equity theory, people will be motivated when they perceive they are being treated fairly. 26. Although both Title IX of the 1972 Education Amendments and the advent of professional women’s sporting leagues have led to dramatic increases in opportunities for women in sports at high school, collegiate, and professional levels, significant discrepancies still exist between men’s and women’s sport. For example, women receive less media coverage, promotion, and institutional support. According to equity theory, media coverage, access, promotion, and institutional support are all examples of undesirable _____________ for female athletes. A. referents B. valences C. expectancies D. outcomes E. certainties Answer: D Outcomes are the rewards employees receive for their contributions to the organization. 27. The U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) pays Olympic athletes $25,000 for each gold medal, $15,000 for a silver medal, and $10,000 for a bronze medal. Since 1960, the Paralympics for disabled athletes has been a part of the Olympic Games, yet the USOC pays disabled athletes only 10 percent of what the Olympic athletes are paid, and Paralympic athletes are not allowed to participate in opening ceremonies. Paralympic athletes are angry at being treated unfairly. These athletes view Olympic athletes as: A. valence bearers B. instrumental participants C. referents D. mentors E. reinforcers Answer: C Referents are others with whom people compare themselves to determine it they have been treated fairly. 28. The U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) pays Olympic athletes $25,000 for each gold medal, $15,000 for a silver medal, and $10,000 for a bronze medal. Since 1960, the Paralympics for disabled athletes has been a part of the Olympic Games, yet the USOC pays disabled athletes only 10 percent of what the Olympic athletes are paid, and Paralympic athletes are not allowed to participate in opening ceremonies. Paralympic athletes are angry at being treated unfairly. What kind of inequity are the Paralympic athletes experiencing? A. Adverse valence B. Negative instrumentality C. Under reward D. Negative outcome E. Over reward Answer: C Under reward occurs when you compare yourself to a referent and determine the referent is getting more outcome relative to inputs than you are. 29. Although both Title IX of the 1972 Education Amendments and the advent of professional women’s sporting leagues have led to dramatic increases in opportunities for women in sports at high school, collegiate, and professional levels, significant discrepancies still exist between men’s and women’s sport. For example, women receive less media coverage, promotion, and institutional support. According to equity theory, female athletes should feel that male athletes are being: A. overrewarded B. synergized C. under rewarded D. extrinsically rewarded E. goal reinforced Answer: A Over reward occurs when you are perceived to be getting more outcomes relative to inputs than the referents to whom you compare yourself. 30. Which of the following is a basic component of equity theory? A. Valences B. Reinforcement C. Referents D. Instrumentality E. Expectancy Answer: C The basic components of equity theory are inputs, outcomes, and referents. 31. In equity theory, _____________ are others with whom people compare themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly. A. liaisons B. valence bearers C. mentors D. reinforcers E. referents Answer: E Definition of referents. 32. The two basic kinds of inequity are: A. performance and situational inequities B. under reward and over reward C. balanced and unbalanced rewards D. intrinsic and extrinsic inequities E. higher-order and lower-order inequities Answer: B Inequity can take two forms, under reward and over reward. 33. In equity theory, after a(n) _____________ comparison in which they compare their outcomes to their inputs, employees then make a(n) _____________ comparison in which they compare their O/I ratio with the O/I ratio of a referent. A. tangible; intangible B. lower level; higher level C. predictable; unpredictable D. internal; external E. extrinsic; intrinsic Answer: D This is true of internal and external comparisons with regard to equity theory. 34. According to the equity theory, when employees perceive _____________, they tend to experience anger or frustration. A. over reward B. under reward C. adverse instrumentality D. negative motivational cues E. negative reinforcement Answer: B Under reward occurs when you compare yourself to a referent and determine the referent is getting more outcome relative to inputs than you are, which can lead to feelings of anger and frustration. 35. Which type of inequity is more common? A. Over reward B. Under reward C. Negative expectancy D. Negative valence E. Instrumentality Answer: B Inequity associated with under reward is much more common than the inequity associated with over reward. 36. According the motivational model presented in the text, perceived inequity directly affects: A. cultural synergy B. autonomy C. satisfaction D. rewards E. motivational direction Answer: C See Exhibit 11.7. 37. How do employees try to restore equity when they perceive that they have been treated unfairly? A. By rationalizing inputs or outcomes B. By changing the referent C. By simply quitting their jobs D. By reducing the level of energy and time they input into a project E. By doing any of these Answer: E See also Exhibit 11.7. 38. For workers who feel underpaid, creating a union at their place of employment to attain higher wages can be a mechanism for restoring equity by: A. reducing inputs B. increasing outcomes C. changing the referent D. rationalizing inputs or outcomes E. reducing employee turnover Answer: B Sometimes, employees may go to external organizations––in this case, a labor union–– for help in increasing outcomes to restore equity. 39. The U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) pays Olympic athletes $25,000 for each gold medal, $15,000 for a silver medal, and $10,000 for a bronze medal. Since 1960, the Paralympics for disabled athletes has been a part of the Olympic Games, yet the USOC pays disabled athletes only 10 percent of what the Olympic athletes are paid, and Paralympic athletes are not allowed to participate in opening ceremonies. Paralympic athletes are angry at being treated unfairly. To achieve perceived equity, the Paralympic athletes are suing the USOC for larger rewards. Paralympic athletes have decided to deal with the inequity by: A. rationalizing inputs B. changing the referent C. changing instrumentality D. reducing the level of energy and time they input into a project E. increasing outcomes Answer: E The Paralympic athletes are asking for more money. 40. When an employee uses leaving as a mechanism for restoring equity, he or she may: A. quit B. ask for a transfer C. increase the number of monthly absences D. apply for a job at another company E. do all of these Answer: E When none of the other methods for restoring equity is possible or effective, employees may leave by increasing absenteeism, transferring, or quitting their jobs. Applying for another job would be a precursor to quitting. 41. Ford Kinzi is a truck driver for a furniture manufacturer. He has tried every technique he can think of to convince his boss that he deserves a raise. His boss has not responded to changes in inputs and outcomes. Kinzi has also tried to find a different referent and has tried rationalization. What should Kinzi do if he feels the company will never pay him what he deserves? A. Use job enrichment B. Increase the job valence C. Leave the job D. Create intermittent outcome changes E. Find a new mentor within the company Answer: C When all other methods fail (these methods are listed in Exhibit 11.8), leaving the company is often the only viable alternative remaining. 42. Often the first and only strategy that companies are willing to use to restore equity is: A. increasing outcomes B. reducing inputs C. changing the referent D. encouraging rationalization E. creating new referents Answer: A While reducing inputs is a viable strategy, increasing outcomes is often the first and only strategy that companies use to restore equity. 43. In equity theory, _____________ refers to the fairness of the procedures used to make reward allocation decisions. A. process objectivity B. procedural justice C. conventional wisdom D. altruism E. distributive justice Answer: B Definition of procedural justice. 44. _____________ is the perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated. A. Procedural justice B. Distributive justice C. Equity D. Postconventional perception E. Process objectivity Answer: B Definition of distributive justice. 45. A 2005 survey by Penn State researchers says that even when they have similar training and experience, women in information technology are paid an average of $15,000 less than men in similar positions. According to _____________, the process used to make reward allocation decisions is unfair. A. process objectivity B. procedural justice C. conventional wisdom D. altruism E. distributive justice Answer: B In equity theory, procedural justice refers to the fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions. 46. The _____________ states that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards. A. reinforcement theory B. equity theory C. expectancy theory D. goal-setting theory E. theory of motivational instrumentality Answer: C Definition of expectancy theory. 47. Physical fitness is one of the basic military skills required for soldiers to perform their tasks effectively. Regular physical training is therefore included in soldiers’ obligatory educational programs around the world. According to the _____________, the soldiers involved in international peacekeeping missions could be highly motivated by the attractiveness or the desirability of the rewards for staying physically fit. A. theory of need satisfaction B. goal-setting theory C. expectancy theory D. equity theory E. reinforcement theory Answer: C The attractiveness or the desirability of the rewards for staying physically fit is the valence. The expectancy theory states that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards. 48. The U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) pays Olympic athletes $25,000 for each gold medal, $15,000 for a silver medal, and $10,000 for a bronze medal. Since 1960, the Paralympics for disabled athletes has been an integral part of the Olympic Games, yet the USOC pays disabled athletes only 10 percent of what the Olympic athletes are paid, and Paralympic athletes are not allowed to participate in opening ceremonies. For disabled athletes who believe their efforts will not be fairly rewarded, the motivation to win a Paralympics medal would have a: A. low valence B. strong expectancy C. low performance value D. high valence E. strong instrumentality Answer: A Valence is defined as the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome. 49. According to a survey done on teaching evaluations, engineering students consider the improvement of teaching to be the most important outcome of the evaluation process. For engineering students who believe their efforts will lead to better teaching, the motivation to fill out a teaching evaluation would have a: A. low valence B. weak expectancy C. low performance value D. high valence E. strong instrumentality Answer: D Valence is defined as the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome––in this case, better instruction. 50. The city of Cairo has the world’s greatest collection of Islamic buildings and statues. It would seem an ideal location for Muslim tourists, but unfortunately preservation activities have been inadequate and often more destructive than constructive. Imagine the Egyptian government is instituting a marketing campaign to motivate tourists to spend their vacation dollars in Cairo. The buildings and statues in the city would have a _____________ to Muslim tourists who wanted to learn more about their heritage. A. low valence B. strong expectancy C. low performance value D. high valence E. strong instrumentality Answer: D Valence is defined as the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome. 51. According to the expectancy theory, _____________ affect the conscious choices that people make about their motivation. A. equity, added value, and instrumentality B. valence, expectancy, and instrumentality C. expectancy, reinforcement, and instrumentality D. instrumentality, equity, and expectancy E. expectancy, equity, and reinforcement Answer: B The three factors that affect the conscious choices people make about their motivation are valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. 52. According to expectancy theory, in order for people to be highly motivated, _____________ must be high. A. added value B. reinforcement usage C. instrumentality D. equity E. referent power Answer: C Instrumentality is defined as the perceived relationship between performance and rewards and is one of the expectancy theory’s variables necessary for people to be highly motivated. 53. According to a survey done on teaching evaluations, students’ motivation to participate in teaching evaluations is impacted significantly by their expectation that they will be able to provide meaningful feedback. In other words, if they are going to expend the thought and effort to fill out evaluation forms, (1) Is the form designed to gather meaningful information? and (2) Do the students have enough information to form a meaningful opinion about the instruction? In terms of expectancy theory, students are concerned with _____________, or whether it is worth their efforts. A. valence B. reciprocity C. expectancy D. instrumentality E. synergy Answer: C Expectancy is defined as the perceived relationship between effort and performance. 54. According to a survey done on teaching evaluations, engineering students consider the improvement of teaching to be the most important outcome of the evaluation process. In terms of the expectancy theory, the likelihood that students feel their inputs on the evaluations will lead directly to improved instruction is referred to as: A. valence B. reciprocity C. expectancy D. instrumentality E. synergy Answer: D Instrumentality is defined as the perceived relationship between performance and rewards. 55. On the television series Lost, a group of survivors sincerely believed that if they built a raft, they could float on it out into a shipping lane and be rescued. In terms of expectancy theory, the raft builders had a: A. low degree of instrumentality B. low valence C. potential for over reward D. high level of expectancy E. high valence Answer: D Expectancy is defined as the perceived relationship between effort and performance. 56. In expectancy theory, _____________ is the perceived relationship between effort and performance. A. valence B. equity C. expectancy D. synergy E. instrumentality Answer: C Definition of expectancy. 57. In expectancy theory, _____________ is the perceived relationship between performance and rewards. A. valence B. reciprocity C. expectancy D. instrumentality E. synergy Answer: D Definition of instrumentality. 58. To use expectancy theory to motivate employees, managers can A. assign specific, challenging goals B. make all rewards equal in value C. avoid over reward and under reward D. avoid the use of empowerment E. systematically gather information to find out what employees want from their jobs Answer: E The systematic gathering of information to find out what employees want from their jobs is the first practical step that managers can take to motivate employees when using the expectancy theory. 59. In June 2007, a Comcast cable repairman on a service call fell asleep on the couch of customer Brian Finkelstein. Finkelstein’s video of the napper quickly became an Internet hit. How should the employee’s supervisor respond if the company motivates using the expectancy theory? A. Fire him immediately. B. Make sure that the employee is earning the same amount as other employees of the company in similar positions. C. Take specific steps to link rewards to individual performance in a way that is clear and understandable to prevent such behavior from recurring. D. Create a bonus system for Comcast employees who receive praise for their customers. E. Set a time limit goal for performing a routine service call. Answer: C Expectancy is defined as the perceived relationship between effort and performance. When expectancies are strong, employees believe that their hard work and efforts will result in good performance, so they work harder. 60. Reinforcement theory says behavior is a function of: A. perception B. environment C. its consequences D. conscious choices E. the situations in which it occurs Answer: C In reinforcement theory, behavior is a function of its consequences. 61. _____________ is the process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior. A. Consequential modification B. Behavioral substantiation C. Valence manipulation D. Expectancy feedback E. Reinforcement Answer: E Definition of reinforcement. 62. _____________ are the cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behavior and specific consequences. A. Reinforcement temporality effects B. Reinforcement contingencies C. Reinforcement schedules D. Consequences of reinforcement E. Reinforcement expectancies Answer: B Definition of reinforcement contingencies. 63. The primary ways for creating reinforcement contingencies in organizations are: A. extrinsic rewards and the schedules of reinforcement B. extrinsic and intrinsic rewards C. perceptions of equity and reward desirability D. situational motivators E. higher-order needs and organizational structure Answer: A Extrinsic rewards and the schedules of reinforcement used to deliver them are the primary method for creating reinforcement contingencies in organizations. 64. The two parts of reinforcement are: A. reinforcement temporality and reinforcement administration B. positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement C. continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement D. reinforcement contingencies and schedules of reinforcement E. interval reinforcement and ratio reinforcement Answer: D Reinforcement has two parts: reinforcement contingencies and schedules of reinforcement. 65. Users of the General Motors MasterCard earn money toward the purchase of a new GM car or truck every time they use this credit card to make purchases. The rebate increases the more times the credit card is used. GM is using: A. under reward B. punishment C. extinction D. positive reinforcement E. negative reinforcement Answer: D Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences. 66. The city of Cairo has the world’s greatest collection of Islamic buildings and statues. It would seem an ideal location for Muslim tourists, but unfortunately preservation activities have been inadequate and often more destructive than constructive. Imagine the Egyptian government is instituting a marketing campaign to motivate tourists to spend their vacation dollars in Cairo. Imagine tourists visiting Cairo and being motivated to never visit there again due to the fact that every old building they saw seemed more likely to cave in than the last one they had seen. In terms of motivational theory, _____________ would have occurred. A. instrumentality B. punishment C. goal acceptance D. contingency feedback E. valence modification Answer: B Punishment is defined as reinforcement that weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences. 67. About 25 percent of the electrical power produced for the residents of Cameroon is stolen by employees of the utility company. The first thing the new CEO of the company did was gather employees together and make a short statement: “If you guys have been stealing or taking bribes, stop it now,” he told them. “If I catch you, you’re finished.” What method of reinforcement did he use to reduce employee theft? A. Negative reinforcement B. Punishment C. Extinction D. Under reward E. Positive reinforcement Answer: B Punishment is defined as reinforcement that weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences. 68. Which of the following is NOT a type of reinforcement contingency? A. Negative reinforcement B. Punishment C. Extinction D. Over reward E. Positive reinforcement Answer: D There are four kinds of reinforcement contingencies: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Over reward is a form of inequity according to the equity theory. 69. Driving in heavy traffic makes Hal very anxious and sometimes angry. He leaves home earlier than usual one morning and doesn’t run into heavy traffic. He leaves home earlier again the next morning, and again he avoids heavy traffic. His behavior of leaving home earlier is strengthened by the consequence of the avoidance of heavy traffic. What kind of reinforcement has occurred in this example? A. Negative B. Extinction C. Punishment D. Intermittent E. Over reward Answer: A Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when performing a specific behavior. 70. _____________ strengthen behavior (i.e., increase its frequency). A. Positive and negative reinforcement B. Negative reinforcement and extinction C. Positive reinforcement and extinction D. Negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement, and punishment E. Negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement, extinction, and punishment Answer: A Positive reinforcement uses desirable consequences, and negative reinforcement withholds undesirable consequences. 71. Which of the following is also referred to as avoidance learning? A. Positive reinforcement B. Negative reinforcement C. Punishment D. Extinction E. Intermittent reinforcement Answer: B Negative reinforcement is also referred to as avoidance learning because workers perform a behavior to avoid a negative consequence. 72. _____________ is a reinforcement strategy in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior. A. Positive reinforcement B. Negative reinforcement C. Punishment D. Reinforcement reversal E. Extinction Answer: E Definition of extinction. 73. Excessive speed is a major cause of road crashes in Australia. The Australian government is thinking of using cameras to catch speeders, but it has access to only a limited number of cameras, and there are many areas where speeding is a problem. Government officials plan to put cameras at various locations for four weeks and give everyone who gets caught speeding during that period a substantial fine. According to reinforcement theory, Australian officials are using _____________ to control speeding. A. avoidance learning B. expectancy modification C. negative reinforcement D. positive reinforcement E. punishment Answer: E Punishment is defined as reinforcement that weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences. 74. Workplace injuries cost U.S. businesses $1 billion every week. Safety needs to become a practice, not just a theory. The goal of developing safety consciousness within the workforce requires continuous reinforcement at every organizational level. This means: A. no consequences should be delivered until reinforcement can be handed out to everyone B. a consequence must be delivered following every instance of behavior C. consequences should be delivered following a variable reinforcement schedule D. consequences should be delivered following an average number of behaviors E. none of these is true Answer: B In a continuous reinforcement schedule, a consequence is administered following every instance of a behavior. 75. A(n) _____________ is the set of rules regarding reinforcement contingencies such as which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviors, and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered. A. contingency of reinforcement B. instrumentality of reinforcement C. schedule of reinforcement D. expectancy of reinforcement E. PERT (Positive Examples through Reinforced Timing) plan Answer: C Definition of a schedule of reinforcement. 76. France has 14 million smokers. More importantly, smokers in France are closely associated with the French culture. To reduce the number of smokers in the nation, the French government has increased the costs of cigarettes to a price 20 times greater than that charged in any other nation in the European Union. In terms of reinforcement theory, the French government is trying to use _____________ to get people to quit smoking by making cigarettes less affordable and by reducing the discretionary income (or possibly the disposable income) of people who continue smoking. A. avoidance learning B. expectancy modification C. negative reinforcement D. positive reinforcement E. punishment Answer: E Punishment is defined as reinforcement that weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences. 77. A manufacturer of modular housing gives each employee a monthly $300 bonus if he or she is neither absent nor late to work for the entire month. There are no excused absences. The loss of a bonus would be an example of the use of: A. negative reinforcement B. extinction C. punishment D. intermittent reinforcement E. under reward Answer: C Punishment is defined as reinforcement that weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences. 78. France has 14 million smokers. More importantly, smokers in France are closely associated with the French culture. To reduce the number of smokers in the nation, the French government has increased the costs of cigarettes to a price 20 times greater than that charged in any other nation in the European Union. In terms of reinforcement theory, what kind of a reinforcement schedule is being used? A. Variable ratio B. Fixed punishment C. Continuous D. Intermittent E. Variable interval Answer: C In a continuous reinforcement schedule, a consequence is administered following every instance of a behavior. 79. About 25 percent of the electrical power produced for the residents of Cameroon is stolen by employees of the utility company. The first thing the new CEO of the company did was gather employees together and make a short statement: “If you guys have been stealing or taking bribes, stop it now,” he told them. “If I catch you, you’re finished.” What reinforcement delivery schedules will be most effective for the CEO to use? A. Variable ratio B. Fixed ratio C. Continuous D. Intermittent E. Variable interval Answer: C In this case, a continuous reinforcement schedule would be most effective, as it is a schedule that requires a consequence to be administered following every instance of behavior. In time, the employees of the utility company will understand that stealing is not tolerated, and if they do it, they will lose their jobs. 80. The number of people who play high-stakes poker is increasing as a result of a number of cable television shows featuring professional poker players vying for $100,000 pots. In terms of reinforcement theory, what kind of a reinforcement schedule motivates the behavior of these card players? A. Variable ratio B. Fixed ratio C. Continuous D. Intermittent E. Variable interval Answer: A With variable ratio reinforcement schedules, consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors, sometimes more and sometimes less, that vary around a specified average number of behaviors. 81. Road crashes cost Australia $15 billion a year, and excessive speed is a major cause of severe traffic crashes. The Australian government is thinking of using cameras to catch speeders, but it only has access to a limited number of cameras, and there are many areas where speeding is a problem. Government officials plan to put cameras at various locations for four weeks and give everyone who gets caught speeding during that period a substantial fine. Then the cameras will be moved. Plans are to put the cameras back to their original location every fourth month. What kind of reinforcement schedule will be used? A. Variable ratio B. Fixed ratio C. Fixed interval D. Intermittent E. Variable interval Answer: C With fixed interval reinforcement schedules, consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed. 82. Which of the following is a type of reinforcement schedule? A. Instrumental B. Contiguous C. Variable interval D. Adjacent E. Synergistic Answer: C There are two categories of reinforcement schedules: continuous and intermittent. In the intermittent category, there are four types of reinforcement schedules: fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, and variable ratio. 83. In a(n) _____________ reinforcement schedule, a consequence follows every instance of a behavior. A. continuous B. intermittent C. variable interval D. fixed ratio E. variable ratio Answer: A Definition of a continuous reinforcement schedule. 84. In a(n) _____________ reinforcement schedule, consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed. A. fixed interval B. variable interval C. fixed ratio D. variable ratio E. intermittent interval Answer: A Definition of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule. 85. In a(n) _____________ reinforcement schedule, consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors. A. fixed interval B. continuous interval C. fixed ratio D. intermittent interval E. variable ratio Answer: C Definition of a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule. 86. In a(n) _____________ reinforcement schedule, consequences follow a behavior after different times, some shorter and some longer, that vary around a specified average time. A. fixed interval B. variable interval C. fixed ratio D. variable ratio E. continuous ratio Answer: B Definition of a variable interval reinforcement schedule. 87. When it comes to reinforcing behavior in organizational settings, a(n) _____________ reinforcement schedule tends to produce weaker results than the other types of reinforcement schedules. A. continuous B. fixed ratio C. fixed or variable interval D. variable ratio E. intermittent Answer: C Interval-based systems usually produce weak results. 88. A manager who wants to use reinforcement theory to motivate workers should first: A. evaluate critical behavior B. identify critical performance-related behavior C. analyze motivational cues D. measure the value of existing extrinsic and intrinsic rewards E. intervene using a change agent Answer: B The first step to motivating workers with reinforcement theory is to identify, which means singling out critical, observable, performance-related behaviors. 89. Logan Stein is the manager of an ad agency. Recently, her employees have shown an unwillingness to work as a team. Stein has decided to use reinforcement to encourage more team cohesiveness. What advice can you give her on how to motivate with reinforcement theory? A. Avoid intermittent reinforcement scheduling. B. Administer punishment on an intermittent schedule. C. Choose a complicated reinforcement schedule so the employees will be surprised when rewarded. D. Don’t reinforce the wrong behaviors. E. Reinforcement theory will always produce the desired results. Answer: D One of the most common mistakes managers make is accidentally reinforcing the wrong behaviors. 90. For punishment to work (i.e., to weaken the frequency of undesirable behaviors without creating a backlash), the punishment must be strong enough to stop the undesired behavior and must be administered: A. subjectively B. physiologically C. consistently, contingently, and quickly D. through need deprivation E. at variable intervals Answer: C To be effective, punishment must be administered consistently, contingently, and quickly. In addition, it must be administered objectively and impersonally. 91. In terms of simplicity and effectiveness, which of the following reinforcement schedules may be the best choice for managers? A. Continuous B. Fixed ratio C. Variable ratio D. Fixed interval E. Intermittent interval Answer: A Since continuous reinforcement, fixed ratio, and variable ratio schedules are about equally effective, continuous reinforcement schedules may be the best choice in many instances by virtue of their simplicity. 92. According to the What Really Works, “Financial, Nonfinancial, and Social Rewards,” which of the following led to the highest levels of performance among employees in manufacturing organizations? A. Financial rewards and group norms B. Nonfinancial rewards and empathetic customers C. Social rewards and friendly work environment D. Peer pressure and group cohesiveness E. A combination of financial, nonfinancial, and social rewards Answer: E On average, there is a 90 percent chance that employees whose behavior is reinforced with a combination of financial, nonfinancial, and social rewards will outperform employees whose behavior is not reinforced. 93. A _____________ is a target, objective, or result that someone tries to accomplish. A. vision B. motivational drive C. need D. goal E. mission Answer: D Definition of a goal. 94. _____________ says that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement. A. Equity theory B. Goal-setting theory C. Reward theory D. Expectancy theory E. The theory of instrumentality Answer: B Definition of goal-setting theory. 95. France has 14 million smokers. More importantly, smokers in France are closely associated with the French culture. So when the French government waged a war against smoking, it set a _____________ to reduce smoking by 30 percent by 2011. A. mission B. motivational drive C. goal D. vision E. expectancy rate Answer: C A goal is a target, objective, or result that someone tries to accomplish. 96. _____________ is the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals. A. Goal specificity B. Goal difficulty C. Goal acceptance D. Goal congruity E. Goal clarity Answer: C Definition of goal acceptance. 97. According to Don Vlcek, a former Domino’s Pizza vice president, “To achieve results, you’ve got to properly define the goal––and that’s not always easy. Vague goals are worthless. For instance, ‘Work harder!’ isn’t a goal that motivates anybody. But ‘increase productivity by 12 percent within three weeks’––that is a clear, useful goal.” Vlcek is discussing: A. performance feedback B. goal congruity C. goal specificity D. goal difficulty E. goal acceptance Answer: C Goal specificity is defined as the degree to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous. 98. According to management expert Bill Roche, results from goal setting can virtually be guaranteed, but only if “you have first won the hearts and minds of your workers.” Roche continues: “When they are on board with the goal––they agree that it is important and can be done––you really will get dramatic improvement.” Roche is describing: A. goal recognition B. goal congruity C. goal specificity D. goal difficulty E. goal acceptance Answer: E Goal acceptance is defined as the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals. 99. American Apparel, well-known for manufacturing all of its clothes in the United States, is recognized as a company that practices green marketing. It recycles about 5 million pounds of fabric scraps annually and uses solar panels to provide power. Its employees are encouraged to protect the environment and are given free bicycles and helmets if they choose to cycle to work. Since most of its employees now bicycle to work, employee _____________ can be perceived as high. A. instrumentality B. reinforcement C. goal acceptance D. contingency feedback E. valence modification Answer: C The firm is using goal setting to motivate its employees. Goal acceptance is defined as the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals. 100. B&Q is a British version of Home Depot. The retailer entered the Chinese market in 1999. It has invested almost half a billion dollars in China through the building and stocking of 14 new stores. When entering the Chinese market, B&Q set a goal to break even by 2003. In terms of goal-setting theory, _____________ has occurred because all shareholders, investors, and employees are aware of the need to reach this goal. A. goal continuity B. goal acceptance C. goal difficulty D. a goal challenge E. goal recognition Answer: B Goal acceptance is defined as the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals. 101. The goal of the Apollo moon flight was to put a man on the moon. According to Charles Garfield, who worked at NASA on the Apollo mission, the flight was off course 90 percent of the time between here and the moon. But Apollo used _____________, which allowed it to make rapid course corrections. A. performance feedback B. goal congruity C. goal specificity D. goal difficulty E. goal acceptance Answer: A Performance feedback is defined as information about the quality or quantity of past performance that indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal. 102. B&Q is a British version of Home Depot. The retailer entered the Chinese market in 1999. It has invested almost half a billion dollars in China through the building and stocking of 14 new stores. When entering the Chinese market, B&Q set a goal to break even by 2003. In terms of goal-setting theory, reports that two stores had made a profit in 2002 would be an example of: A. performance feedback B. goal adjustment C. goal consequence D. performance benchmark E. goal milestone Answer: A Performance feedback is defined as information about the quality or quantity of past performance that indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal. 103. Which of the following is NOT a basic component of goal-setting theory? A. performance feedback B. goal congruity C. goal specificity D. goal difficulty E. goal acceptance Answer: B The basic components of goal-setting theory are goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, and performance feedback. 104. _____________ is the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous. A. Goal specificity B. Goal difficulty C. Goal acceptance D. Goal clarity E. Goal congruity Answer: A Definition of goal specificity. 105. Goal acceptance is most similar to the idea of: A. goal congruity B. goal commitment C. goal valence D. goal expectancy E. groupthink Answer: B Goal acceptance is similar to the idea of goal commitment, which was discussed in Chapter 4. 106. For the goal-setting theory to work, goals must: A. focus employees’ attention on critical aspects of their jobs B. energize behavior C. create a tension between the current state and the desired state D. influence persistence E. do all of these Answer: E All of these factors are necessary for goal-setting theory to work. 107. Which of the following statements about goal-setting theory is true? A. Feedback should not be specific. B. Goals should be specific, measurable, attainable, and generalized. C. Workers do not have to truly accept organizational goals for goal-setting theory to be motivational. D. Goals can energize behavior. E. None of the above statements about goal-setting theory is true. Answer: D Feedback should specific and performance related. Goals, too, should be specific. For goals to be motivational, workers must truly accept them. 108. Feedback can lead to stronger motivation and effort if it: A. supports a country club style of management, which offers more freedom of action B. encourages employees to set higher, more difficult goals after the initial goals are accomplished C. allows managers to offer criticism without seeming to do so D. creates a direct relationship between goal congruity and higher-level needs E. does all of these Answer: B Once people meet goals, performance feedback often encourages them to set higher, more difficult goals. 109. Managers who use goal-setting theory to motivate employees should: A. look for and correct obvious performance inequities B. reduce employees’ inputs C. make sure workers truly accept organizational goals D. avoid the use of empowerment E. do all of these Answer: C Specific, challenging goals won’t motivate workers unless they really accept, understand, and agree to the organization’s goals. 110. For workers to truly accept organizational goals, the workers must: A. respond to an autocratic management style B. trust management C. not require any more training in order to achieve the goal D. operate outside the organizational communication channel E. do none of these Answer: B Workers must trust management and believe that managers are using goals to clarify what is expected from them rather than to exploit or threaten them. 111. In many urban areas, the hospital industry is very competitive. But some hospitals are trying to distance themselves from their competition. One such hospital is Cooper University Hospital in Camden, New Jersey. To attract aging baby boomers, its new addition has well-lit private rooms and a staff trained in customer service by the Ritz-Carlton Hotels. According to goal-setting theory, what could hospital administrators use to encourage its employees to practice what they learned from studying Ritz-Carlton? A. Administrators need to make sure that employees truly accept the goal of improved customer service. B. Administrators should give employees generic goals that allow them to use empowerment when the situation arises. C. Administrators need to provide weekly congratulatory remarks in a hospital newsletter even if they have no specific information on what employees are doing. D. Administrators should make the value of the employees’ inputs equal to their outcomes. E. Administrators should initially make the goals easy to attain in order to ensure goal compliance. Answer: A Goal-setting theory says that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement. 112. Refer to “What Would You Do?” Julie Abrams, an Ann Taylor sales associate, saw her hours drop when the company began ranking employees by productivity. She said, “I remember some weeks when the most hours I was getting was just eight. It is hard to budget that way.” According to Maslow, her drop in income results in her __________ need not being met. A. physiological B. safety C. belongingness D. esteem Answer: B Safety needs include those that are physical and economic. 113. Refer to “What Would You Do?” As an Ann Taylor sales associate, you believe that scheduling better sales associates during busy sales shifts is fair. You believe __________ justice has been obtained. A. procedural B. distributive C. interactional D. All of the choice are correct. Answer: A Procedural justice is defined as the perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions. 114. Refer to “What Would You Do?” If Ann Taylor requires good attendance for its employees to receive a bonus, it is using: A. positive reinforcement B. extinction C. negative reinforcement D. punishment Answer: C Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior. SHORT ANSWER 1. Briefly explain the following equation: Job Performance = Motivation X Ability X Situational Constraints. Answer: In industrial psychology, job performance is frequently represented by the equation: Job Performance = Motivation X Ability X Situational Constraints. In this formula, job performance is how well someone performs the requirements of the job, motivation is the degree to which someone works hard to do the job well, ability is the degree to which workers possess the knowledge, skills, and talent needed to do a job well, and situational constraints are factors beyond the control of individual employees, such as tools, policies, and resources that have an effect on job performance. Since job performance is a multiplicative function of motivation times ability times situational constraints, job performance will suffer if any one of these components is weak. Thus, motivation is only one of three factors influencing performance, and it can be overpowered by significant weaknesses in one or both of the other two components, thereby reducing performance despite high levels of motivation. 2. Briefly explain the relationship between need satisfaction and motivation. Answer: Needs are the physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and well-being. When needs are not met, people experience an internal state of tension. But once a particular need is met, it no longer motivates. When this occurs, people become satisfied and are then motivated by other unmet needs. Studies generally show that there are only two general kinds of needs, lower-order needs and higher-order needs, and that higher-order needs will not motivate people as long as lower-order needs remain unsatisfied. 3. State one of the well-known needs theories. Be sure to identify the needs described by that theory. Answer: Students may choose any of the following needs theories. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs suggests that people are motivated by physiological (food and water), safety (physical and economic), belongingness (friendship, love, social interaction), esteem (achievement and recognition), and self-actualization (realizing your full potential) needs. Alderfer’s ERG Theory collapses Maslow’s five needs into three: existence (safety and physiological needs), relatedness (belongingness), and growth (esteem and self-actualization). McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory suggests that people are motivated by the need for affiliation (to be liked and accepted), the need for achievement (to accomplish challenging goals), or the need for power (to influence others). 4. Distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Which are most important to workers in general? Answer: Extrinsic rewards are tangible and visible to others and are given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors. External agents (managers, for example) determine and control the distribution, frequency, and amount of extrinsic rewards, such as pay, company stock, benefits, and promotions. By contrast, intrinsic rewards are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. For example, aside from the external rewards management offers for doing something well, employees often experience a sense of interest and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they perform. Examples of intrinsic rewards include a sense of accomplishment or achievement, a feeling of responsibility, the chance to learn something new or interact with others, or simply the fun that comes from performing an interesting, challenging, and engaging task. A number of surveys suggest that both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are important. One survey found that the most important rewards were good benefits and health insurance, job security, having a week or more of vacation (all extrinsic rewards) and interesting work, the opportunity to learn new skills, and being able to work independently (all intrinsic rewards). 5. Define equity theory. List its basic components and give one example of each of these components. Answer: Equity theory says that people will be motivated at work when they perceive that they are being treated fairly. The basic components of equity theory are inputs, outcomes, and referents. Inputs are the contributions employees make to the organization. Inputs include education and training, intelligence, experience, effort, number of hours worked, and ability. Outcomes are the rewards employees receive in exchange for their contributions to the organization. Outcomes include pay, fringe benefits, status symbols, and job titles and assignments. And since perceptions of equity depend on how you are being treated compared to others, referents are others with whom people compare themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly. Usually, people choose to compare themselves with referents who hold the same or similar jobs or who are otherwise similar to themselves in some way, such as in gender, race, age, or tenure. 6. Briefly identify the two types of inequity. What are the accompanying psychological reactions of the person perceiving each type of inequity? Answer: There are two kinds of inequity, under reward and over reward. Under reward occurs when a referent’s O/I ratio (i.e., outcome/input ratio) is better than the employee’s O/I ratio (i.e., the employee is treated worse than the referent). Under reward leads to anger or frustration. Over reward occurs when a referent’s O/I ratio is worse than the employee’s O/I ratio (i.e., the referent is treated worse than the employee). Over reward can lead to guilt, but only when the level of over reward is extreme. 7. Differentiate between distributive and procedural justice. Briefly explain how each relates to motivating with equity theory. Answer: Equity theory focuses on distributive justice, the degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated. However, procedural justice, the fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions, is just as important. Procedural justice matters because even when employees are unhappy with their outcomes (i.e., low pay), they’re much less likely to be unhappy with company management if they believe that the procedures used to allocate outcomes were fair. Also, if employees perceive that their outcomes are unfair (i.e., distributive injustice), but that the decisions and procedures leading to those outcomes were fair (i.e., procedural justice), they are much more likely to seek constructive ways of restoring equity, such as discussing these matters with their manager. In contrast, if employees perceive both distributive and procedural injustice, they may resort to more destructive tactics, such as withholding effort, absenteeism, tardiness, or even sabotage and theft. 8. Define expectancy theory. Identify the theory’s three key concepts. Answer: Expectancy theory says that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance (expectancy, or the perceived relationship between effort and performance), that good performance will be rewarded (instrumentality, or the perceived relationship between performance and rewards), and that they will be offered attractive rewards (rewards with a positive valence, which is the attractiveness or desirability of various rewards or outcomes). 9. Compare and contrast the industrial psychology model of performance with the expectancy model of motivation. Answer: The industrial psychology model of performance can be represented by the following equation: Job Performance = Motivation X Ability X Situational Constraints. The expectancy model of motivation can be represented by this equation: Motivation = Valence X Expectancy X Instrumentality. In both cases, a multiplicative relationship between relevant variables is posited to determine a specific outcome. The common multiplicative relationship means that a decline in any one of the variables will lead to an overall decline in the specific outcome (i.e., performance or motivation). While the relationship among component variables is the same in both models, the focus and components differ significantly between the models. The industrial psychology model focuses on overall performance, with motivation as one of three components. It is thus a more general model. The expectancy model focuses on motivation and simply assumes that performance will follow the predicted motivational outcome. Further, the expectancy model emphasizes perceptions of all three of its component factors, while the industrial psychology model potentially includes perceptual effects in its motivational component but emphasizes objective reality in the ability and situational constraint components. 10. Briefly identify the ways in which managers can use expectancy theory to motivate employees. Answer: Managers can use expectancy theory to motivate workers by systematically gathering information to find out what employees want from their jobs; by linking rewards to individual performance in a way that is clear and understandable to employees; and by empowering employees to make decisions, which will increase their expectancies that hard work and efforts will lead to good performance. 11. What are reinforcement contingencies? How are reinforcement contingencies related to behavior? Answer: Reinforcement contingencies are the cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and specific consequences. The four kinds of reinforcement contingencies are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior (i.e., increases its frequency) by following behaviors with desirable consequences. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior. By contrast, punishment weakens behavior (i.e., decreases its frequency) by following behaviors with undesirable consequences. Extinction is a reinforcement strategy in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior. By removing the positive consequence, extinction weakens the behavior, making it less likely to occur. Thus, reinforcement contingencies act to either strengthen or weaken a behavior over time. 12. How can managers use reinforcement theory to motivate their employees? Answer: Managers can use reinforcement theory to motivate workers by following five steps (identify, measure, analyze, intervene, and evaluate critical performance-related behaviors); not reinforcing the wrong behaviors; correctly administering punishment at the appropriate time (objectively, impersonally, consistently and contingently, quickly, and only when no other viable alternative exists, while explaining the appropriate behavior and the reasons for the punishment); and choosing a reinforcement schedule, such as continuous reinforcement, that balances simplicity and effectiveness. 13. Describe the goal-setting theory. Briefly identify the theory’s basic components. Answer: Goal-setting theory says that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement. The basic components of goal-setting theory are goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, and performance feedback. Goal specificity is the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous. Goal difficulty is the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish. Goal acceptance is the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals. Performance feedback is information about the quality or quantity of past performance and indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal. ESSAY 1. Identify the four things that the basic model of work motivation suggests managers can use to motivate employees, and explain how each of these strategies might be used to motivate a 55-year-old tenured professor whose teaching performance has become very weak over the past three years. Briefly explain the relevance of the industrial psychology formulation of the relationship between performance and motivation to the analysis that you provide. Be sure to clarify any assumptions that you are making. Answer: The basic model of motivation suggests that managers can motivate employees by (1) asking them what their needs are, (2) satisfying lower-order needs first, (3) expecting people’s needs to change, and (4) satisfying higher-order needs through intrinsic rewards. Effective answers to this question could be provided in a variety of ways. One example is provided below. In general, better student answers will provide a workable diagnostic and intervention plan within realistic budgetary and policy guidelines. (1) Identify the professor’s needs. Get to know his or her interests and tastes so that rewards can be individualized to give the employee what is desired. Asking the professor what he or she would like in return for effective performance can help to identify need deficiencies that might not be apparent. In many cases, simply recognizing and praising effective performance can be a strong motivator. (2) Satisfy lower-order needs first. Ascertain that the working conditions and compensation for the professor are able to satisfy his or her lower-order needs. In practice, this means providing the equipment, training, and knowledge to create a safe workplace free of physical risks, paying employees well enough to provide financial security, and offering a benefits package that will protect employees and their families through good medical coverage and health and disability insurance. If pay and benefits at the school have not kept pace with inflation and/or market levels, this may be a significant source of perceived inequity for the professor. Similarly, if specific equipment is needed to perform effectively, and the school’s budget will not allow the purchase, situational constraints may be hindering performance. (3) Expect needs to change. Given the fact that this is a relatively recent performance problem that has developed over the past three years, with satisfactory performance prior to that time (this is an assumption, based upon the professor’s tenure status), it is likely that something has changed in the interim. This could be a change in the professor’s needs, or a change in the reward structure at the institution. Either way, old motivational strategies will rarely work indefinitely. Advice at this step is similar to that at step 1, identify the professor’s needs, and develop strategies to provide acceptable rewards to the professor within the realistic constraints of budget and policy at the university. Finally, (4) satisfy higher order needs through intrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards, such as accomplishment, achievement, learning something new, and interacting with others, are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. And with the exception of influence (power), intrinsic rewards correspond very closely to higher-order needs that are concerned with relationships (belongingness, relatedness, and affiliation) and challenges and accomplishments (esteem, self-actualization, growth, and achievement). Therefore, one way for managers to meet employees’ higher-order needs is to create opportunities for employees to experience intrinsic rewards by providing challenging work, encouraging employees to take greater responsibility for their work, and giving employees the freedom to pursue tasks and projects they find naturally interesting. For the professor in question, a joint goal-setting plan for performance improvement based upon changes in work responsibilities might be effective. For example, if the professor has become bored teaching the same courses year after year, he or she may be invigorated by the opportunity to develop a new course in an area of personal interest. In industrial psychology, job performance is frequently represented by the following equation: Job Performance = Motivation X Ability X Situational Constraints. Since job performance is a multiplicative function of motivation times ability times situational constraints, job performance will suffer if any one of these components is weak. In the present case, we can probably assume that the professor has the ability to teach effectively since tenure was awarded. (However, a thorough analysis of causes of the professor’s performance decline might consider possible disability effects on performance.) Most likely, the performance decline is a result of problems with either or both motivation and situational constraints. Examples of both are provided in the analysis above. 2. Define equity theory. Identify the five ways in which people try to restore equity when they perceive that they have been treated unfairly. Describe a circumstance in which you or someone you know experienced inequity in a work situation, and explain the actions you (or that person) took to restore equity. Answer: The basic components of equity theory are inputs (the contributions employees make to the organization), outcomes (the rewards employees receive in exchange for their contributions), and referents (others with whom people compare themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly). After an internal comparison in which employees compare their outcomes to their inputs, they then make an external comparison in which they compare their outcome/input (O/I) ratio with the O/I ratio of a referent, a person who works in a similar job or is otherwise similar. When their O/I ratio is equal to the referent’s O/I ratio, employees perceive that they are being treated fairly. But when their O/I ratio is different from their referent’s O/I ratio, they perceive that they have been treated inequitably or unfairly. There are two kinds of inequity, underreward and overreward. Underreward occurs when a referent’s O/I ratio is better than the employee’s O/I ratio and is the far more common type of inequity in organizations. Under reward leads to anger or frustration. Over reward occurs when a referent’s O/I ratio is worse than the employee’s O/I ratio. Over reward can lead to guilt, but only when the level of over reward is extreme. When employees perceive that they have been treated inequitably (i.e., under reward), they may try to restore equity by (1) reducing inputs (decreasing or withholding their efforts), (2) increasing outcomes (asking for a raise or other adjustments to the reward system), (3) rationalizing inputs or outcomes (making mental or emotional adjustments in their comparisons), (4) changing the referent (comparing themselves to someone else), or (5) simply leaving (quitting, transferring, or increasing absenteeism). Student examples will typically deal with experiences of under reward that are dealt with by increasing outcomes, leaving, or reducing inputs. Perceptive students might identify circumstances involving rationalization and/or changing the referent, but this is more the exception than the rule. Effective examples should specify the inputs and outcomes for both the student and the referent and clearly identify the means used to resolve the inequity. 3. Explain expectancy theory. Use the concepts and principles from this theory to illustrate how you personally chose to work harder (or less hard) in a particular course because of your perceptions regarding the probable results (i.e., degree of payoff) of your level of effort in that course at that point in your life. Answer: One of the hardest things about motivating people is that rewards that are attractive to some employees are unattractive to others. Expectancy theory says that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards. This emphasis on personally attractive rewards highlights the role of perceptions and expectations in this motivational theory. Expectancy theory holds that three factors affect the conscious choices people make about their motivation: valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. Valence is simply the attractiveness or desirability of various rewards or outcomes. The higher the valence for the individual, the higher the effort that individual will put forth. Expectancy is the perceived relationship between effort and performance. When expectancies are strong, employees believe that their hard work and efforts will result in good performance, so they work harder. By contrast, when expectancies are weak, employees figure that no matter what they do or how hard they work, they won’t be able to perform their jobs successfully, so they don’t work as hard. Instrumentality is the perceived relationship between performance and rewards. When instrumentality is strong, employees believe that improved performance will lead to better and more rewards, and they will choose to work harder. When instrumentality is weak, employees don’t believe that better performance will result in more or better rewards, so they will choose not to work as hard. Expectancy theory holds that for people to be highly motivated, all three variables––valence, expectancy, and instrumentality––must be high. So if any one of these factors declines, overall motivation will decline, too. Student examples should clarify the levels of their expectancy (e.g., “If I work hard, I will be able to perform well in this course”), instrumentality (e.g., “If I perform well, I will receive a grade of A or B”), and valence (e.g., “I need a grade of A or B to raise my GPA”). In cases where students were not motivated to work hard, clear reasons for this lack of motivation should be presented in terms of expectancy theory. For example, low expectancy (e.g., extremely high job and school workload/stress will combine to reduce the effectiveness of efforts), low instrumentality (e.g., ambiguous or arbitrary grading criteria such that grades are determined by something other than good performance), and/or low valence (e.g., working hard will take time away from my job search during my last semester at school, and the job search is more important than the grade in this course). Obviously, students could provide effective answers to this question in a variety of ways. 4. What is the relationship between reinforcement and reinforcement theory? Describe how reinforcement contingencies and schedules of reinforcement affect behavior. Answer: Reinforcement theory says that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences (i.e., reinforced) will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences or not followed by positive consequences will occur less frequently. More specifically, reinforcement is the process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior. Reinforcement has two parts: reinforcement contingencies and schedules of reinforcement. Reinforcement contingencies are the cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and specific consequences. The four kinds of reinforcement contingencies are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior (i.e., increases its frequency) by following behaviors with desirable consequences. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior. By contrast, punishment weakens behavior (i.e., decreases its frequency) by following behaviors with undesirable consequences. Extinction is a reinforcement strategy in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior. By removing the positive consequence, extinction weakens the behavior, making it less likely to occur. Thus, reinforcement contingencies act to either strengthen or weaken a behavior over time. A schedule of reinforcement is the set of rules regarding reinforcement contingencies such as which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviors, and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered. There are two categories of reinforcement schedules: continuous and intermittent. With continuous reinforcement schedules, a consequence follows every instance of a behavior. By contrast, with intermittent reinforcement schedules, consequences are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred. There are four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules. Two of these are based on time and are called interval reinforcement schedules, while the other two, known as ratio schedules, are based on behaviors. With fixed interval reinforcement schedules, consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed. With variable interval reinforcement schedules, consequences follow a behavior after different times, some shorter and some longer, that vary around a specified average time. With fixed ratio reinforcement schedules, consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors. Finally, with variable ratio reinforcement schedules, consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors, sometimes more and sometimes less, that vary around a specified average number of behaviors. The effects of schedules of reinforcement are described in terms of the question, which reinforcement schedules work best? In this context, we see that schedules are evaluated in terms of their ability to promote rapid learning, or to maintain behavior after it is learned and avoid extinction. In the past, the standard advice was to use continuous reinforcement when employees were learning new behaviors, since reinforcement after each success leads to faster learning. Likewise, the standard advice was to use intermittent reinforcement schedules to maintain behavior after it is learned, since intermittent rewards are supposed to make behavior much less subject to extinction. However, except for interval-based systems, which usually produce weak results, there is little difference between the effectiveness of continuous reinforcement, fixed ratio, or variable ratio schedules. In organizational settings, all three produce consistently large increases over noncontingent reward schedules. Thus, the primary effect of reinforcement schedules on behavior is to maintain learned responses and prevent extinction. Reinforcement contingencies and schedules of reinforcement thus have differential effects on behavior. While reinforcement contingencies act to either strengthen or weaken a behavior over time, and are thus crucial to learning and changing employee behavior, the primary effect of reinforcement schedules on behavior is to maintain learned responses and prevent extinction. Here, the focus is on maintaining performance at consistent levels rather than changing behavior. 5. Imagine that you have just been elected chair of a campus committee that is trying to raise $100,000.00 in scholarship funding for disabled youth. Your committee is composed of 15 college instructors, students, and staff, with an additional 25 community volunteers who have agreed to provide ideas and labor in the fundraising effort. Explain how you, in your role as chair, would use the principles of goal-setting theory to achieve your committee’s goal. Answer: A goal is a target, objective, or result that someone tries to accomplish. Goal-setting theory says that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement. The basic components of goal-setting theory are goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, and performance feedback. Goal specificity is the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous. Goal difficulty is the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish. Goal acceptance is the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals. Performance feedback is information about the quality or quantity of past performance and indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal. Managers can use goal-setting theory to motivate workers by assigning specific, challenging goals, making sure workers truly accept organizational goals, and providing frequent, specific performance-related feedback. The principles of goal-setting theory could be applied in numerous ways to this question. One possible answer is outlined below. Better student answers will clearly articulate the concepts, principles, and research results of goal-setting theory in an integrated plan, and provide a concrete justification as to why that plan could be expected to succeed. In my role as Chair of the Fundraising Committee, I would apply goal-setting theory by developing a concrete fundraising plan in consultation with the 15 members of my committee. The plan would be comprised of a series of integrated specific, detailed, unambiguous, measurable, and challenging subgoals, which have been endorsed and agreed upon by the members of my committee. Through this participative goal-setting process, I would increase trust and understanding, and thus goal acceptance. Again, in consultation with the membership, I would set up clear timetables for the accomplishment of various stages of the fundraising process and collect regular data on the progress of all members toward achieving their individual subgoals. This progress data would be fed back to the individual members in weekly meetings, as well as distributed in aggregate form to all individuals interested in our efforts and the wider campus community. As individual subgoals are met, I would encourage members to set even more challenging goals for the following weeks’ fundraising efforts. The regular use of feedback would let all of our participants know whether they need to increase their efforts or change their strategies in order to achieve their goals. Through this regular use of frequent, performance-related feedback, members of my committee would be able to easily track their progress toward goal completion, thus remaining enthusiastic and on target in their performance. Test Bank for Effective Management Chuck Williams 9781285866246
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