CH-11-12 Power, Influence, and Negotiation – Organizational Behaviour: Improving Performance and Commitment in the Workplace : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 11 to 12 Chapter 11 Power, Influence, and Negotiation CHAPTER OVERVIEW The use of power and influence is necessary to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement. This chapter discusses the major types of power, as well as the influence tactics most commonly used by leaders. It also covers organizational politics, as well as conflict resolution and negotiation techniques. LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 11.1 What is power? 11.2 What are the different types of power that people possess, and when can they use those types most effectively? 11.3 What behaviours do people exhibit when trying to influence others, and which of these is most effective? 11.4 What is organizational politics, and when is political behaviour most likely to occur? 11.5 How do individuals use their power and influence to resolve conflicts in the workplace? 11.6 What are the ways in which leaders negotiate in the workplace? 11.7 How do power and influence affect job performance and organizational commitment? CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Power, Influence, and Negotiation Try This! Ask students to think of names that occur to them when you say “great leader”. The names can be business or non-business, and the people can be living or historical. Write the list of names as they are said, encouraging diversity in the list. For example, one list might be Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Norman Bethune, Oprah Winfrey, Mother Theresa, Wayne Gretzky, Barrack Obama, and Steven Harper. When you cover the types of power, circle the names that have the various kinds of power as you cover them, perhaps using different colors or shapes for organizational vs. personal power. For example, Winfrey, Obama, and Harper would be examples of legitimate power. Gandi, King, Bethune, Gretzky and Mother Theresa would be examples of referent power. Bethune, Winfrey, and Gretzky would be examples of expert power. II. Why Are Some Leaders More Powerful Than Others? A. Power is defined as the ability to influence the behaviour of others and to resist unwanted influence in return 1. People must choose to influence others 2. Resistance is as important as influencing others when discussing power B. Acquiring Power 1. Organizational Power – derived from a person’s position in the organization a. Legitimate Power – derived from having a position of authority within the organization. Also known as “position power” b. Reward Power – exists when someone has control over the resources or rewards another person wants c. Coercive Power – exists when a person has control over the punishments in an organization i. Leads to negative feelings toward those who use it 2. Personal Power – comes from the person themselves a. Expert Power – derived from the person’s expertise, skill, or knowledge on which others depend b. Referent Power – exists when others have a desire to identify and be associated with a person 3. Guidelines for Using Power 4. Contingency Factors a. Substitutability – Leader power increases when there are no substitutes for the rewards or resources the leader controls b. Centrality – Leader power increases when the leader’s role is important and interdependent with others in the organization c. Discretion – Leader power increases when the leader has the freedom to make his or her own decisions without being restrained by organizational rules d. Visibility – Leader power increases when others know about the leader and the resources he or she can provide C. Using Influence 1. Influence is the use of an actual behaviour that causes behavioural or attitudinal changes in others a. Influence is directional – it most frequently occurs downward, but can also be lateral or upward b. Influence is all relative – the absolute power of the influencer and influence isn’t relative, but the disparity between them is 2. Influence Tactics a. Most Effective i. Rational Persuasion – the use of logical arguments and hard facts to show the target that the request is a worthwhile one ii. Inspirational Appeal – a tactic designed to appeal to the target’s values and ideals iii. Consultation – asking the target to participate in deciding how to carry out a request iv. Collaboration – making it easier for the target to complete the request b. Moderately Effective i. Ingratiation – the use of favours, complements, or friendly behaviour to make the target feel better about the influencer ii. Personal Appeals – when the requestor asks for something on the basis of friendship or loyalty OB Internationally. This box describes how Kai-Fu Lee, the president of Google Greater China, uses guanxi (relationships) to influence decisions. In China, guanxi refers to friendly feelings, but also a sense of obligation to the other person based on a common background. It is a much deeper relationship than the traditional North American business relationship, and it is important for Canadian managers working in China to be aware of the differences. iii. Exchange Tactic – used when the requestor offers a reward or resource in exchange for performing a request iv. Apprising – when the requestor clearly explains why performing the request will benefit the target personally c. Least Effective i. Pressure – the use of coercive power through threats and demands ii. Coalitions – enlisting other people to help influence the target d. Influence tactics tend to be most successful when used in combination e. “Softer” influence tactics tend to be more successful than “harder” ones 3. Responses to Influence Tactics a. Internalization – Target agrees with and becomes committed to request b. Compliance – Target is willing to perform request, but does so with indifference c. Resistance – Target is opposed to request and attempts to avoid doing it D. Power and Influence in Action 1. Organizational Politics – Actions by individuals that are directed toward the goal of furthering their own self-interests (note that self-interests can also be in the interests of the corporation) a. Political Skill – the ability to effectively understand others at work and to use that knowledge to influence others in ways that enhance personal and/or organizational objectives. Political skill includes: i. Networking abilities – adeptness at identifying and developing diverse contacts ii. Social astuteness – the tendency to observe others and accurately interpret their behaviour OB Assessments: Political Skill. This brief assessment measures a student’s level of networking ability and social astuteness. When discussing this test, it is important to note that results are likely to be linked to a person’s level of introversion/extroversion, with extraverts being more likely to score highly on this test. It may also be useful to point out (again) the situational nature of behaviour – just because one is an introvert, doesn’t mean that he or she cannot network, only that networking might be more difficult, and may occur in a more limited number of settings. b. Environments that are perceived as extremely political have been shown to cause lower job satisfaction, increased strain, and lower organizational commitment among employees c. Organizational Politics Process i. Factors that Foster Organizational Politics a.) Personal Characteristics i.) Need for power ii.) High self-monitors iii.) Machiavellianism b.) Organizational Characteristics i.) Limited or changing resources ii.) Ambiguity in roles iii.) High performance pressure iv.) Unclear performance evaluations 2. Conflict Resolution a. Five approaches to conflict resolution: i. Competing – one party attempts to get his or her goals met without regard for the other party’s goals ii. Avoiding – one party stays away from the conflict iii. Accommodating – one party gives in and acts unselfishly iv. Collaboration – both parties work together to maximize outcomes v. Compromise – each party’s losses are offset by gains b. When to Use Conflict Resolution Styles E. Negotiation 1. Negotiation – A process in which two or more interdependent parties discuss and attempt to come to an agreement about their different preferences a. Distributive bargaining – involves win-lose negotiations over a “fixed pie” of resources OB on Screen: There Will Be Blood. If you have access to this movie, please play it for your students during class. This scene depicts Daniel Planview, the main character in the movie going in to a negotiation with two executives of Standard Oil Company who wish to purchase the land he has bought and the rights to the oil underneath it. It is clear that Daniel has a great deal of contempt for the two men and has no real intention of selling them his oil find. The scene provides a case study for the process of bargaining. One topic for class discussion is whether the students think Daniel ever had any intention of selling his oil production and his “hard work”. Which stages of negotiation does the scene show? The two sides make a deal very quickly for a small plot of land – but they never really enter into true “bargaining”. There is nothing the oilmen can say that will appease Daniel and he finds something to react to in order to walk away from the table. Daniel’s BATNA is essentially nothing – something the oilmen clearly don’t understand. An alternate scene in the movie runs in Chapter 5 (1:24:34 to 1:27:24) which might be worthwhile to show first and shows the type of man Daniel is and the fact that he hates people and wants “no one else to succeed”. A good question to ask the students after might be “Do you ever think you could negotiate a win-win outcome with this man?” What type of conflict resolution do you think he will always adopt? Try This! Use the There Will Be Blood clip for a different chapter. It is clear that Daniel Plainview is under stress, and the allusion to his son’s health reveals both work-family conflict and negative life events from Chapter 5 on Stress. Plainview’s motivation exemplifies high levels of control needs and low levels of relatedness needs from Chapter 6 on Motivation. The clip reveals Plainview’s lack of benevolence and trust propensity from Chapter 7 on Trust, Justice, and Ethics. His personality also exemplifies high levels of neuroticism from Chapter 9 on Personality, Cultural Values, and Ability. Bonus OB on Screen: The Queen. Chapter 1 of the DVD (beginning at 00:42 and ending at 02:45 for a total running time of 2 minutes, 3 seconds) depicts Queen Elizabeth II having a conversation with a portrait artist. In this scene, the two discuss the power to vote (the Queen not having this power), how the Queen would like to do that just once, and the artist having little sympathy for her since it is “her government”. One topic for class discussion is what are the most effective bases of power. What happens when people overestimate the amount of power they have and/or underestimate the power of others based solely on positional (legitimate) power? What types of power to the students think they most respond to? Of the managers they have reported to, which were the most powerful? Why? b. Integrative bargaining – aimed at accomplishing a win-win scenario 2. Negotiation Stages a. Preparation - each party determines its goals for the negotiation, including its best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) b. Exchanging information - each party makes a case for its position and put all favourable information on the table c. Bargaining - each party uses distributive or integrated strategies to gain something of value d. Closing and commitment - an agreement is formalized F. Summary: Why Are Some Leaders More Influential than Others? III. How Important Is Power and Influence? A. Power and influence have a moderate positive effect on job performance B. Power and influence can have a moderate positive effect on organizational commitment, however hard influence tactics decrease commitment IV. Application: Alternative Dispute Resolution A. Alternative Dispute Resolution - A process by which two parties resolve conflicts through the use of a specially trained, neutral third party 1. Mediation – requires a third party to facilitate the dispute resolution process, though he/she has no formal authority to dictate a solution 2. Arbitration – occurs when a third party has the authority to determine a binding settlement to the dispute DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 11.1 Can a leader influence others without power? How exactly would that influence take place? Answer: Leaders may not have legitimate, reward, or coercive power, but any time someone is influenced, power is exerted. The more subtle (and more effective) forms of power are referent power and expert power. 11.2 Which forms of power do you consider to be the strongest? Which types of power do you currently have? How could you go about obtaining higher levels of the forms that you’re lacking? Answer: Most students still believe that legitimate power is the strongest, and they often feel that they have little power themselves. When discussing the answer to this question, it may be useful to explain the following “power pyramid” to students. At the base of the pyramid, and fundamental to organizational power, is acquiring expertise in a given area. Next, people who want power must nurture critical organizational relationships, and then develop a network of resource people. Fourth, people who want power need to have good communication skills, and finally, the most direct way to gain power is to use all four of the pyramid levels to target and achieve key organizational goals. 11.3 Who is the most influential leader you have come in contact with personally? What forms of power did he or she have and which types of influence did he or she use to accomplish objectives? Answer: Typically, students will talk about people who have high levels of referent power when answering this question. This is a good question to ask in writing, because identifying powerful leaders can be personally revealing. 11.4 Think of a time when you resisted an influence attempt at work. What made you resist? Could the person attempting to influence have done anything differently to get you to behave the way he or she wanted? Answer: Most responses to this question will either refer to someone who used coercive power or someone who tried to influence others without having the legitimate power to do so. Students may need help in seeing that the same request could have been made participatively, or with an appeal to the student’s values, and it would have a much higher likelihood of being fulfilled. 11.5 What would it take to have a “politically free” environment? Is that possible? Answer: Politics are always operating, but they may be less noticeable in an organization where everyone is truly focused on achieving the same organizational goal, above and beyond any of their personal goals. People being people, however, make this type of situation extremely rare. 11.6 Think about the last serious conflict you had with a coworker or group member. How was that conflict resolved? Which approach did you take to resolve it? Answer: Answers to this question will vary by student. Students may differ in their most commonly used approaches, and may also react to the same situation with different styles. The last serious conflict I had with a coworker was resolved through open communication and collaboration. We took a problem-solving approach, discussing our perspectives, finding common ground, and working together to reach a mutually beneficial solution. 11.7 Think of a situation in which you negotiated an agreement. Which approach did you take? Was it the appropriate one? How might have the negotiation process gone more smoothly? Answer: Again, answers will vary by student. The points to emphasize in discussion, however, are that most negotiations are more effective if both parties work together towards a solution that meets the needs of everyone. In a recent negotiation, I took a collaborative approach, aiming for a win-win outcome by understanding the other party's needs and finding mutually beneficial solutions. This approach was appropriate and led to a satisfactory agreement. The negotiation process could have gone more smoothly with better preparation, including anticipating potential objections and having clearer objectives from the start. CASE: HARPO Questions: 11.1 What are the potential dangers of having one super-powerful leader of an organization? Answer: The major danger would be that different ideas and perspectives are not brought in to be a check on that leader. In addition, it is possible that the political behaviour and maneuverings in the organization become oriented around and toward impressing that one person. As successful as Oprah has been, she needs to be aware of the environment changing around her and not having people willing to step up and disagree with her. 11.2 How might Winfrey go about ensuring that Harpo, survives after her departure or due to a loss of faith among the public? Is it possible to have a true leadership succession plan in these circumstances? Answer: Winfrey should focus on having other employees around her that are prepared to take over the company if need be. Given that the company rests so much on her celebrity, finding a way to diversify would be of immense help to the future goals and prospects of the organization. It is possible to have a succession plan, but it needs to be a well-thought out one, where decisions start to be made by others around her even in areas where Winfrey is the clear expert. 11.3 As a holder of immense referent power, what types of concerns should Oprah Winfrey have in terms of influencing the employees around her? Answer: Winfrey should be aware that everything she says and does holds immense sway with the people around her. She needs to be cognizant of groupthink, organizational culture, and creating a willingness of the people around her to make all kinds of decisions without her approval. She will need to be aware that people will likely do what she wants even if the employee doesn’t feel it is in their or Winfrey’s best interest. BONUS CASE: HEWLETT-PACKARD When Mark Hurd took over the responsibilities as CEO of Hewlett-Packard (HP), the California-based maker of printers and computers in 2005, the company was in the midst of the largest crisis in its history. HP was faced with seemingly insurmountable financial and strategic obstacles, employed a completely demoralized workforce, and was saddled with a board of directors rife with political battles (the result of which was a highly publicized corporate spying scandal in 2006). Doesn’t that sound like a job everyone would want? Fortunately for HP, Mark Hurd was just the kind of leader it needed at the time. In the span of two years, Hurd, through the smart use of power and influence, turned HP around to take its place as the largest technology company in the world with $92 billion in sales. Part of Hurd’s mystique as a leader is that he is the complete opposite of the CEO who preceded him: Carleton (“Carly”) Fiorina. Dismissed three months prior to Hurd’s arrival by the board of directors, Fiorina was known as a very smooth, polished, out-in-front CEO who enjoyed the limelight. However, she was also more of a top-down, power-conscious leader who attempted to change a deeply instilled culture within HP by setting a vision that employees came to resent and resist. In fact, Hurd became known as the “Un-Carly,” as he took on the role of coach in opposition to Fiorina’s quarterbacking. He took a decidedly different approach to leadership and used his power and influence in ways that better fit the culture of the company he took over. Company insiders state that Hurd is “low-key, self-effacing, and a bread-and-butter business guy.” Using more personal forms of power and “softer” methods of influence to lead, Hurd was able to build commitment among employees and investors. He didn’t walk in the door with set ideas and a grandiose vision for the organization. In fact, Hurd changed nothing when he first arrived—the CEO’s office remained exactly the way it was when Fiorina left. Moreover, to this day, Hurd refuses to pose for pictures that will place him on the cover of magazines by himself. Hurd came to HP from NCR, the California-based manufacturer of retail and financial technology, a position that afforded him “outsider” status at HP. Hurd therefore made it a point to consult with his employees to formulate a plan for HP’s future. He encouraged employees to contact him directly with ideas, receiving over 5,000 e-mails. Using his own areas of expertise and supplying rational arguments to help drive decisions, he generated a level of commitment among his workforce that hadn’t been seen in years. Hurd also made a point of visiting and collecting information from all areas of the company while maintaining an open mind. Explained Hurd, “I never like people to think I’m interviewing them. I either want to bring them towards the view I’ve formed, or better, yet, have them argue me down.” Hurd also did his best to tear down some of the uncertainty that had created a highly charged political atmosphere within HP. He brought in outsiders to play key roles in the company, simplified reward systems, and refused to use outside consultants in an effort to minimize the coalitions that had formed within the organization. He also refused to be unduly influenced by political behaviours, noting, “When someone gets a job, it better be clear what they did to get it. If the organization thinks it’s because they gave good PowerPoint presentations or because they were nice to Hurd when he showed up, you’ve got a problem. But if it’s because she built a strong team and delivered strong operating results, the next person may think, ‘Well, that’s what I ought to do’.” Part of his ability to influence as a leader is the creation of common goals, as Hurd explained: “In the end, we’ve got to do what’s best for the company, not what’s best for its CEO or the management, or what’s best for any single one person.” Hewlett-Packard had to make a tough decision to replace Carly Fiorina to guide the company out of a crisis. The board appointed Mark Hurd, a low-profile CEO with a proven record of success. Hurd’s personality was the complete opposite of Fiorina’s and exactly what the company needed. Fiorina was a celebrity CEO with a flare for marketing, whereas Hurd is a straight-edged CEO who frequently seeks the inputs of his employees from every level of the organization. Hurd’s leadership style has been embraced by his internal and external constituencies. Only several months into his tenure, Hurd has made several significant moves that have positively affected the company. First, Hurd is changing the culture that focused on innovating the next big thing every day. Instead, he is attempting to re-create HP’s culture to focus on execution and accountability and thus rebuild the company’s reputation as a consistent performer. Second, he has simplified the bonus system to reflect the performance of employees’ business units and the overall company. Third, Hurd made a strategic decision to undergo a restructuring process that would cut HP’s costs and make the company leaner. Therefore, HP decided to lay off 14,500 employees from its 150,000-employee workforce. This cost-cutting decision will allow the company to be more competitive in the long term. It seems evident so far that Hurd’s personality and business sense will lead HP back to its once prestigious stature. 11.1 Describe the sources of power that are available to Hurd. How does this compare with the previous CEO? Answer: Clearly, Hurd’s power flows from all five bases. However, we see in the case that Hurd used expert and referent power to influence others and reform the culture of HP, focusing on coaching to increase responsibility and accountability, reward power to implement bonuses, and legitimate power to lead goal setting and implementation efforts. 11.2 Consider the various influence tactics used by Hurd. Why was his approach so effective? Answer: Hurd used a combination of influence tactics, relying heavily on consultation and collaboration. We see evidence of this with his communication style where he encouraged employees to contact him directly with ideas. Hurd also uses rational persuasion. We see evidence of this in the way he was able to establish a common goal for employees and carefully explain (and sell) the importance of organizational goals (i.e., do what is best for the company rather than the CEO or management). By enabling the teams, Hurd was able to build confidence and commitment throughout the HP culture. Sources: P. Burrow, “HP Says Goodbye to Drama,” BusinessWeek, 2005, www.businessweek.com; P. Burrows and B. Elgin, “HP’s New Low-Profile Boss,” BusinessWeek, 2005, www.businessweek.com; A. Hesseldahl, “The Cuts Aren’t Over at HP,” BusinessWeek, 2006, www.businessweek.com; P. Thibodeau, “Dunn Out at HP; Hurd Put on Hot Seat,” Computerworld 40 (2006), pp. 1–14; Stewart, J. “The Kona Files: How an Obsession with Leaks Brought Scandal to Hewlett-Packard.” The New Yorker 83, no. 1 (2007), pp. 152–67; Hardy, Q. “The UnCarly.” Forbes 179, no. 5 (2007), pp. 82–90. Murray, A. “H-P Lost Faith in Fiorina, but Not in Merger.” The Wall Street Journal, May 24, 2006, p. A2. Malone, M.S. “Hurd Instinct.” The Wall Street Journal, September 14, 2006, p. A20. Lashinsky, A. “The Hurd Way.” Fortune 153 (2006), pp. 92–99; Hardy, “The UnCarly.” Lashinsky, A. “Mark Hurd Takes His First Swing at HP.” Fortune 152 (2005), p. 24. Tam, P. “Rewiring Hewlett-Packard.” The Wall Street Journal, July 20, 2005, p. B1. Burrows, P., and B. Elgin. “The Un-Carly Reveals his Game Plan.” BusinessWeek, June 27, 2005, p. 36. Burrows, P. “HP Says Goodbye to Drama.” BusinessWeek, September 12, 2005, p. 83. EXERCISE: LOBBYING FOR INFLUENCE Background: In this exercise, students use influence techniques to lobby other students for points. The student with the most points after several rounds of lobbying, wins a cash prize (typically around $10.) The competition can get fast and furious, as long as the prize is meaningful, and the rules of the game are followed. From a vote counting perspective, it is easier to run this exercise when you have fewer than 25 students, but with teaching assistants, you may be able to use it with more. Prior to class, create a list of the students who will be participating in the exercise. Each student should receive a different number of points - for example, give Student 1 ten points, Student 2 twenty points, etc. Be sure to also create a list of everyone's assigned points for the students - this can be done on an overhead or PowerPoint as necessary. The total number of points should appear at the bottom of the list. You will also want to get stacks of index cards (or slips of scrap paper) that can serve as ballots during the exercise. I also distribute slips of paper for memos, but if students typically bring notebooks to class, that may not be necessary. When going over instructions with the students, tell them about all five voting periods. Also, tell them that you will insist on silence during the writing periods of the exercise, and that no memos can be distributed until the end of the writing period. When voting, tell the students to be sure to put the name of the person who is getting votes on the ballot, and then collect ballots by name. That will make counting up the points easier. Questions: Students may use a wide variety of social influence tactics as they write their memos, including rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, ingratiation, and personal appeals. The writing format will make some tactics more practical and appropriate than others. The success of the tactics will vary from student to student, as the same tactic can work for an effective communicator but not for a less effective communicator. The other relevant factors will also vary from student to student, but will typically revolve around past relationships, levels of personal power, and political skills. OMITTED TOPICS The field of organizational behaviour is extremely broad and different textbooks focus on different aspects of the field. A brief outline of topics that are not covered in this text, but which the professor might want to include in his or her lecture, is included below. In cases where these topics are covered in other chapters in the book, we note those chapters. In cases where they are omitted entirely, we provide some references for further reading. 1. Ethics – A natural by-product of discussing power in organizations is the discussion of ethical decision making. Ethics is discussed in detail in our book in Chapter 7. 2. Sexual Harassment – A popular topic to cover when discussing power in organizations is that of sexual harassment. Our focus on power mainly in regards to leadership did not allow for a full discussion of the topic. While a list of the myriad of sexual harassment references is large, for a specific look at harassment by leaders, see: Offerman, L.R.; and A.B. Malamut. “When leaders harass: The impact of target perceptions of organizational leadership and climate on harassment reporting and outcomes”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 2002, pp. 885-893. 3. Impression Management – The methods by which individuals attempt to control what is thought of them by others. Although some of the “tactics” of impression management are covered under influence tactics in this chapter, for a detailed discussion of the topic, see: Rosenfeld, P.R.; R.A. Giacalone; and C.A. Riordan. Impression Management in Organizations: Theory, Measurement, and Practice. New York, NY: Routledge, 1995. Zivnuska, S; K. M. Kacmar; L.A. Witt; D.S. Carlson and V.K. Bratton. “Interactive effects of impression management and organizational politics on job performance.” Journal of Organizational Behaviour, August (2004), pp. 627-640. Chapter 12 Leadership Styles and Behaviours CHAPTER OVERVIEW Effective leaders use power and influence to improve the performance and wellbeing of their overall units, while cultivating high-quality relationships with their followers. The effectiveness of a leader is a function of both traits and behavioural styles. This chapter summarizes research on decision-making styles, the use of transactional and transformational leadership styles, and the difference between consideration vs. initiating structure behaviours. Students are asked to consider a central question throughout the chapter – “Is leadership innate, or can people be trained to be leaders?” LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 12.1 What is leadership and what does it mean for a leader to be “effective”? 12.2 What traits and characteristics are related to leader emergence and leader effectiveness? 12.3 What four styles can leaders use to make decisions, and what factors combine to make these styles more effective in a given situation? 12.4 What two dimensions capture most of the day-to-day leadership behaviours in which leaders engage? 12.5 How does transformational leadership differ from transactional leadership, and which behaviours set it apart? 12.6 How does leadership affect job performance and organizational commitment? 12.7 Can leaders be trained to be more effective? CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Leadership Styles and Behaviours A. Leadership: The use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement B. Leadership Effectiveness 1. Can be judged in a number of different ways a. By objective evaluations, including profit margins, market share, etc. b. By employee actions, including absenteeism, number of grievances filed, etc. c. By subjective evaluations, including employee surveys, perceived respect, etc. 2. Is a function of who is asked, since members of a group often disagree about the effectiveness of the group’s leader 3. Leader-member exchange theory describes how leader-member relationships develop over time a. Role-taking phase – period in new leader-member relationships where manager describes role expectations to employee, and employee attempts to fulfill those expectations with behaviour b. Role-making phase – period in which expectations of employees for leader-member dyad get mixed in with those of the leader c. Resulting relationships can be either “high quality” (in-group) dyads, characterized by frequent exchanges of information, influence, latitude, support, and attention, or “low quality” (out-group) dyads, characterized by limited exchanges of information, influence, latitude, support, and attention d. Suggests that leadership effectiveness should be judged by gauging how effective the most critical leader-member dyads appear to be II. Why Are Some Leaders More Effective Than Others? A. Leader Effectiveness – the degree to which the leader’s actions result in the achievement of the unit’s goals, the continued commitment of the unit’s employees, and the development of mutual trust, respect, and obligation in leader-member dyads. B. Trait Theories 1. Leaders are effective because of who they are a. Traits studied include conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, extraversion, general cognitive ability, energy level, stress tolerance, and self-confidence 2. Traits may be more related to leadership emergence (who is seen as a leader) than they are to leadership effectiveness C. Leader Decision-Making Styles 1. Decision-making style reflects the process used by the leader to generate and chose from a set of alternatives – it is how the leader decides, not what the leader decides 2. Four primarily styles with regard to follower involvement in decision making process a. Autocratic – leader makes the decision alone b. Consultative – leader presents the problem to employees, gets their input, but then makes the final decision alone c. Facilitative – leader presents the problem to a group of employees and seeks consensus on the solution d. Delegative – leader gives employees the responsibility for making the decision 3. Although allowing employees to participate in decision-making increases employee satisfaction, it also takes up time 4. Time-Driven Model of Leadership a. Proposes that choice of decision-making style should be based on answers to questions in seven areas: i. decision significance ii. importance of commitment iii. leader expertise iv. likelihood of commitment v. shared objectives vi. employee expertise vii. teamwork skills b. In one study, managers who used the time driven model made successful decisions 68 percent of the time, while those who didn’t made successful decisions 22 percent of the time c. Managers tend to overuse the consultative style, and underutilize autocratic and facilitative styles Try This! Take a particular class decision, say, the decision to make more of the final grade dependent on a peer-evaluation from the members of one’s student workgroup. Use the questions in the time-sensitive model to suggest whether you as the professor should make that decision autocratically, or whether some other style would be more appropriate. Depending upon how one responds to the likelihood of commitment question in Figure 12-3, the likely choice will be autocratic or consultative. D. Day-to-Day Leadership Behaviours Try This! Ask students to think about what leaders actually “do” on a day to-day basis. Then list what’s said on the board. Try to write what’s said into two unlabeled columns, one reflecting initiating structure behaviours and one reflecting consideration behaviours. Students will typically begin listing more structure-focused behaviours before transitioning to consideration issues. If students say something that fits better into some other category (for example, “inspire” would fit better under transformational leadership), list that to the side and come back to it later. Once the columns have been created, ask students who have read the book to guess what the columns reflect. 1. Ohio State studies boiled leadership behaviours down into two categories: a. Initiating Structure – extent to which the leader defines and structures the work of employees leading to goal attainment. Includes initiation, organization, and production factors i. Strong positive relationship with employee motivation ii. Moderate positive relationship with overall unit performance b. Consideration – extent to which leaders create job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employee ideas, and consideration of employee feelings i. Strong positive relationship with perceived leader effectiveness, employee motivation, and employee job satisfaction ii. Moderate positive relationship with overall unit performance OB Assessments: Initiating Structure and Consideration This assessment gives students some insight into whether their “natural” leadership style is to initiate structure or provide consideration for their employees. An interesting discussion question after students take this assessment is to ask them if they feel that it would be possible for them to assume the other leadership style. Under what conditions might they do so? What training might they need before they could do so? Are there conditions which might make them slip back into their preferred style? These questions can start a discussion about whether leadership approaches are innate or learned behaviours (probably a little of both); how training impacts the ability to lead (greatly); and how environmental conditions affect both the most effective leadership behaviour to use, and the behaviour that is most likely to be used (stress causes people to revert to the their “natural” style.) 2. Life Cycle Theory of Leadership a. The optimal combination of initiating structure and consideration depends on the readiness (ability and willingness to work) of the employees in the work unit i. Low Readiness – Telling (high initiating structure, low consideration) ii. Low/Medium Readiness – Selling (high initiating structure, high consideration) iii. Medium/High Readiness – Participating (low initiating structure, high consideration) iv. High Readiness – Delegating (low initiating structure, low consideration) E. Transformational Leadership Behaviours 1. Transformational leaders inspire their followers to commit to a shared vision that provides meaning to their work while also serving as a role model who helps followers develop their own potential and view problems from new perspectives 2. Levels of Leadership Behaviours – arranged in order from most passive/ineffective to most active/effective a. Laissez-Faire – hands off leadership b. Transactional (Passive Management by Exception) – leader waits for mistakes, then corrects them c. Transactional (Active Management by Exception) – leader monitors for mistakes, then corrects them d. Transactional (Contingent Reward) – leader attains follower agreement on what needs to be done, and gives promised or actual rewards in return for adequate performance e. Transformational OB Internationally. This box describes “Project GLOBE” a collection of researchers from different countries who are trying to determine how cultural variables impact perceptions of effective leadership. The box shows that transformational leadership is the most universally accepted approach to leadership of any of the styles studied by the Project GLOBE team. 3. The “Four Is” of Transformational Leadership a. Idealized Influence – behaving in ways that earn the trust and respect of followers, causing followers to want to identify with and emulate the leader (synonymous with “charisma”) b. Inspirational Motivation – behaving in ways that foster an enthusiasm for and commitment to a shared vision of the future c. Intellectual Stimulation – behaving in ways that challenge followers to be creative and innovative d. Individualize Consideration – behaving in ways that help followers achieve their potential through coaching, development, and mentoring OB on Screen: Star Trek. If you have access to this movie, please play it for your students during class. This scene depicts James T. Kirk, a rebellious young man growing up in Iowa trying to pick up a female Starfleet cadet (Uhuru) in a bar. Shortly thereafter, a fight between Kirk and other cadets breaks out and is broken up by Captain Christopher Pike who recognizes Kirk and subsequently tries to convince him to enlist in Starfleet himself. The scene provides a case study of a leader using a transformational leadership style to influence someone he has no formal control over. The scene can lead to a very fruitful discussion of the effects of certain aspects of transformational leadership. Although the box gives them the answer that idealized influence and inspirational motivation are two main aspects of the model used, push the students to answer why that is the case and exactly which parts of Pike’s speech exhibit those types of leadership. Why do people respond so well to this style of leadership? How much of a role does emotion play in leadership? Are there any other styles of leadership that the students think could have been just as effective on a person like Kirk? Try This! Use the Star Trek clip for a different chapter. Pike’s speech includes attempts to convince Kirk of the psychological empowerment that comes with joining Starfleet (it’s “important”, “something better”, “something special”), and attempts to build his self-efficacy and perceived competence (see Chapter 6 on Motivation). Pike’s comparisons of Kirk to his deceased father tie into the nature vs. nurture debates in Chapter 9 on Personality, Cultural Values and Ability. Before the fit, Kirk’s attempts to woo Uhura exemplified ingratiation from Chapter 11 on Power, Influence, and Negotiation. Her cracks, along with those of her classmates, about Kirk being a “townie” or a “farm boy”, exemplify stereotyping from Chapter 8 on Learning and Decision Making. Bonus OB on Screen (from 1st ed): Thirteen Days. Chapters 4-7 of the DVD (beginning at 13:18 and ending at 32:57 for a total running time of 19 minutes, 39 seconds) depict the first few days of the Cuban Missile Crisis, as President Kennedy and his advisors learn of the existence of Soviet missiles on Cuban soil. The clips reveal the answers to many of the questions considered in the time-driven model of leadership. Once the clip ends, ask students to help navigate through the questions in Figure 12-3 (without reviewing the text in the OB on Screen box). Moving from left to right in the figure: (1) the decision is significant for obvious reasons, (2) commitment is important as the air force and army could undermine Kennedy’s vision if they are not committed to his course of action, (3) Kennedy’s expertise in these matters is low, (4) the likelihood of the group’s commitment is low because the military does not trust Kennedy, and (5) shared objectives is low because the military has its own agenda—they want to use the crisis as an excuse to invade Cuba and remove Fidel Castro once and for all. The pattern of answers (H-H-L-L-L) suggests a consultative strategy where Kennedy asks for input and opinions but ultimately makes the decision himself. As is clear from Chapter 10 of the DVD (beginning at 38:42), Kennedy does in fact use that style. He is presented with two primary options: a blockade or an air strike. After listening to the arguments, he thanks the group for its advice and tells them that he’ll announce the course of action in the morning. F. Summary: Why Are Some Leaders More Effective Than Others? (Figure 12-6) III. How Important Is Leadership? A. Units led by transformational leaders tend to be more financially successful and bring higher quality products and services to market at a faster rate B. Transformational leaders tend to foster leader-member exchange relationships that are of higher quality, marked by especially strong levels of mutual respect and obligation C. Employees with transformational leaders have higher levels of motivation than other employees, setting higher goals and standards for themselves, and trusting the leader more D. Employees with transformational leaders have higher levels of commitment and job satisfaction than other employees E. Substitutes for Leadership Model 1. Substitutes reduce the importance of a leader while simultaneously providing a direct benefit to employee performance (e.g. task feedback) 2. Neutralizers reduce the importance of the leader, but have no impact on performance (e.g. spatial distance) Try This! Ask students to share what their most boring summer job ever was. These jobs will often be very high on neutralizers, especially task stability. Then ask the students to consider whether their boss’s impacted their behaviour very much (if they were even around on a regular basis). IV. Application: Leadership Training A. One of the most important things organizations can do to maximize the effectiveness of their leaders is to train them B. Transformational leadership behaviours can be learned, and managers who take the time to learn them demonstrate improved effectiveness DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 12.1 Before reading this chapter, which statement did you feel was more accurate: “Leaders are born” or “Leaders are made”? How do you feel now, and why do you feel that way? Answer: Hopefully, after reading the chapter, students will see that leaders can be “made” (trained), as well as “born”. Before reading the chapter, I might have leaned towards "Leaders are made," believing that leadership skills can be developed through experiences and training. After reading, I still believe this, as the chapter likely emphasizes the importance of development, learning, and practice in becoming an effective leader. The idea that leadership is a skill that can be cultivated aligns with many contemporary theories of leadership development. 12.2 The time-sensitive model of leadership argues that leaders aren’t just concerned about the accuracy of their decisions when deciding among autocratic, consultative, facilitative, and delegative styles; they’re also concerned about the efficient use of time. What other considerations could influence a leader’s use of the four decision making styles? Answer: Another thing that could influence which decision making style a leader uses is whether or not development of employees is a priority. The more leaders want employees to gain skills, the more likely they may be to choose participative or delegative decision making styles. 12.3 The time-sensitive and life cycle models of leadership both potentially suggest that leaders should use different styles and behaviours for different followers. Can you think of any negative consequences of that advice? How could those negative consequences be managed? Answer: The problem with using different styles and behaviours for different followers is that followers might perceive the leader as being unfair. It would be important that the leader be open about what he or she was doing, and employees understand that they will be rewarded equally for doing equal work. 12.4 Consider the four dimensions of transformational leadership: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Which of those dimensions would you respond to most favorably? Why? Answer: Students will have different responses to this question, but it may be useful to remind them of what they learned earlier about leadership member dyads, and in-groups and out groups. If an employee responds particularly well to a specific behaviour favored by a transformational leader, that employee may very well be in the leader’s “in-group”. I would respond most favorably to intellectual stimulation. This dimension encourages innovation and creativity by challenging existing beliefs and promoting new ideas. It aligns with a desire for continuous learning and growth, fostering an environment where problem-solving and critical thinking are valued. 12.5 Can you think of any potential “dark sides” to transformational leadership? What would they be? Answer: The “dark sides” to transformational leadership are that transformational leaders can sometimes get so wrapped up in their vision that they forget to listen to their followers – if the vision is wrong, that can be problematic. In addition, followers may be swayed by a powerful vision, and not take the time to analyze whether or not it is the best strategy for the company. Charismatic leaders can also be likeable, but unable to accomplish anything, and resentful. CASE: STEVE JOBS Questions: 12.1 Do you think Steve Jobs epitomizes an effective leader? Why? Why not? Explain your answer by making reference to Figure 12-6. Answer: Answers to this question might be varied. Few will argue with his overall effectiveness or success – if this is the sole criterion, then yes, Jobs epitomizes an effective leader. If the criterion is how he treats subordinate leaders and employees, then there might be disagreements. The case illustrates the notion that leaders are “born” rather than “made.” After his dramatic failure at Apple back in the mid-1980s, his unique blend of personal traits/characteristics, abilities, styles, and behaviours allowed him to be effective and successful in other situations and contexts. The case also depicts Jobs as a brilliant transformational leader, with the ability to inspire and motivate everyone around him. That said, he also evoked fear in those around him too. From an LMX perspective, it would appear that subordinate employees and leaders fell into clearly demarked in-groups and out-groups. Jobs’ behavioural style may have been more task oriented than relationship oriented, and his decision making style more autocratic than participative. Jobs was a powerful leader, having bases in all five sources (see Chapter 11). Perhaps the most was his powerful referent power. He was so admired that no-one wanted to let him down. It is telling that even Jobs’ enemies appeared to respect and admire him. Yes, Steve Jobs epitomizes an effective leader. According to Figure 12-6, which likely depicts dimensions of transformational leadership, Jobs exhibited idealized influence and inspirational motivation. He was a visionary who inspired his team with a compelling vision and led by example, embodying the values and commitment he expected from others. His leadership style drove innovation and set high standards, contributing to Apple's success. 12.2 Explore Jobs’ leadership style from the perspective of the leader-member exchange theory? Explain. Answer: Perhaps because of his transformational style (i.e., idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation) many of Jobs’ subordinate leaders and employees likely experienced a personal connection with the leader. From an LMX perspective, this may have felt like being in Jobs’ “in-group.” And with that mindset comes a felt obligation to reciprocate in kind. As we see in the case, he had the ability to “make the task of designing a power supply feel like a mission from God!” His subordinates were not just performing their assigned duties; many must have felt connected and engaged on a deeply personal level. The worse feeling would be letting Jobs down, and risking one’s status of his “in group.” 12.3 Are there risks associated with the extreme detail-oriented, micromanaging style Steve Jobs is famous for? Explain. Reconcile your answer with the life cycle theory of leadership (see Figure 12-4). Answer: The obvious risk is that the leader will, at some point, become overwhelmed and will not be able to maintain control. Another risk is that extreme micro-managing undermines confidence and fails to train and develop leadership and decision-making within the organization. Yet another risk is that this approach or style might also convey, inadvertently, that trust is low, which, in turn, may erode the self-efficacy, expectancy (Chapter 6), and affective commitment (Chapter 3). Using a telling approach (high initiating structure; low consideration) works best when readiness is low (e.g., motivated but inexperienced subordinates). To the extent that people under his responsibility were highly motivated and talented, technically-speaking, a delegating approach should have been more welcomed. That said, compared to Jobs other may have seemed to be technically/design inferior, thus reinforcing the need (from Jobs perspective) for a more directive style. 12.4 How would you survive a leader like Steve Jobs? Answer: Again, student answers will vary. It seems clear from the case that “being insanely good at what you do” would be a good start. And, also, it would seem that having a “thick skin” to weather the emotional storms, frustrations, and conflicts. To survive a leader like Steve Jobs, I would focus on adaptability and clear communication. Embrace the high standards and visionary goals, but also ensure open dialogue to clarify expectations and address challenges. Being proactive in seeking feedback and demonstrating resilience in the face of demanding expectations would also be key. BONUS CASE: FORD Alan Mulally is a leader in a unique, enviable, and somewhat daunting position. As the CEO of Ford Motor Company, he has the opportunity to turn around and save (his -second) an American and global corporate icon. The first opportunity (and success) was at Boeing, where he spent almost 40 years, mainly as an aeronautical engineer, before moving up in the ranks because of his unique ability to lead large groups of people toward a common goal. As CEO, Mulally led numerous aircraft programs, including the development of Boeing’s 777 aircraft—widely considered the first airline success story of the twenty-first century—through extremely troubling times for the industry. When he was chosen by then-Chairman and CEO William Ford to lead Ford in 2006, the decision was met with immense skepticism from every -corner of the automotive industry. Even Mulally’s mother said, “But Alan, you’re an airplane guy.” The transition, three years later, is still ongoing; in a recent meeting with Wall Street analysts, Mulally referred to the “Paris Air Show” when he meant to say “Paris Motor Show.” Fortunately for Ford, good leadership has turned out to transcend industry. Part of the reason is that Mulally didn’t charge into Ford like a bull in a china shop, imposing his will on everyone around. Instead, he came in with a much more subdued style, building consensus and using the team that was already in place. Mulally is known for being incredibly optimistic, and Ford’s head of manufacturing, Joe Hinrichs, says, “Alan brings infectious energy. This is a person people want to follow.” In a relatively short time, Mulally has transformed what had become known as one of the staunchest “me-first” corporate cultures in the world to a company focused on a singular vision of success as “One Ford.” To focus completely on Ford (and in contrast with most executives in Detroit), Mulally lives less than three minutes from his office so that, as he likes to say, “all the way home and all the way back here I can always see the blue oval on the side of buildings.” That focus also led Mulally to cut his own salary by 30 percent for 2009 and 2010 to show that upper management shares in the sacrifices that it has demanded of rank-and-file employees. Fortune magazine dubs his leadership style the “Mulally Method,” defined as a “good-natured but relentless insistence on following what he has determined to be the correct course of action.” Mulally’s style focuses on creating transparency; everyone knows everything so that management can react to issues proactively as a group. “Communicate, communicate, communicate. Everyone has to know the plan, its status, and areas that need special attention,” says Mulally, summarizing the efforts to get Ford to think and work as a global brand as opposed to a set of regional fiefdoms, as had been the case for decades. “Information should never be used as a weapon on a team,” adds Mulally. Aside from his focus on communication, Mulally is known for wearing off-the-rack suits, expressing humility, and having a good-natured demeanor. He’s also very confident, however, always willing to make the difficult decision while being incredibly driven to win. This Mulally Method leadership style may be different from what Ford has been used to, but it also seems to be exactly what Ford has needed. In 2009, Ford was the lone member of the Big 3 U.S. automakers not to take a handout from the U.S. government to sustain its operations during the financial crisis. There were a number of reasons for this choice, but one of the main ones was Alan Mulally’s great desire to differentiate Ford from the other two big carmakers: General Motors and Chrysler. The strategy seems to be paying off, as consumers have shied away from purchasing cars from the two automakers that declared bankruptcy. It also has put Ford in a good position for the future. John Casesa, an automotive industry analyst, argues, “The speed with which Mulally has transformed Ford into a more nimble and healthy operation has been one of the more impressive jobs I’ve seen. It probably would have been game over for Ford already but for the changes he has brought.”152 When Mulally took over, Ford was a huge conglomeration of automobiles and designs. Mulally was adamant about getting rid of non-Ford brands and thus sold off Jaguar, Land Rover, and Aston Martin just at the right time, before the market collapsed. However, this decision was a particularly difficult one, because the culture at Ford previously had designated working on the “Ford” brand as a career killer. It was not where the best and brightest wanted to spend their time.153 Mulally’s vision for the company has been to revitalize the Ford brand, because he believed brand loyalty could not be replaced. When he first arrived at Ford, he asked for a product lineup and was surprised to discover the Taurus line had been canceled and renamed the Five Hundred. Mulally responded, “Well, you’ve got until tomorrow to find a vehicle to put the Taurus name on because that’s why I’m here. Then you have two years to make the coolest vehicle that you can possibly make.”154 He is betting the proverbial farm on the 2010 Taurus, and thus far, it has garnered extremely positive reviews, despite a price tag over $30,000. His push during the past three years—to build cars that will sell globally— represents a new method for Ford and goes completely against the grain of the company’s previous market segmentation strategies. European-developed small cars, such as the Fiesta and the Focus, are on their way to the U.S. market, which Mulally believes is the future of the company. At 63 years of age, Mulally doesn’t appear to be slowing down; more than ever, he seems excited about coming in to work every day.155 SOURCE: Kelly, K. M. “A Leader When Detroit Needs One.” Automotive Design & Production, May 2009, p. 40; and Mecham, M., and A.L. Velocci Jr. “Find a Way.” Aviation Week & Space -Technology, -January 1, 2007, p. 50; Reed, J., and B. Simon. “The Drive to Transform.” Financial Times, October 25, 2008, p. 9; Kiley, D. “Ford’s Saviour?” -BusinessWeek, March 16, 2009, pp. 30–34; Taylor, A., III. “Fixing up Ford.” Fortune, May 25, 2009, pp. 44–51; Simon, B., and A. Ward. “Ford Chiefs Take 30% Salary Cut This Year.” Financial Times, February 25, 2009, p. 27. Questions: 12.1 What do you think makes Alan Mulally an effective leader at this point in Ford’s history? Answer: Ford probably needed a relatively no-nonsense kind of leader as it had to cut back and focus on what it was good at more than any other time in the history of the company. Mulally’s leadership style provided focus on the “Ford” brand as opposed to many of the other diversified brands that had been accumulated. 12.2 Would you consider Mulally a transformational leader? Why or why not? Answer: Absolutely. Mulally clearly exhibited inspirational motivation by envisioning a future again and getting others to buy into that same vision. He exhibited intellectual stimulation by getting his employees to think about making the Taurus “cool” again. He stepped in during a time of great need for the company and got its employees to buy in again. 12.3 If Ford had been forced to take money from the federal government to sustain its operations, would your opinion of his leadership change? Answer: This is really an opinion based answer. If Ford had accepted buyout money, odds are good they wouldn’t be sitting the same place they are at the end of the case. The fact is, our opinion – right or wrong – is based on success. This is a great opportunity to discuss with students the differences between leadership behaviours and leadership results. Can one be a transformational leader if the group one leads fails? Yes, my opinion of Ford's leadership might change. If he had to rely on federal money to sustain operations, it could suggest a failure in managing resources or adapting to changing market conditions. It would raise questions about his ability to lead effectively through financial challenges. EXERCISE: TAKE ME TO YOUR LEADER Instructions: Emphasize that each member should choose a leader that is personally interesting to them, but that they should also make their choices as diverse as possible within the group. If you want, you could also allow some group members to choose “write-in leaders” that are not represented in the table. Sample Individual Output: Fitness Trainer: 0. Does a lot of leading by example (showing clients how to do exercises) 1. Does a lot of cheering on clients to bang out a few more reps in each set 2. Only sees clients a few hours a week, so lacks day-to-day input into diet, nutrition, etc. 3. Often knows a lot more than clients about relevant things (like how to do exercises, how to avoid injury, how to eat well) 4. Can only gauge his/her effectiveness over a long time period (because changes in outward physical appearance occur slowly, as may improvements on specific exercises) Sample Group Output: Leadership Universals: 5. Serve as example 6. Use persuasion to influence 7. Help followers through struggles 8. Share expertise Situational Challenges: 9. Limited time spent with follower 10. Limited control over key facets of task 11. Limited ability to gauge effectiveness 12. Difficulties dealing with outside “shocks” Questions: It will almost certainly be the case that the universals will represent some combination of proper decision-making styles, initiating structure, consideration, or transformational leadership. If the “universal” listed does not seem relevant to one of those concepts, consider whether the listed concept would indeed be universal. The situational challenges will likely be represented, in some form, in the time-sensitive model, the life-cycle model, or the substitutes for leadership model. It may well be though, given the sheer spectrum of situational challenges, that the items listed in this section will not be found in one of those models. OMITTED TOPICS The field of organizational behaviour is extremely broad and different textbooks focus on different aspects of the field. A brief outline of topics that are not covered in this text, but which the professor might want to include in his or her lecture, is included below. In cases where these topics are covered in other chapters in the book, we note those chapters. In cases where they are omitted entirely, we provide some references for further reading. 1. Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid – Complements the Ohio State and Michigan Studies by more fully describing various combinations of initiating structure (labeled concern for production) and consideration (labeled concern for people). For example, low levels of initiating structure and high levels of consideration is termed “country club management.” For more on this, see: Blake, R. R.; and J. S. Mouton. “A Comparative Analysis of Situationalism and 9,9 Management by Principle.” Organizational Dynamics 10 (1982), pp. 20-43. 2. Path-Goal Theory of Leadership – Like the time-driven and life cycle models, this theory argues that the effectiveness of four leader behaviours (directive behaviours, akin to initiating structure, supportive behaviours, akin to consideration, participative behaviours, and achievement-oriented behaviours) on leader effectiveness depends on follower characteristics (skills, experiences, locus of control) and environmental characteristics (task structure, team dynamics). For more on this, see: House, R. J. “A Path-Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness.” Administrative Science Quarterly 16 (1971), pp. 321-38. 3. Fielder’s Contingency Model – This model also focuses on how the effectiveness of leader behaviours varies across situations. More specifically, the model suggests that the effectiveness of task-oriented behaviours (akin to initiating structure) and relationship-oriented behaviours (akin to consideration) varies according to leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. The theory is best known for its unique measurement of the leader’s preference for task vs. relationship-oriented behaviours. That preference is assessed by asking leaders how much they like their “least preferred coworker” (LPC). If leaders like even their least preferred coworker, they purportedly lean toward relationship-oriented behaviours. If leaders describe that least preferred coworker in very unfavorable terms, they purportedly lean toward task-oriented behaviours. For more on this, see: Fiedler, F. E. A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977. 4. Authentic Leadership – This concept integrates the study of leadership with the study of trust and ethics (see Ch. 7). The authentic leadership perspective argues that leaders need to know their own ethical principles and act on those principles when in a leadership role. Avolio, B. J.; W. L. Gardner; F. O. Walumbwa; F. Luthans; and D. R. May. “Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviours.” Leadership Quarterly 15 (2004), pp. 801-23. Solution Manual for Organizational Behaviour: Improving Performance and Commitment in the Workplace Jason A Colquitt, Michael J. Wesson, Jeffery A LePine, Ian Gellatly 9780071051620, 9781259066566