This Document Contains Chapters 11 to 12 CHAPTER 11 STRATIFICATION BY GENDER CHAPTER SUMMARY Gender roles are defined as the expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. Social behavior is socially constructed so that male-female differences are created and then reinforced by social institutions. Gender-role socialization in the United States has followed a traditional pattern in that boys are taught to be active, aggressive, tough, daring and dominant, whereas girls are taught to be soft, emotional, sweet, and submissive. Gender-role socialization occurs through the influences of parents, older siblings, the mass media, religious and educational institutions, and other adults. Sociologists have turned to the major sociological perspectives to understand stratification by gender. Functionalists maintain that gender differentiation has contributed to social stability. Some argue that in order to function most efficiently, the family requires adults who specialize in particular roles, and that the division of tasks between spouses is functional for the family unit. Conflict theorists see gender differences as a reflection of the subjugation of one group (women) by another group (men). Like the conflict perspective, the feminist perspective argues that the very discussion of women and society has been distorted by the exclusion of women from academic thought. Interactionists examine gender stratification with a microlevel analysis. They suggest that cross-sex conversations and male-dominated behaviors are one more battleground in the struggle for sexual equality. Women are viewed as the oppressed majority when looking at the political structure of the United States, in that women are noticeably underrepresented. Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior to the other. Men control all of the major institutions in our society. This general pattern of male dominance is found everywhere, with women in developing nations facing the most severe challenges. A majority of women are now members of the paid labor force. The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment. Women from all groups (and men from minority groups) sometimes encounter attitudinal or organizational bias that prevents them from reaching their full potential. This is especially the case in white male-dominated occupations. There is a substantial gender gap in the median earnings of full-time workers. The phrase second shift refers to the double burden—work outside the home, followed by childcare and housework—that many women face. The burden of additional (unpaid) work at home is felt especially by mothers of young children. Feminism is the belief in social, economic, and political equality for women. The first wave of feminists worked for voting and other rights for women, and won many victories, including the passage and ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The second wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s with the realization that suffrage had not led to social or economic equality. Women today do not necessarily call themselves feminists, but there is a growing acceptance of women in non-traditional roles. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources 1. How is gender socially constructed? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: gender roles, homophobia, multiple masculinities IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Gendered Spaces (11-1) Classroom Discussion Topics: Women’s Fashion (11-2); Women—The Shadow Story of the Millennium (11-3) Student Research and Assignments: Social Construction of Gender in Sports; Non-Traditional Gender Roles; Gender Differences among Hispanics; Gender Differences in Emotions Video Resources: Gender and Communication; The Gender Tango; Generation X; Price of Honor REEL SOCIETY VIDEO Topic Index: Gender Roles 2. How do sociologists explain gender stratification? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: instrumentality, expressiveness, matrix of domination IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Feminization of the Banking Industry (11-2); Glass Ceiling Commission (11-3) Classroom Discussion Topics: Gender Differences in Childcare (11-4); Gender Socialization (11-5); Women and Sports (11-6); Homophobia (11-7); Superhero Comic Books (11-8); Gender Stereotypes (11-9); Gender Stratification on the Microlevel (11-10); Gender Wage Gap (11-11) Student Research and Assignments: Gender Dominance in Jobs Cross-Culturally; The Glass Escalator; Women and Management; Policy Action Video Resources: Beyond the Veil; Boys Will Be Men; A Darker Side of Fair; In My Country; Price of Honor; Racial and Sexual Stereotyping; Sex, Murder, and Videogames; Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America; Soldiers Raping Soldiers REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Stratification—Gender 3. What are the basic patterns of gender inequality in the United States and worldwide? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: sexism, institutional discrimination, sexual harassment Boxes: Sociology in the Global Community: The Head Scarf and the Veil: Complex Symbols IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: Gender Stratification on the Microlevel (11-10); South Asian Women (11-12) Student Research and Assignments: Gender Dominance in Jobs Cross-Culturally Video Resources: Beyond the Veil; A Darker Side of Fair; Full Cover Girl; In My Country; Price of Honor; Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America; Soldiers Raping Soldiers; The Underground World of Commercial Sex 4. Describe women’s participation in the workforce and resulting social issues. IN THE TEXT Key Terms: glass ceiling, second shift Boxes: Taking Sociology to Work: Abigail E. Deves, Former Program and Volunteer Coordinator, Y-ME Illinois IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Feminization of the Banking Industry (11-2); Glass Ceiling Commission (11-3); Work-Family Constraints for Women (11-4) Classroom Discussion Topics: Gender Wage Gap (11-11) Student Research and Assignments: Gender Dominance in Jobs Cross-Culturally; The Glass Escalator; Women and Management; Policy Action; Childcare and Men; Household Tasks in Later Life Video Resources: The Differences Between Men and Women; Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America; Why Can’t a Woman Earn as Much as a Man? LECTURE OUTLINE I. Social Construction of Gender • Gender roles: expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. • Gender roles are socially constructed so that male–female differences are either created or exaggerated. Example: In a heterosexual couple, the man should be taller than the woman. A. Gender Roles in the United States 1. Gender-Role Socialization • Boys must be masculine and girls must be feminine. • Homophobia contributes significantly to rigid gender-role socialization. Example: deviation from traditional expectations leads to presumption of being gay. • Parents play a critical role in guiding children into gender roles. • Boundaries of conventional gender behavior. See Table 11-1. 2. Women’s Gender Roles • Girls identify in part with families, neighbors, and the media for their development of a feminine self-image. • Women are often portrayed in television and books as helpless, passive, and incompetent. • Women are expected to want to become mothers. • Success at work is not as important to their identity as it is for men. 3. Men’s Gender Roles • Socially constructed, much like those of women. • Prove one’s masculinity at work and in sports. • Aggressive and self-reliant. • Initiating and controlling sexual relations. • Men pursuing nontraditional jobs often encounter negative response from others. Examples: male nurses, preschool teachers. • Multiple masculinities—although society reinforces the dominant male role, most men do play other roles such as nurturer. B. Cross-Cultural Perspective • Margaret Mead points to importance of cultural conditioning—rather than biology—in defining social roles of males and females. Example: sex in New Guinea. • Peggy Reeves Sanday’s findings from West Sumatra describe gender roles based on partnership with women in control of the land through inheritance. These findings support the influential role of culture and socialization in gender-role differentiation, and negate innate or biological reasons. II. Explaining Stratification by Gender A. The Functionalist View • Gender differentiation contributes to stability. Family requires specialized roles. • Parsons and Bales contended women take the expressive role and men the instrumental. • Instrumentality refers to an emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one’s family and other social institutions. • Expressiveness denotes concern for maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family. Example: Women become anchored as wives. • Women’s interest in expressive goals frees men for instrumental tasks, and vice versa. B. The Conflict Perspective • Relationship between men and women has traditionally been one of unequal power. • Gender differences reflect the subjugation of one group (women) by another group (men). Example: Marx’s bourgeoisie and proletariat. C. The Feminist Perspective • Women’s subjugation is part of the overall exploitation and injustice inherent in capitalist societies. • Radical feminists view oppression of women as inevitable in all male-dominated societies. • Women have been excluded from academic thought. Example: Jane Addams and Ida Wells-Barnett. • Contemporary feminists describe a matrix of domination wherein several social factors, including race, ethnicity, and SES, combine with gender to further disadvantage low-status women, particularly women of color. • Gender stratification may be functional for men. D. The Interactionist Approach • Focus on the microlevel of everyday behavior, whereas functionalists and conflict theorists focus more on the macrolevel. • People can both conform to and challenge gender roles in day-to-day interactions. III. Women: The Oppressed Majority • Women remain noticeably underrepresented in political structures. Examples: As of mid-2011, only 6 of the nation’s 50 states had a female governor; the Congress that held office in mid-2011 had 88 women: 71 in the House and 17 in the Senate. Yet the membership and leadership of Congress remain overwhelmingly male. A. Sexism and Sex Discrimination • Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior to the other. • Institutional discrimination contributes to sexism. All major institutions are controlled by men, and are biased in their treatment of women. Examples: government, armed forces, large corporations, the media, and universities. B. Sexual Harassment • Behavior in which work benefits are contingent upon sexual favors, or when touching, lewd comments, or pornographic materials create a “hostile environment.” • Viewed as a continuing source of prejudice and discrimination against women. C. The Status of Women Worldwide • According to a detailed overview of the status of the world’s women, issued by the World Bank in 2012, the lives of girls and women have changed dramatically over the past quarter century. Progress has been limited in some respects, however. In many parts of the world, women still lag far behind men in their earnings and in their ability to speak out politically. • Regardless of culture, women everywhere suffer from second-class status. • Women rarely own land. • Women work in jobs with lower pay and lower status than men. • Female, single-parent households are typically found among the poorest segments of the population. • Feminization of poverty is a global phenomenon. • Much of the exploited labor in developing nations (especially in the nonindustrial sector) is performed by women. D. Women in the Workforce of the United States 1. Labor Force Participation • In 2007, 60 percent of adult women in the U.S. worked outside the home, vs. 41 percent in 1970. • Sixty-two percent of married mothers with children under 6 were in the labor force in 2007. • Occupational segregation: confinement to sex-typed “women’s jobs.” Example: in 2008, women accounted for approximately 46 percent of the pa id labor force of the United States, yet they constituted only 9 percent of civil engineers, 27 percent of computer systems analysts, and 32 percent of physicians See Table 12-3. • The glass ceiling prevents women from reaching their full potential. 2. Compensation • When men and women hold the same jobs, men usually make more money. • The gender gap persists even after controlling for age, education, and work experience. • While women are at a disadvantage in male-dominated occupations, men are at an advantage in female occupations (the “glass escalator”). 3. Social Consequences of Women’s Employment • Sociologist Arlie Hochschild describes the double burden of housework and childcare following work outside the home as the “second shift.” • Women spend 15 fewer hours per week in leisure activities compared to men. • Feminists have advocated greater government and corporate support for childcare, family leave policies, and other reforms. IV. Emergence of a Collective Consciousness • Feminism is the belief in social, economic, and political equality for women. • The first wave of feminists worked for voting and other rights for women, and won many victories, including the passage and ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution. • The second wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s with the realization that suffrage had not led to social or economic equality. Women today do not necessarily call themselves feminists, but there is a growing acceptance of women in non-traditional roles. V. Social Policy and Gender Stratification: The Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective A. The Issue • Legalized abortion. • Roe v. Wade, 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision; ruling was based on a woman’s right to privacy. B. The Setting • Pro-life side wants to prohibit abortion altogether or at least limit it. Example: Parental consent requirement in Missouri (1979) was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court. Parental notification and consent are very sensitive issues. • Advances in technology and pharmaceuticals have had an impact on the debate. Examples: “day-after” pills; RU-486; ultrasound. • In the U.S. people seem to support a woman’s right to a legal abortion, but with reservations. According to a 2011 national survey, 50 percent say that abortion should be legal in any case; 27 percent, legal only under certain circumstances; and 22 percent, illegal in all cases. There is no gender difference in opinion on this issue: women are just as likely as men to embrace a right-to-life orientation. C. Sociological Insights • Gender and social class are defining issues surrounding abortion. • The conflict reflects broader differences over women’s position in society. Feminists largely defend abortion rights; antiabortion activists tend to believe that women are best suited to child rearing, and are troubled by women’s growing participation in work outside the home. • The Hyde Amendment in 1976 banned the use of Medicaid and other federal funding for abortion; many states also restrict public funding for abortion. • In 2001, only about 6 percent of specialists in the U.S. were trained or willing to perform abortions under any circumstances. Many medical schools have ceased to offer training in abortion. D. Policy Initiatives • Supreme Court majority of 5-4 supports abortion rights; however, recent appointments of John Roberts and Samuel Alito to the Supreme Court leaves the future status of Roe v. Wade in question. • Antiabortion members of Congress have often blocked foreign aid to countries that might use the funds to encourage abortion. • Forty percent of abortions worldwide are performed illegally, in many cases because the woman lives in a country where abortion is illegal or severely restricted. KEY TERMS Expressiveness Concern for maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family. Feminism The belief in social, economic, and political equality for women. Gender role Expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. Glass ceiling An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individual’s gender, race, or ethnicity. Homophobia Fear of and prejudice against homosexuality. Institutional discrimination The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society. Instrumentality An emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one’s family and other social institutions. Matrix of domination The cumulative impact of oppression because of race and ethnicity, gender, and social class, as well as religion, sexual orientation, disability, age, social and citizenship status. Multiple masculinities A variety of male gender roles, including nurturing-caring and effeminate-gay roles, that men may play along with their more pervasive traditional role of dominating women. Second shift The double burden—work outside the home followed by childcare and housework—that many women face and few men share equitably. Sexism The ideology that one sex is superior to the other. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 11-1: Gendered Spaces The interactionist perspective on gender stratification often examines the microlevel of everyday behavior. Daphne Spain’s Gendered Spaces (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1992) is an example of such an approach. After dinner, the women gather in one group, perhaps in the kitchen, while the men sit together elsewhere in the house, perhaps watching a televised sporting event. Is this an accurate picture of day-to-day social life in the United States? According to architect Daphne Spain, it certainly is. Indeed, the physical separation of men and women has been common, whether in the Mongolian ger (or hut), the longhouses of the Iroquois tribes of North America, or recreational facilities on contemporary college campuses. Spain notes that gendered spaces in workplaces in the United States reflect our society’s traditional division of labor into “men’s work” and “women’s work.” But, as with historic patterns of racial segregation, the spatial segregation of women and men does not lead to “separate but equal” status. Instead, it serves to reinforce the dominant position of men in the workplace in terms of financial rewards, status, and power. Drawing on her own research and on studies in a variety of disciplines, Spain concludes that: • Women are more likely to supervise employees who share the same workspace or work in adjoining areas than men are. Men tend to supervise people who work elsewhere. These differences are evident even when both men and women have the same job descriptions. • Women in the workplace are often grouped in open spaces (in the “secretarial pool”) or are without offices altogether (nurses and schoolteachers). By contrast, men are more likely to work in “private” offices. These spatial arrangements have obvious implications in terms of status and power. • Even when women have private offices, the spatial characteristics of these offices often underscore their subordinate position in the workplace. Higher-status jobs within an organization, usually held by men, are accompanied by greater control of space. This is evident when an office has an entrance with a door that closes and locks, a back exit, no glass partition, soundproofing, a private telephone line, and so forth. In summary, Spain (227) found that “women typically engage in highly visible work—to colleagues, clients, and supervisors—subject to repeated interruptions.” Viewed from an interactionist perspective, these spatial conditions reflect and reinforce women’s subordinate status relative to men. The closed doors of men’s offices in managerial and professional jobs not only protect their privacy and limit other employees’ access to knowledge, but they also symbolize men’s dominant position in the workplace. 11-2: Feminization of the Banking Industry Sociologist Brian Rich looks at the growth of women’s participation in the banking industry between 1940 and 1980. Drawing on census and industry regulatory data, he examines “the feminization process,” which he defines as women’s proportional gains in a paid employment category. He notes that the banking workforce went from 30 percent female in 1940 to over 70 percent female in 1980. To consider the reason for this dramatic shift, he considers three models to explain the process: human capital, the dual labor market, and gender queuing. The human capital model would explain the change in sex composition of the banking labor force as the result of new job-to-worker matches. The substitution of female for male workers occurs when skill and other productivity characteristics of the jobs change in ways that favor the human capital stocks that women offer more than those offered by men. The dual labor market model would see the banking industry as becoming less desirable and therefore more likely to be filled by women, who are at a disadvantage in competing against men for more desirable jobs. The gender-queuing explanation would argue that employers came to prefer women in the labor force because of qualities that differentiate them from men, and that, at the same time, women were more likely to seek out those jobs. While similar to the dual labor market approach, queuing portrays the process as one in which the participants, men and women, play a more active role, rather than one in which changes comes from above (the banking industry). Source: Brian L. Rich, “Explaining Feminization in the U.S. Banking Industry, 1940–1980,” Sociological Perspectives 38 (Fall 1996): 357–380. 11-3: Glass Ceiling Commission Concludes Study Created by the first President George Bush, the bipartisan Glass Ceiling federal commission investigating workplace discrimination concluded its work in 1995. During its three years of study, the Glass Ceiling Commission had identified a variety of major barriers to executive advancement for women and racial minorities. These included the following: • Lack of mentoring. • Initial placement and clustering in relatively dead-end staff jobs or highly technical professional jobs. • Lack of management training. • Lack of opportunities for career development. • Lack of opportunities for training tailored to the individual. • Lack of rotation to line positions or job assignments that are revenue producing. • Little or no access to critical development assignments, including service on highly visible task forces and committees. • Different standards for performance evaluation. • Biased rating and testing systems. • Little or no access to informal networks of communication. • Counterproductive behavior and harassment by colleagues. The final report called on chief executives of companies to take a variety of steps to remove these barriers, including the following: • To commit themselves to making the workforce more diverse. • To include diversity in all strategic business plans. • To use affirmative action as a tool to select, promote, and retain qualified individuals. • To prepare minorities and women for senior positions. • To educate the corporate ranks. • To adopt high performance practices in the decision-making process. • To share information about the organization. • To have policies that support family life. The report recommends that the federal government lead by example by promoting women and minorities to senior management and decision-making positions. See Department of Labor. Good for Business: Making Full Use of the Nation’s Capital. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office and Department of Labor, 1995; A Solid Investment: Making Full Use of the Nation’s Human Capital. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1995. Also see Karen De Witt, “Jobs Cited for Minorities and Women,” New York Times (November 23, 1995): B14. 11-4: Work-Family Constraints for Women Chapter 11 describes some of the problems working women face as they try to juggle paid employment with household and family responsibilities. Some sociologists have tried to pinpoint the sorts of work accommodations that might allow women to balance work and life more easily. Attempting to do so is hardly an irrelevant, ivory-tower issue. Female labor force participation is already very high, and is projected to be even higher in the near future. By 2015, 80 percent of women between the ages of 25 and 54 will be in the labor force (Fullerton 1999). In addition, more women with small children are working than in the past. Among married women, 59.5 percent with children under the age of 6 are in the labor force, and 74.2 percent with children age 6–17 are in the labor force. Among unmarried women, the numbers are even higher. Sixty-seven percent of unmarried women with children under the age of 6 are in the labor force, and 78.8 percent of unmarried women with children aged 6–17 are in the labor force (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2000). Moreover, a high percentage of both men and women have care obligations to people other than their children (Moen 1999). High female labor force participation means that all work places will have to grapple with work-family constraints in the future. When women are unable to balance their work responsibilities with their home obligations, work organizations see increased turnover and absenteeism, lowered productivity, and have problems recruiting new employees (Glass and Estes 1997). Recent attempts by workplaces to accommodate women’s family needs have taken three key forms: 1) Allowing employees to reduce their work hours by working less than full-time, taking time off when a child is sick, or taking leave for childbirth. 2) Allowing employees flexibility in scheduling their work hours, or allowing them to work at home. 3) Providing programs that assist employees with childcare, or that promote a supportive work environment for mothers (Estes 2000). Are such programs effective? There is some empirical evidence that when employers allow employees to reduce their work hours and maintain a flexible schedule, this can result in reduced employee turnover. Other studies find that allowing employees to have a flexible work schedule reduces absenteeism. Finally, allowing employees to have reduced work hours is associated with increased productivity (Glass and Estes 1997). However, in a study of a major organization that had implemented numerous such family-friendly work policies, Arlie Hochschild found that there was tremendous social pressure among employees not to take advantage of these policies. This particular organization offered its employees part-time jobs and job shares, telecommuting, parental leaves, and flexible scheduling. Apart from the flexible scheduling, very few women—and even fewer men—took advantage of these policies. Hochschild found that the underlying culture of the workplace still dictated that employees should maintain slavish work schedules, regardless of their family obligations (Hochschild 2000). Sources used for this essay include: Howard N. Fullerton, “Labor Force Participation: 75 Years of Change, 1950–98 and 1998–2025,” Monthly Labor Review (December 1999): 3–12; Sarah Beth Estes. Family-Responsive Workplace Policies, Parenting, and Children’s Well-Being. Unpublished dissertation, Department of Sociology, University of Iowa, 2000; Jennifer Glass and Sarah Beth Estes, “The Family Responsive Workplace,” Annual Review of Sociology 23 (1997): 289–313; Arlie Hochschild. The Time Bind. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2000; Phyllis Moen. The Cornell Couples and Careers Study. Cornell Employment and Family Careers Institute, 1990 (available online at http://www.blcc.cornell.edu/cci/reports.html). CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 11-1. Lipstick Jihad: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Azadeh Moaveni’s book include these: What does Moaveni’s work tell you about variation in gender roles throughout the world, as well as historical changes in gender roles? Based on the excerpt from Moaveni’s book, what would you conclude about the position of women in the Iranian stratification system? Through what mechanisms might Iranian women have forced changes in acceptable dress and behavior in such a conservative society? What are the possible implications for models of political power? 11-2. Women’s Fashion: For a classroom exercise to sensitize students to the social impact of women’s fashion and of ideas of female beauty, see Technique No. 50 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1993. 11-3. Women—The Shadow Story of the Millennium: This is a series of articles that focuses on the changing roles of women during the last 1,000 years. Thirteen articles focus on topics that include gender and social status, changing images of women, gender inequality, gender socialization, women in history, and women and sex. See the New York Times Magazine, May 16, 1999. 11-4. Gender Differences in Childcare: Not only are there differences in how much time mothers and fathers spend in caring for their infants, but there are also significant differences in how much time they think about them when they are away from them. See Susan Walzer, “Thinking About the Baby: Gender and Divisions of Infant Care,” Social Problems (May 1996): 219–234. 11-5. Gender Socialization: Lada Gibson-Shreve describes how to use the game “Gender Gap” as a springboard for students to examine the extent of their own gender socialization. See James Sikora and Teodora O. Amoloza (eds.). Introductory Sociology Resource Manual (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 2000, p. 168. 11-6. Women and Sports: For a provocative conflict approach to women at all levels of sports (individual, school, professional, and Olympic) see Mariah Burton Nelson. The Stronger Women Get, the More Men Love Football: Sexism and the American Culture of Sports. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1994. 11-7. Homophobia: Patricia Little and Marcia Marx list a number of questions that can be used to evoke discussion of contemporary U.S. attitudes toward homosexuality. Also listed are a number of out-of-class experiments designed to increase awareness of the social “work” that it takes to be gay or lesbian. These experiments could be discussed hypothetically, in class. See Peter Kaufman (ed.). Critical Pedagogy in the Sociology Classroom. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 2002, pp. 117–121. 11-8. Superhero Comic Books and Gender Analysis: The authors demonstrate how instructors can stimulate class discussion using superhero comic books as a source of illustrations for the analysis of gender. See Kelley J. Hall and Betsy Lucal, “Tapping into Parallel Universes: Using Superhero Comic Books in Sociology Courses.” Teaching Sociology 27 (January 1999): 60–66. 11-9. Gender Stereotypes: This is an exercise in which students assign a gender to fictional characters based on their other traits (such as profession, romantic relationship, and hobbies). Class consensus or disagreement on the gender of these characters can be followed by a discussion of gender stereotypes. See Marybeth C. Stalp and Julie Childers (eds.). Teaching Sociological Concepts and the Sociology of Gender. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 2000, pp. 37–38. 11-10. Gender Stratification on the Microlevel—A Class Activity: Some studies show that men initiate up to 96 percent of all interruptions in cross-sex (male-female) conversations. Assign students to observe cross-sex conversations for a specified amount of time, and count the number of male versus female interruptions. Stress to students that they, themselves, cannot be part of the conversations they are observing. Have them share their findings with the class. Before the assignment, remind students that they will be taking an interactionist approach to this form of gender stratification. 11-11. Gender Wage Gap: Jay Howard shows how to use AFL-CIO data to give a graphic illustration of the gender wage gap. See James Sikora and Teodora O. Amoloza (eds.). Introductory Sociology Resource Manual (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 2000, pp. 174–175. 11-12. South Asian Women: This article includes extensive discussions of documentaries that may be used to teach about gender issues in South Asia. See Afroza Anwary, “Teaching about South Asian Women through Film,” Teaching Sociology (October 2003): 428–440. 11-13. Using Humor: Joseph E. Faulkner has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated into lectures associated with Chapter 11. See chapter 13 in Faulkner, Sociology Through Humor. New York: West, 1987. This book is out of print, but used copies are readily available. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to search for evidence in advertising, movies, and television shows that reinforce the traditional gender roles assigned to both men and women, and discuss the influence of social construction in the formation of gender roles. Answer: Students should find examples in advertising, movies, and television shows that reinforce traditional gender roles, such as men as breadwinners and women as homemakers. Discuss how these media portrayals contribute to the social construction of gender roles and shape societal expectations. 2. Ask students to search for evidence of gender inequality in recent “reality” television shows, and discuss the various sociological views regarding gender roles. Answer: Research gender inequality in recent reality TV shows, analyzing how these shows depict gender roles and disparities. Discuss various sociological perspectives on gender roles, including functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.. 3. Ask students to search for evidence of sexism in recent news stories (e.g., stories about divorces, lawsuits, or criminal cases), and discuss institutional discrimination directed toward women. Answer: Search for instances of sexism in recent news stories, such as those involving divorces, lawsuits, or criminal cases, and discuss how these examples illustrate institutional discrimination against women in various societal contexts. 4. Ask students to research salary scales of traditional male and female occupations for comparisons, and discuss the disadvantages and advantages of gendered employment. Answer: Compare salary scales for traditionally male and female occupations, noting disparities. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of gendered employment, including how gendered job roles contribute to wage gaps and affect career opportunities. SERVICE LEARNING ACTIVITES The feminization of poverty is an unfortunate by-product of gender stratification. Women on average earn less and are often faced with the challenge of having to break through the proverbial “glass ceiling. ” Women have always had a complex role set. They have a remarkable ability to multi-task; however, it becomes very difficult for a woman to become self sufficient if she does not have adequate education or training. This is not necessarily the case for most men because jobs that require physical strength are more readily available. Students should consider the service learning activities listed below: Have students volunteer for Habitat for Humanity. As mentioned in the text, in an unobtrusive manner, have them observe the roles of women and men in this volunteer effort. You may also have students volunteer at a Battered Women’s Shelter or other local organizations that help women become self-sufficient. CHAPTER 12 STRATIFICATION BY AGE CHAPTER SUMMARY All societies have some system of age stratification that associates certain roles with distinct periods of life. In the United States, age stratification goes beyond the physical constraints associated with chronological aging. Age has many social implications as well. Aging is a critical aspect of socialization. Gerontology is the scientific study of the sociological and psychological aspects of aging and the problems of the aged. Disengagement theory, which follows the functionalist perspective, contends that society and the aging individual mutually sever many of their relationships. Disengagement theory emphasizes that passing social roles on from one generation to another ensures social stability. Implicit in this view is that society should help older people withdraw from their accustomed social roles. Activity theory follows the interactionist approach and argues that the elderly person who remains active will be the best adjusted. Often seen as opposing disengagement theory, activity theory views older people’s withdrawal from society as harmful for society. In their view, aging citizens will feel satisfied only when they can be useful and productive in society’s terms, primarily working for wages. Labeling theorists view age as a life stage that is defined by society. As society changes, the age at which one is labeled old, and the role expectations for the old, change accordingly. When one is considered old, as well as the meaning of being old, varies across cultures. Conflict theorists have criticized both disengagement and activity theories for failing to consider the impact of social structure on patterns of aging. In the conflict view, the privileged position of the upper class generally leads to better health and vigor and to less dependency in old age. According to the conflict approach, the treatment of older people in the United States reflects the many divisions in our society. The conflict approach regards older people as victimized by social structure with their social roles relatively unchanged but devalued. Worldwide, more than 545 million people were age 65 or over in 2009. By 2045, more than twice that proportion, or 15.2 percent of the world’s people, will be over 65. Overall, Europe’s population is older than that of any other continent. The life course affects the manner in which we relate to one another. The first transitional period in the life course begins at a time when an individual gradually enters the adult world. The second transitional period begins at about age 40 and is commonly known as the midlife crisis. During the 1990s social scientists focused on the sandwich generation, or those adults that try to meet the competing needs of their parents and their children. Women are much more likely to be family caregivers than are men and therefore, more likely to be “sandwiched” in between dependent generations. The experience of retirement varies according to gender, race, and ethnicity. Retirement is a series of adjustments that will differ for each individual. Gerontologists conceptualize retirement as a series of stages rather than as an event. Until recently, death was viewed as a taboo topic in the United States. More recently, however, more open discussions of death and dying have been encouraged by psychologists. The functionalist analysis of death suggests dying as fulfilling a social function. The death of a loved one may unite an estranged family, for example. Hospice care is designed to allow for death with dignity and remains consistent with the functionalist view. The graying of the United States is a phenomenon that will persist for quite some time. This trend has significant social, political, and economic repercussions. Ageism refers to prejudice and discrimination based upon a person’s age. The typical elderly person in the United States enjoys a standard of living that is much higher now than at any point in the nation’s past. In 2008, about 36% of men and 26% of women ages 65-69 worked in the paid labor force. Unfortunately, some people view older workers as “job stealers,” rather than as experienced contributors. The largest organization representing the nation’s elderly is the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP). The potential power of the AARP is enormous. The organization represents one out of every four registered voters in the United States. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources 5. Describe how the elderly in the U.S. fit the criteria for a minority group. IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Student Research and Assignments: Social & Economic Outlook of an Aging Society; Aging, Health Care, and Society Video Resources: Age 6. How do functionalists view aging and age stratification? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: disengagement theory Boxes: Taking Sociology to Work: A. David Roberts, Social Worker IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Who Will Bury Me? (12-1); The Elderly in !Kung Society (12-2) Classroom Discussion Topics: Tuesdays with Morrie (12-1); "Youth is America’s Last, Best Hope" (12-2) Student Research and Assignments: Aging, Healthcare, and Society Video Resources: Age 7. How do interactionists and labeling theorists view the aging process? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: activity theory IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Typology of the Elderly (12-3); Exchange Theory (12-5) Classroom Discussion Topics: Tuesdays with Morrie (12-1); Stereotyping (12-3); Growing Old (12-4) Student Research and Assignments: Acting Your Age; Interview with Older Adult; Content Analysis of Age-Related Stereotypes Video Resources: Age; Beauty Before Age; Green Winter; The Unknown Generation; Whisper: The Women 8. How do conflict theorists view aging and age stratification? IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Worried Well Myth (12-4); Exchange Theory (12-5) Classroom Discussion Topics: Age and Economic Hardship (12-5); Ageism in Movies (12-6); Ageism and Age Inequality (12-7) Student Research and Assignments: Social & Economic Outlook of an Aging Society; Aging, Health Care, and Society Video Resources: Age 9. What are the usual stages of the life course and common variations on how they are experienced in the U.S.? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: midlife crisis, sandwich generation, NORCs, hospice care IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: Who Will Bury Me (12-1); The Elderly in !Kung Society (12-2); Typology of the Elderly (12-3) Classroom Discussion Topics: Growing Old (12-4) Student Research and Assignments: Household Tasks in Later Life; Exploring Activity Theory Further; Acting Your Age; Interview with Older Adult; Aging and the Life Course in Movies Video Resources: Still Doing It: The Intimate Lives of Women Over 65; Whisper: The Women 10. What are the main patterns of age inequality in the United States? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: ageism Boxes: Research Today: Elderspeak and Other Signs of Ageism IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: "Youth is America’s Last, Best Hope" (12-2); Stereotyping (12-3); Growing Old (12-4); Age and Economic Hardship (12-5); Ageism in Movies (12-6); Ageism and Age Inequality (12-7) LECTURE OUTLINE I. MODULE 36 Aging and Society A. Age Stratification • All societies have some system of age stratification. • Being old is a master status that commonly overshadows most others in the U.S. • Negative stereotypes contribute to elderly discrimination as a minority group. • A crucial difference between older people and other subordinate groups is that all those who live long enough will assume the ascribed status of being an older person. B. Sociological Perspectives on Aging • Aging is an important aspect of socialization. • Gerontology is the scientific study of the sociological and psychological aspects of aging and the problems of the aged. 1. Functionalist Approach: Disengagement Theory • Disengagement theory contends that society and the aging individual mutually sever many of their relationships. • The passing of roles from one generation to another ensures stability. • The aging person withdraws into an increasing state of inactivity while preparing for death. Simultaneously, society segregates aging people. • Critics charge disengagement forces the elderly into involuntary and painful withdrawal from paid labor and meaningful social relationships. 2. Interactionist Approach: Activity Theory • Activity theory argues that elderly people are better adjusted when active. • Improved health has strengthened the position of activity theorists. • The Internet is a new method for keeping elderly in touch with families and friends. • Activity theorists focus on potential contributions of elderly people. 3. Labeling Theory • Labeling theorists see old age as a life stage that is defined by society. • The age at which one is labeled old increases as life expectancy lengthens. • The age at which one is labeled old varies from culture to culture. 4. The Conflict Approach • Treatment of elderly people reflects the many divisions in our society. • Older people are victimized by social structure and devalued. • Affluent persons enjoy better healthcare than working-class elderly. II. MODULE 37 Aging Worldwide A. Role Transitions throughout the Life Course • Experiences vary at certain points in the life course. • Daniel Levinson identified a number of developmental and transitional periods in the life course. • Men and women both experience midlife crises at about age 40. 1. The Sandwich Generation • The sandwich generation refers to adults who simultaneously try to meet the needs of both their parents and children. 2. Adjusting to Retirement • Retirement is a rite of passage. • From 1950 to mid-1990s average age at retirement declined. • In the last few years, the age of retirement has reversed direction and begun to increase. Example: In 2007, 8 percent of women and 14 percent of men over 70 are still working. • Gerontologist Robert Atchley identified phases of retirement experiences: pre-retirement, the near phase, the honeymoon phase, the disenchantment phase, the reorientation phase, the stability phase, and the termination phase. • Experience of retirement varies with gender, race, and ethnicity. 3. Death and Dying • Kubler-Ross has identified five stages of dying: 1) denying the truth to oneself, 2) a period of anger, 3) stage of bargaining, 4) depression, and 5) acceptance. • Functionalist view dying as fulfilling distinct functions. Example: Completing unfinished business. • Hospice care is founded on the concept of improving the quality of dying. III. MODULE 38 Age Stratification in the United States A. The “Graying of America” • By 2010, our population 65 and over is projected to be 13 percent. See Figure 38-1. • Florida was the state most populated by elderly in 2000, with 17.6 percent. • In 25 years more than half the states will have elderly populations exceeding what Florida has currently. • In the 2000 presidential race, people 55 and older made up 35 percent of the total vote. 1. Wealth and Income • Older people are neither homogenous nor poor. Older people have enjoyed a higher standard of living than in the past. • Social Security provides 39 percent of the elderly income. • Female-headed households and racial and ethnic minorities have not kept pace with the gains made by other seniors. 2. Ageism • Ageism refers to prejudice and discrimination against people because of their age. • Old age may symbolize disease for some. 3. Competition in the Labor Force • In 2001, 34 percent of men and 25 percent of women aged 65 to 69 participated in the paid labor force. • Some perceive older workers as job stealers. • AARP revealed in 1993 that older people face discrimination when applying for jobs. • Older workers can be an asset for employers. Lower rates of absenteeism and effective sales persons. B. The Elderly: Emergence of a Collective Consciousness • AARP founded in 1958. Provides a powerful lobbying force. • National Committee to Preserve Social Security and Medicare in 1982 successfully lobbied Congress to retain benefits. • Senior Action in a Gay Environment (SAGE) established in 1977 in New York. IV. Social Policy and Age Stratification: The Right to Die Worldwide A. The Issue • Legalized euthanasia. • Dr. Jack Kevorkian imprisoned for second-degree murder in 1998. • In 2006, 69 percent of people supported physician-assisted suicide. B. The Setting • Senilicide is practiced in many societies. • Death hastening occurs when older people become decrepit. • Public policy in the U.S. does not allow active euthanasia. C. Sociological Insights • Informal norms seem to permit mercy killings. • Nearly 70 percent of all deaths in the U.S. are “quietly negotiated.” • Conflict theorists suggest the powerless and poor are encouraged to choose assisted death. • Critics of euthanasia charge supporters are guilty of ageism and other biases. D. Policy Initiatives • Widely accepted in the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Belgium. • Oregon is only state in U.S. allowing assisted suicide. • Bush administration sought unsuccessfully to stop doctors from prescribing lethal drugs for terminally ill patients in Oregon. KEY TERMS Activity theory An interactionist theory of aging that suggests that those elderly people who remain active and socially involved will be best-adjusted. Ageism Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s age. Disengagement theory A functionalist theory of aging that suggests that society and the aging individual mutually sever many of their relationships. Euthanasia The act of bringing about the death of a hopelessly ill and suffering person in a relatively quick and painless way for reasons of mercy. Gerontology The scientific study of the sociological and psychological aspects of aging and the problems of the aged. Hospice care Treatment of the terminally ill in their own homes, or in special hospital units or other facilities, with the goal of helping them to die easily, without pain. Naturally occurring retirement communities (NORCs) An area that has gradually become an informal center for senior citizens. Midlife crisis A stressful period of self-evaluation that begins at about age 40. Sandwich generation The generation of adults who simultaneously try to meet the competing needs of their parents and their children. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 12-1: Who Will Bury Me? In many societies, the elderly look to their adult children for care during old age. This is especially true in developing societies that lack a network of social service agencies to provide basic assistance. But what happens to childless older persons in a preindustrial society? To study this question, anthropologist Laura Zimmer conducted fieldwork for one year among the Gende, cultivators living in the mountainous interior of Papua, New Guinea. Zimmer found that 18 percent of the Gende 45 years or older were childless. A commonly expressed concern among older persons is that when they die there will be no one to mourn their deaths or to see that they receive a proper funeral (known as kwiagi). Generally, childless elderly attach themselves to the families of their brothers, who serve as reluctant caretakers. While no formal adoption ceremony exists among the Gende, some childless persons adopt children of deceased relatives or of couples who have difficulty caring for their many children. Since the Gende were first contacted by Europeans in 1932, there has been a steady increase in migration away from their area, leaving more and more elderly Gende without children nearby. This has forced some older persons to migrate to cities and seek whatever work is available. Whether they migrate or not, many older Gende resent their children’s migration and accuse them of not caring about their parents. Clearly, as Zimmer has shown, modernization has contributed to the difficulties faced by childless elderly among the Gende. See Laura Zimmer, “Who Will Bury Me? The Plight of Childless Elderly among the Gende,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 2 (January 1987): 61–77. 12-2: The Elderly in !Kung Society A case study of aging in a nonindustrial community is provided by Harriet G. Rosenberg (“Complaint Discourse, Aging, and Care-Giving among the Kung San of Botswana,” in Jay Sokolovsky, ed. The Cultural Context of Aging: Worldwide Perspectives. New York: Bergin and Garvey, 1980, pp. 19–41). It is not always easy to accurately interpret the treatment of the elderly in another culture. For example, long-term observation research has focused on the Kung, a nomadic hunting-and-gathering tribe in southern Africa. In the culture of the Kung, sharp and constant complaints by the elderly are commonplace. In fact, by North American standards, the treatment of older people in Kung society is rather favorable. The tribe’s elders are involved in their community’s social, economic, political, and spiritual life. Most of the respected healers, the crucial healthcare providers for the Kung, are elders. In general, older people in this culture enjoy personal autonomy, respect, and a significant degree of control over their day-to-day lives. Care-giving is an integral part of the culture of the Kung. Incapacitated elders are scrupulously cared for by relatives and the larger community. Only 10 percent of Kung report that they have ever heard of an older person’s being abandoned. Moreover, the elderly are not made to feel that they are a burden on younger generations. They do not need to negotiate care as if it were a favor; instead, it is perceived as a right. If older people can no longer produce enough to feed themselves, they will be given the basics of life in this nomadic culture: firewood, water, and food. Why, then, are complaints by the elderly so common among the Kung? The community appears to set such a high standard of care-giving, with each person ideally obligated to meet the needs of everyone else at all times, that no one can possibly meet this standard. Moreover, the Kung, described by one researcher as “cranky, funny, and loud,” love a captivating story—even if it is a passionate, elaborate complaint that is not fully justified. Thus, when one elder, Kasupe, denounced his uncaring children, another tribal member observed that it was a “big story” (in other words, totally untrue). Rather than reacting angrily to this charge, Kasupe laughed, for he knew he had spun an enchanting tale that had captured the attention of listeners. 12-3: Typology of the Elderly George P. Moschis, professor of marketing at Georgia State University, has examined the consumer behavior of older people (defined here as 55 years or older) in the United States and has concluded that this behavior has more to do with their outlook on life than with their age. The physical, social, and psychological changes people experience in later life shape their needs and wants. He has found that these circumstances give rise to four distinct consumer segments with different ways of responding to marketing efforts: 1. Health Indulgers (18 percent of the population) have experienced the fewest life events—such as retirement, widowhood, and chronic conditions—that contribute to people’s psychological and social aging. As a result, they are often indistinguishable from younger consumers, according to Moschis. 2. Healthy Hermits (36 percent) are likely to have experienced life events, such as the death of a spouse, that have affected their self-concept and self-worth. They tend to be withdrawn. (This notion of “healthy hermits” corresponds to the approach taken by disengagement theory.) 3. Ailing Outgoers (29 percent) maintain positive self-esteem and self-concept, despite life events such as health problems. Unlike the “healthy hermits,” the “ailing outgoers” accept their old-age status but are still interested in getting the most out of their life. 4. Frail Recluses (17 percent) have come to feel their physical decline and have adjusted their lifestyles accordingly. Moschis acknowledges that people move from one group to another. This typology helps remind us of the diversity within the senior citizen community, which is too often portrayed as homogeneous. See George P. Moschis, “Life Stage of the Mature Market,” American Demographics 18 (September 1996): 44–50. 12-4: Worried Well Myth It is commonly believed that older adults with no apparent evidence of ailments or pathology still worry about their health. Furthermore, these people are viewed as making inappropriate demands for health services. The potential policy implication is that these “worried well” have adverse effects on the fiscally out-of-control healthcare delivery system. Using data on 4,578 respondents in the four-wave Longitudinal Study on Aging, a team of sociologists has attempted to identify the “worried well.” The worried well are defined as (1) worried about their health, but without known medical conditions; (2) worried about their health, but without functional limitations; and (3) worried about their health, but without either known medical conditions or any functional limitations. The researchers operationalize this definition using 11 indexes of health services utilization, measured over time, for treatment of conditions such as heart disease, hip problems, and Alzheimer disease. Overall, about 9.5 percent of the respondents were classified as “worried well” by definition 1, 6.6 percent by definition 2, and only 2.8 percent by definition 3. The research question was whether any of these groups contacted physicians or hospitals or sought placement in a nursing home. The researchers found no consistent evidence to support the contention that these older adults who worry about their health but have no apparent problems make inappropriate demands for health services. The researchers note that the “worried well” myth may be perpetuated by the tendency to blame the victim. We assume the complainers are making demands on the healthcare delivery system and are therefore indirectly hurting us. Rather than focusing on the alleged demands of the “worried well,” our attention should be focused on seeing that the “worried well” are better diagnosed. See Frederic D. Wolinsky, Christopher M. Callahan, John F. Fitzgerald, and Robert J. Johnson, “The ‘Worried Well’ Myth: Older Adults and the Use of Health Services.” In Gary L. Albrecht (ed.). Advances in Medical Sociology. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1994, pp. 163–184. 12-5: Exchange Theory Unlike disengagement and activity theorists, conflict theorists focus on the disadvantaged position of older Americans. Using an approach that has certain similarities to conflict theory, James Dowd attempts to answer the question, often overlooked by other theorists, of why the aged engage in fewer social interactions. The traditional explanations are that the elderly have poorer health and lower incomes than younger Americans do, but these are not the only factors at work. To examine this question more fully, Dowd drew upon exchange theory, a general sociological theory first developed by George Homans and Peter Blau. Exchange theory contends that interactions among people are most likely to occur if all participants feel they are profiting from the relationship. Individuals and groups can benefit not only through financial rewards but also through receipt of love, approval, esteem, and other nonmaterial rewards. An implication of exchange theory is that those who cannot reciprocate fully within a relationship place themselves in a subservient position, both economically and socially. Thus, an employer and an employee exchange wages for labor; yet, in this type of exchange, employers are generally able to reinforce their superior position. The employer has the power to set limits for work performed and pay received. The employee can respond by withholding his or her labor but obviously pays the price in terms of lost income. In the case of the elderly, Dowd suggests that they function in an exchange relationship with younger people. However, the relatively low ascribed status of the aged limits their bargaining power. The elderly retire from the labor force and vacate their homes; in return, they receive the “rewards” of pensions, Social Security, and Medicare benefits. Dowd does not argue that such withdrawal from social roles is satisfying to the elderly, as disengagement theorists might. Rather, he views withdrawal as the eventual result of a series of exchange relationships in which the relative power of senior citizens gradually declines. The crucial element in this analysis is the assumption that the older persons are at a disadvantage within an exchange relationship. They are not necessarily poor, but their ability to accumulate additional financial resources is more limited than that of persons a decade or two younger. Furthermore, retirement rules, prejudice, discrimination, and declining health all limit the ability of the elderly to compete with younger adults. In this respect, exchange theory is in accord with functionalist and conflict theories, two approaches we have often found to be at odds with each other. Functionalists view the withdrawal of older Americans as supportive of the needs of the young and middle-aged by allowing such groups to move into newly vacated positions of authority. Conflict theorists note that this withdrawal is far from voluntary. Rather, in their opinion, it is but one more example of the dominance of those with greatest political and economic power (young and middle-aged adults) over those with less power (the elderly). See Peter Blau. Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York: Wiley, 1964; James J. Dowd. Stratification among the Aged. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1980; George Homans. Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1961. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 12-1. Tuesdays With Morrie: Questions about this excerpt from Mitch Albom’s book could include: Do students have a fear of aging? What do students think Morrie meant when he said “Aging is not just decay, you know. It’s growth.” In what way is age socially constructed? Why do we need to look at the life course as a continuum? 12-2. “Youth is America’s Last, Best Hope”: Have the class evaluate this frequently heard statement. 12-3. Stereotyping: Several weeks before covering the topic of age stratification, have each class member list four adjectives that describe a 15-year-old and four adjectives that describe a 70-year-old. Compile the responses and share the results with the class. This approach is taken from a class exercise developed by Mike Hoover at Missouri Western State College. See Technique No. 60 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas, (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1993. 12-4. Growing Old: Ask your students to bring up the subject of growing old at a party or some other social gathering and observe the reactions of those present. This experiment ought to demonstrate that people (especially young adults) in our culture show little interest in discussing old age. 12-5. Age and Economic Hardship: An exchange of ideas about the relationship between aging and economic hardship can be initiated by using the following resources: John Mirowsky and Catherine E. Ross, “Economic Hardship across the Life Course,” American Sociological Review 64 (August 1999): 548–569; Melissa A. Hardy and Lawrence E. Hazelrigg, “Comment: Fueling the Politics of Age,” American Sociological Review 64 (August 1999): 570–576; and John Mirowsky and Catherine E. Ross, “Reply: Economic Hardship Declines with Age,” American Sociological Review 64 (August 1999): 577–584. 12-6. Ageism in Movies: Bring a rather current video to class and show it. Have students note how older people are portrayed in the video. Discuss what types of myths and stereotypes about the elderly are evident in this film. 12-7. Ageism and Age Inequality: See Technique No. 1 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas, (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1993. For another exercise focusing specifically on the disparaging stereotype of the sexless old person in our society, see Technique No. 60 on p. 103. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to search for evidence in advertising, movies, and television shows that reinforce traditional age-specific roles assigned to both men and women, and discuss the influence of social construction in forming age norms. Answer: Students should identify examples in advertising, movies, and TV shows that reinforce traditional age-specific roles, such as older adults in caretaker roles or younger adults as energetic and innovative. Discuss how these portrayals shape societal expectations and social construction of age norms. 2. Ask students to search for evidence of ageism in recent “reality TV” shows, and discuss the various sociological views regarding age norms. Answer: Research ageism in recent reality TV shows, examining how older and younger participants are portrayed. Discuss sociological perspectives on age norms, including how functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism explain age-related roles and stereotypes. 3. Ask students to search for evidence of ageism in recent news stories such as divorces, lawsuits, or criminal cases, and discuss institutional discrimination directed toward the elderly. Answer: Search for instances of ageism in news stories about divorces, lawsuits, or criminal cases, and discuss how these examples reflect institutional discrimination against the elderly, impacting their rights and opportunities. 4. Ask students to discuss their views about aging rock musicians going out on concert tours, such as the Rolling Stones, Fleetwood Mac, or the Who, and discuss disengagement and activity theories on aging. Answer: Discuss the phenomenon of aging rock musicians, like the Rolling Stones or Fleetwood Mac, touring and how it relates to disengagement and activity theories of aging, which explore whether older adults withdraw from or remain active in societal roles. 5. Ask students to interview elderly persons about their experiences as adolescents and to compare those experiences with their own, and discuss how age norms are often based on stereotypes. Answer: Interview elderly individuals about their adolescent experiences and compare these with your own. Discuss how age norms are influenced by stereotypes and how generational differences highlight changing societal expectations over time. Instructor Manual for Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026812, 9780071318419
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