Chapter 10 Race and Ethnicity True or False 1. It is acceptable for sociologists to use the terms race and ethnicity interchangeably. Answer: False 2. Most sociologists reject Max Weber's definition of race. Answer: True 3. President Obama is labelled as black because his mother was black. Answer: False 4. In the United States, race has historically mattered more than ethnicity. Answer: True 5. The ancient Greeks first created the color-coded hierarchy of race. Answer: False 6. Racial categories are more likely to be chosen by individuals for themselves. Answer: False 7. Ethnic categories tend to be imposed on individuals or groups by others. Answer: False 8. Sociologists describe race as a social construct. Answer: True 9. The 1924 Immigration Act limited the number of people who were allowed to emigrate to the United States from Southern and Eastern Europe. Answer: True 10. Assimilation is the process by which immigrants come to be incorporated into their new society by taking on its cultural tastes and practices. Answer: True 11. The way in which race is perceived is consistent throughout the world. Answer: False 12. People in South Africa, Rwanda, and Bosnia have been the victims of racially and ethnically charged discrimination, including genocide. Answer: True 13. Institutional (or structural) discrimination is always intentional. Answer: False 14. In 1997, 95 percent of Americans surveyed stated that they would be willing to vote for a black presidential candidate. Answer: True 15. Research indicates that white applicants with criminal records are more likely to be considered for jobs than black candidates without criminal records. Answer: True 16. In 2010, the median income of the average black household was 60 percent of the median income of white households. Answer: True 17. The U.S. Census Bureau predicts that by 2050 non-Hispanic whites will make up just 46 percent of the total population, making the United States a "majority-minority" nation for the first time in its history. Answer: True 18. Despite the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, which outlawed discrimination in housing markets, Hispanics continue to be the most residentially segregated group in the United States. Answer: False 19. Hispanics have the highest rate of infant mortality in the United States. Answer: False 20. African American men account for 40 percent of the U.S. prison population. Answer: True 21. The United States has always been a multicultural society. Answer: True 22. The U.S. Supreme Court struck down state laws banning interracial marriages in 1957. Answer: False 23. The only group that has consistently been named on the census is white. Answer: True 24. Today's immigrants to the United States are overwhelmingly from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Answer: True 25. At present, the U.S. government considers Hispanics to constitute an ethnic group, not a race. Answer: True Multiple Choice 1. Max Weber's definition of race is based on a viewpoint referred to as __________. A. epistemology B. ethnomethodology C. ethnocentrism D. essentialism Answer: D 2. The labeling of President Obama as black even though his mother was white can be explained by the same reasoning used to justify __________. A. the one-drop rule B. essentialism C. the constructivist view of race D. social constructs Answer: A 3. According to the one-drop rule, __________. A. individuals who have one black grandparent and three white grandparents are black B. individuals who have one black grandparent and three white grandparents are white C. Greeks and Italians are white D. Hispanics are an ethnic group Answer: A 4. Which of the following statements is false, in terms of the historical experience of whites living in the United States? A. If you were white, your whiteness protected you from enslavement during the antebellum period. B. If you were a white immigrant, you could become a U.S. citizen. C. If you were white, you had access to better schools and to better jobs. D. If you were white and poor, you were as likely as nonwhite minorities to face discrimination in the housing market. Answer: D 5. __________ is a system for classifying people based on perceived innate physical characteristics, whereas __________ is a system for classifying people who are perceived to share cultural similarities. A. Race; ethnicity B. Ethnicity; race C. Race; essentialism D. Ethnicity; essentialism Answer: A 6. Sociologists define ethnicity as a system for classifying people who share __________. A. common genetic profiles B. common descent, based on perceived cultural similarities C. similar racial profiles D. common descent, based on perceived physical similarities Answer: B 7. In the United States, __________ has historically mattered more than __________. A. race; ethnicity B. ethnicity; race C. race; social class D. ethnicity; social class Answer: A 8. The color-coded hierarchy of races did not exist until __________. A. the ancient Greeks created the system to distinguish barbarians from themselves B. medieval societies created the system to distinguish Christians from non-Christians C. European explorers created the system to dominate people across the globe through exploitation and enslavement D. Mexicans began crossing the U.S. border during the Great Depression Answer: C 9. Sociologists describe race as a social construct. What does this statement mean? A. Race is a natural phenomenon based on unchangeable traits found in individuals. B. Race is a social phenomenon created by individuals and shaped by social forces. C. Race is believed to be a part of a person's "essence," or their very being. D. Race is based on an objective measure of physical resemblances. Answer: B 10. Rosa is a Guatemalan immigrant. She has learned to speak English and has taken to celebrating traditionally American holidays, such as Thanksgiving and the Fourth of July. Rosa is experiencing __________. A. discrimination B. prejudice C. assimilation D. segregation Answer: C 11. Which of the following statements is true, according to the analogy of the red-, blue-, and yellow coloured blocks cited in The Sociology Project? A. Races can be divided into primary first and then into secondary colours like the colours on the colour wheel. B. We share most, but not all, of the same mental rules of who belongs to what race. C. We grow up learning to look for certain pieces of information about a person's body, to decide which race they belong to, but disregard things like height and hand size. D. The race we think people belong to is generally not the race with which they usually identify. Answer: C 12. Which of the following statements regarding how Brazilians think about race is true? A. Brazilians assign people to racial groups based on whether they are believed to have noble ancestry. B. Brazilians classify people based on specific combinations of skin colour, hair colour, facial features, and hair texture. C. Brazilians think racial differences reside in the blood and soul. D. Brazilians attribute racial differences to genetics. Answer: B 13. __________ can be described as negative, simplified generalizations about a group, whereas __________ involves actions that harm individuals. A. Stereotyping; prejudice B. Prejudice; stereotyping C. Prejudice; discrimination D. Discrimination; prejudice Answer: C 14. Acts of racial or ethnic discrimination can be classified as __________. A. individual or intentional B. individual or institutional C. institutional or intentional D. institutional or structural Answer: B 15. Nazi policies culminated in the __________ of millions of men, women, and children in a network of extermination camps during World War II. A. genocide B. segregation C. expulsion D. assimilation Answer: A 16. Which of the following is an example of unintentional institutional discrimination? A. Jim Crow laws that segregated whites and blacks in terms of housing, transportation, and education in the American South B. federal sentencing guidelines that penalize individuals who use crack cocaine more heavily than those who use powder cocaine C. a company that systematically excludes women from upper-level managerial positions D. South Africa's system of apartheid Answer: B 17. In the United States, __________ kept blacks from voting, from attending quality schools, and from participating equally in a wide variety of social institutions in the American South. A. Jim Crow laws B. colonialism C. apartheid D. penal codes Answer: A 18. In South Africa, __________ segregated nonwhites from whites and made legal many forms of discrimination that benefited the white ruling minority. A. Jim Crow B. colonialism C. apartheid D. penal codes Answer: C 19. Which of the following is an example of institutional discrimination? A. a landlord's refusal to rent apartments to nonwhites B. a manager's refusal to hire gays and lesbians C. damage to a Jewish synagogue by a group of teenage vandals D. a corporation's systematic denial of access to managerial positions to women Answer: D 20. Some of the earliest research on prejudice and discrimination was conducted by __________, who saw racism as __________. A. sociologists; a result of social hierarchy B. demographers; a result of population expansion C. ethnographers; an expression of cultural beliefs D. psychologists; an expression of particular personality disorders Answer: D 21. Normative theories of prejudice state that __________. A. people have a tendency to blame the problems of society on minority groups B. people are socialized to think and act in a racist fashion C. economic self-interest alters our ability to perceive discrimination D. our perceptions of minorities are influenced by language Answer: B 22. A pessimistic interpretation of recent survey results used to measure prejudice might be that __________. A. whites are reluctant to admit to harboring racial prejudices B. surveys, as a tool of analysis, do not accurately reflect attitudes and motivations C. blacks are less likely than whites to participate in surveys D. blacks have a lower return rate than whites, with respect to survey completion Answer: A 23. In 1997, __________ of Americans stated that they would vote for a black presidential candidate. A. 10 percent B. 60 percent C. 70 percent D. 95 percent Answer: D 24. Research shows that whites use __________ to dismiss the possibility that racism still exists in the United States. A. open-ended rhetoric B. colour-blind rhetoric C. institutional discrimination D. reverse discrimination Answer: B 25. What research method do sociologists use to study patterns and representations of minorities in magazines, television shows, and movies? A. experimental analysis B. participant analysis C. content analysis D. meta-analysis Answer: C 26. Sociologist Devah Pager (2003), who tested the influence of criminal records on the job applications of blacks and whites, found that __________. A. applicants with criminal records, regardless of race, were not considered for jobs B. applicants with criminal records, regardless of race, were equally considered for jobs that did not involve money handling C. white applicants with criminal records were more likely to be considered for jobs than black applicants without criminal records D. black applicants with criminal records were more likely to be considered for jobs than white applicants without criminal records Answer: C 27. The percentage of black men who have been incarcerated is __________ to their percentage representation in the population at large. A. proportionate B. disproportionate C. equal to D. very nearly equal to Answer: B 28. In a study involving fictitious résumés of applicants with stereotypical "white names" (Emily and Greg) and "black names" (Lakisha and Jamal), researchers found that __________. A. names on résumés did not influence the number of follow-up calls that applicants received B. résumés with "white names" received 50 percent more follow-up calls than résumés with "black names" C. black-owned businesses were more likely to call back "white" applicants than "black" applicants D. black-owned businesses were more likely to call back "black" applicants than "white" applicants Answer: B 29. In an ethnographic study of black and white working-class men, Deirdre Royster (2003) found that the job market was __________. A. structurally weak B. seasonally strong C. fair and meritocratic D. not fair and not meritocratic Answer: D 30. In an ethnographic study of black and white working-class men, Deirdre Royster (2003) found that employment was determined by __________. A. levels of intelligence B. levels of education C. dispositions toward work D. social networks Answer: D 31. In an ethnographic study of black and white working-class men, Deirdre Royster (2003) concluded that _________, remains a significant explanation for racial stratification in employment in the United Sates. A. discrimination against racial minorities, specifically black applicants B. disposition toward work among racial minorities, specifically black applicants C. level of intelligence among racial minorities, specifically black applicants D. level of education among racial minorities, specifically black applicants Answer: A 32. The passage of __________ and __________ is thought of as the culmination of the civil rights movement. A. Proposition 8; the Civil Rights Act of 1964 B. Proposition 8; the Voting Rights Act of 1965 C. the Civil Rights Act of 1964; the Voting Rights Act of 1965 D. the Civil Rights Act of 1964; the Defense of Marriage Act Answer: C 33. According to almost any measure sociologists have explored, in the United States a clear racial hierarchy emerges with ____________ on top and __________ on the bottom. A. whites (and sometimes Asians); Hispanics, blacks, and American Indians B. whites (and sometimes blacks); Asians, Hispanics, and American Indians C. whites (and sometimes Hispanics); Asians, blacks, and American Indians D. whites; Asians, Hispanics, blacks, and American Indians Answer: A 34. In 2010, median black household income was __________ percent of the median household income for whites. A. 40 B. 50 C. 60 D. 80 Answer: C 35. According to the U.S. census data, the income gap between the median household income for whites and Hispanics has __________ since 1972. A. increased B. decreased C. remained constant D. fluctuated erratically Answer: A 36. Of all racial and ethnic groups in the United States, _____________ have the highest median household income. A. white Americans B. Puerto-Ricans C. Indian Americans D. Asian Americans Answer: D 37. Current data indicate that Asian Americans have the highest median household incomes in the United States. Researchers caution, however, that the data about Asian incomes can be misinterpreted because __________. A. some Asians, such as Vietnamese and Cambodian Americans, are at the top of the income hierarchy B. some Asians, such as Vietnamese and Cambodian Americans, are at the bottom of the income hierarchy C. some Asians, such as Chinese and Filipino Americans, are at the bottom of the income hierarchy D. the data are separated by country of origin Answer: B 38. Which of the following statements regarding the racial gap in household wealth between white and black Americans is false? A. Black Americans have been unable to build a base of assets to pass from one generation to the next. B. Black Americans are more likely to purchase a home in a segregated neighbourhood than any other racial group. C. Black Americans are more likely to receive unfavourable terms on their home mortgages. D. Black Americans have made no gains in income since the civil rights movement. Answer: D 39. __________ refer(s) to the accumulated sum of assets (savings accounts, homes, cars) minus the sum of debts (mortgages, loans, credit card debts). A. Wealth B. Household income C. Financial obligations D. Asset allocation Answer: A 40. According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau, which four U.S. states had the lowest percentage of non-Hispanic whites living within their borders in 2010? A. California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas B. California, Arizona, Texas, and Nevada C. California, New Mexico, Texas, and Nevada D. California, New Mexico, Texas, and Hawaii Answer: D 41. In 2012, the unemployment rate for black Americans was __________. A. nearly equal to that of white Americans B. nearly twice the rate as that of white Americans C. nearly three times the rate as that of white Americans D. slightly less than that of Asian Americans Answer: B 42. __________ have the highest rates of educational attainment in the United States. A. African Americans B. White Americans C. Asian Americans D. Native Americans Answer: C 43. Over the last three decades, from 1980 and 2010, the rates at which African Americans dropped out of high school __________. A. increased by nearly a quarter B. increased by nearly half C. shrunk by nearly a quarter D. shrunk by nearly half Answer: D 44. Over the last three decades, from 1980 and 2010, the rates at which African Americans completed college __________. A. more than doubled B. more than tripled C. shrunk by nearly a quarter D. shrunk by nearly half Answer: A 45. __________ are the most residentially segregated of all racial and ethnic groups in the United States. A. African Americans B. Mexican Americans C. Asian Americans D. Native Americans Answer: A 46. Sociologists have observed that upper-middle class blacks earn __________ percent of what their white counterparts earn. A. 60 B. 72 C. 85 D. 98 Answer: C 47. According to current statistics, over __________ adults are serving time behind bars on any given day in America. A. 1 million B. 2 million C. 3 million D. 4 million Answer: B 48. American adults account for __________ percent of all prison and jail inmates worldwide. A. 5 B. 15 C. 25 D. 35 Answer: C 49. Sociologists estimate that __________ of adult black men have a felony conviction on their record. A. one-half B. one-third C. one-quarter D. one-tenth Answer: B 50. ___________ are more likely to die of coronary heart disease than any other racial group in the United States. A. African Americans B. Latino Americans C. Native Americans D. White Americans Answer: A 51. ___________ have the highest rates of HIV infection than any other racial or ethnic group in the United States. A. White Americans B. Mexican Americans C. African Americans D. Chinese Americans Answer: C 52. Why are a disproportionate number of African Americans unable to vote? A. Many African Americans fail to register to vote. B. Many African Americans face disproportionately long distances to voting centres. C. Many African Americans have lost their right to vote following felony convictions. D. Many African Americans do not have a driver's license. Answer: C 53. Felon disenfranchisement refers to __________. A. depriving people of access to college loans because of felony convictions B. depriving people of the right to vote because of felony convictions C. depriving people of the right to privacy because of felony convictions D. depriving people of access to publicly funded housing because of felony convictions Answer: B 54. The term racial stratification refers to __________. A. clearly significant gaps between racial groups along social and economic dimensions B. clearly significant overlaps among racial groups along social and economic dimensions C. minimum requirements needed for racial groups to exhibit social and economic parity D. the size and complexity of social networks among racial groups Answer: A 55. Sociologists accept all of the following factors as contributors to racial inequalities EXCEPT __________. A. biology B. culture C. contemporary discrimination D. historical discrimination Answer: A 56. The exodus of whites from residential areas when African Americans moved in is known as __________. A. gentrification B. white flight C. redlining D. blockbusting Answer: B 57. What is the goal of affirmative action? A. to end reverse discrimination B. to increase the representation of minorities and women in fields from which they have historically been excluded C. to reignite historical effects of discrimination and exclusion D. to increase rates of assimilation Answer: B 58. In 1965, ___________ made the following statement: "You do not take a man who for years has been hobbled by chains, liberate him, bring him to the starting line of a race, saying, 'you are free to compete with all the others,' and still justly believe you have been completely fair. " A. Eleanor Roosevelt B. Rosa Parks C. Lyndon B. Johnson D. Martin Luther King, Jr. Answer: C 59. The first U.S. census was conducted in __________. A. 1776 B. 1790 C. 1860 D. 1870 Answer: B 60. The earliest records that attest to mixed-race offspring of interracial unions in the United States date from __________. A. 1630 B. 1690 C. 1720 D. 1820 Answer: A 61. In the second wave of immigration to America, which came through Ellis Island in the period from 1880 to 1925, large numbers of immigrants from __________ came to the United States for the first time. A. Southern and Eastern Europe B. Central and South America C. Canada and Mexico D. the Caribbean and Central America Answer: A 62. According to the Census Bureau, if present-day assumptions about fertility, mortality, and migration hold, __________ will see continuing dynamic growth in population in the twenty-first century. A. Native Americans and Hispanic Americans B. Hispanic Americans and African Americans C. Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans D. Asian Americans Answer: C 63. The U.S. census has adapted to evolving shifts in how Americans identify themselves by __________. A. changing racial categories B. changing ethnic categories C. changing racial and ethnic categories D. not invalidating "other" as a selection Answer: C 64. Individuals of mixed-race ancestry are more likely to identify themselves as __________ if they have Asian ancestry, but individuals with __________ ancestry are more likely to be assigned to a single race by others, regardless how they self-identify. A. multiracial; European B. multiracial; African C. non-racial; European D. non-racial; African Answer: B 65. As baby boomers gradually retire from the workforce, sociologist Richard Alba (2009) foresees nonwhite workers __________ jobs once held by white middle-class men and women. A. smoothly transitioning into B. viciously competing for C. continuing to be excluded from D. taking up, albeit at lower wage rates, Answer: A Scenario Multiple Choice 1. Robert is taking a black history class. He learned that the one-drop rule labelled anyone who had a black ancestor as black. He concluded, based on this definition, that this was a racist rule. What is the best explanation as to why Robert would arrive at that conclusion? A. When the one-drop rule became enshrined, blacks in the United States were slaves, a source of free labor; it was in the best interest of white Americans to increase the numbers of the enslaved. B. By labeling people of mixed ancestry as black, whites in the American South could successfully increase their proportional representation in the U.S. Congress. C. Social rules determine how we classify people by race and even when we know it is wrong. D. Natural biological rules about race had yet to be postulated. Answer: A 2. During a lecture about race in his sociology class, Tomas becomes confused. He recently discovered, on his birth certificate, that he was labelled as white yet his much younger brother, Carlos, is classified as Hispanic on his birth certificate. What could best explain this discrepancy in labels? A. How social institutions choose to label and identify racial and ethnic groups changes over time. B. Tomas's parents did not want Tomas to experience discrimination so he was labelled white. C. Tomas's parents felt that the Hispanic label would open doors for Carlos in education and employment. D. By the time Carlos was born, the U.S. was more accepting of diversity and welcoming of Hispanics. Answer: A 3. Lucy is leaning about social constructs in her sociology class. Based on the lectures that she has been exposed to throughout the semester, Lucy has concluded that race is a social construct. Why would Lucy make this conclusion? A. Definitions of race take different forms in different places in the world and at different times. B. Race has a biological basis that has been proven by social scientists. C. Differences among racial groups are obvious. D. How humans identify and define race has remained consistent throughout human history. Answer: A 4. Sophia is a third generation Italian. She heard stories about how her grandparents experienced discrimination when they arrived in the United States. Her grandparents also maintained their culture and traditions by continuing to speak Italian in addition to leaning English. Sophia knows very little about Italian culture and does not speak Italian. What accounts for this lack of cultural knowledge? A. Sophia's parents did not expose her to Italian culture for fear that Sophia would experience prejudice and discrimination. B. Sophia's grandparents and parents gradually assimilated, taking on the traditions of their new country. C. Sophia was ashamed of her Italian background and did not bother to learn about her Italian ancestry. D. It was not deemed necessary for Sophia to learn about her cultural background since it would not impact her employment opportunities. Answer: B 5. Becky is an anthropology student studying in Brazil. She has noted that race labels are different in Brazil than in the United States. What are the differences that Becky probably identified? A. Racial groupings, in Brazil, are based on whether individuals are believed to have noble ancestry. B. Brazilians classify people based on very specific combinations of skin colour, hair colour, facial features, and hair texture. C. Racial differences reside in the blood and soul, according to Brazilians. D. Brazilians attribute racial differences to genetics. Answer: B 6. When Europeans settled in the New World, they wanted to open up territories for settlements. This meant that Native Americans were not only forcibly removed from their land but sometimes killed. This deliberate and systematic destruction of Native Americans was __________. A. genocide B. segregation C. expulsion D. assimilation Answer: A 7. John was recently sentenced for 10 years in prison for possession of crack cocaine. His lawyer discovered that others have served less time for the possession of powder cocaine, a drug often associated with a different category of people. John's lawyer has concluded that this discrepant sentencing is the result of __________. A. individual discrimination B. institutional discrimination C. prejudice D. stereotyping Answer: B 8. Mawenzi has sent out hundreds of résumés but has gotten very few replies, even though he graduated with honors from a top-tier school and has experience and excellent references. If Mawenzi suspected intentional discrimination, what statement would support his suspicion? A. Mawenzi is not qualified for the jobs that he is interested in. B. Mawenzi is experiencing the disadvantage of a having a stereotypical "black name." C. Businesses with posted job listings may not actually be hiring. D. Businesses are not willing to meet his salary requirements. Answer: B 9. Kendra has noticed that there are many homes for sale in her neighbourhood. What explanation might she ascribe to this phenomenon, if she were aware that most people leaving the neighbourhood were white, whereas most people moving into the neighbourhood were black? A. gentrification B. white flight C. redlining D. blockbusting Answer: B 10. Alicia is part African, Hispanic, and Native American. How is she most likely to identify herself? A. Alicia is most likely to identify herself as biracial. B. Alicia is most likely to identify herself as Latino. C. Alicia is most likely to identify herself as multiracial. D. Alicia is most likely to identify herself as black. Answer: D Short Answer 1. What is meant by the essentialist view of race? Answer: The essentialist view presumes that an individual's racial identity depends on fundamental and innate characteristics that are deep-seated, inherited, and unchangeable. These traits are thought to be part of a person's "essence," their very being. 2. How do sociologists define the concept of ethnicity? Provide an example of an ethnic group that meets this definition. Answer: Sociologists define ethnicity as people who share a common descent based on cultural characteristics. For example, Greeks, who share country of origin and language, are an ethnicity. 3. How do sociologists define the concept of race? (REMEMBER Answer: Race is defined as a system for classifying people who are believed to share common descent, based on our beliefs and socially influenced perceptions of which kinds of people are biologically similar and which are different. 4. Explain what is meant by the color-coded hierarchy of race and explain when it was first conceived. Answer: European explorers, who sought to dominate others by conquest, enslavement, and exploitation, were the first to conceive of a color-coded racial hierarchy. They placed themselves at the top of the hierarchy and believed that the differences in appearance and behavior observed in others was racially intrinsic and inferior. 5. What is a social construct? What is an example of a social construct? Answer: A social construct is a social phenomenon invented by human beings and shaped by social forces present at the time and place of the creation. A person's belief about race is an example of a social construct. 6. Explain how immigrants experience the process of assimilation when coming to the United States. Answer: Assimilation is the process by which immigrants come to be incorporated into their new society by taking on the cultural tastes and practices of that society. Learning to speak English and choosing to celebrate traditionally American holidays, such as Thanksgiving and the Fourth of July, are examples of how immigrants assimilate. 7. Give an example of a stereotype. Why are stereotypes harmful to minority groups? Answer: Stereotypes are simplified generalizations about a group that are often false or exaggerated. An example of a stereotype is that all women are born to be nurturers. Stereotypes are harmful because they falsely attribute to unique individuals the qualities (often grossly negative qualities) of a group based on their membership in that group. Stereotyping all women as nurturers, for example, would likely have a limiting effect on their opportunities to take on leadership roles, whether intentional or unintentional. 8. Explain what is meant by individual discrimination and give an example. Answer: Individual discrimination is intentional action carried out by an individual or small group meant to harm, exclude, or disadvantage members of a certain group. The manager of a business who denies job consideration to blacks or a landlord who refuses to rent apartments to Mexicans is an example of individual discrimination. 9. Explain what is meant by institutional discrimination and give an example. Answer: Institutional (or structural) discrimination occurs when the actions or policies of organizations or social institutions exclude, disadvantage, or harm members of particular groups. An example of institutional discrimination is Jim Crow, which are laws or practices that segregated whites and blacks in the American South and enforced discrimination of blacks in schools, education, and housing. 10. Are Halloween costumes that represent various racial and ethnic groups acceptable or harmful? Answer: Answers may vary. Halloween costumes of American Indians, "gypsies," and geisha, for example, perpetuate harmful stereotypes about genders, races, and cultures .They are gross exaggerations and can be especially offensive when they mock a culture's sacred symbols or invoke painful episodes in history. Halloween costumes representing various racial and ethnic groups are generally considered harmful. They can perpetuate stereotypes, reduce rich cultural identities to caricatures, and contribute to cultural appropriation. It's advisable to choose costumes that avoid misrepresenting or trivializing someone's cultural heritage. 11. Why are surveys not always the best research strategy for evaluating levels of prejudice? Which strategies are preferred? Answer: Surveys are difficult to analyse when trying to evaluate something such as levels of prejudice. It is possible the responses to the surveys will be skewed, as some groups are less likely to admit that they are prejudiced because it is a socially unacceptable response. People are powerfully motivated to want others to view them favourably. In-depth interviews and content analysis are better ways of unveiling prejudice. 12. Why are surveys not always the best research strategy for evaluating levels of discrimination? Which strategies are preferred? Answer: People are not likely to reveal that they discriminate in surveys or in interviews because it is socially unacceptable and can be illegal—and they may not even be aware that they are practicing discrimination. The best way to evaluate levels of discrimination is through experiments and ethnographies. With these strategies, researchers can observe what people do as opposed to what they say. 13. Discuss Elliot Liebow's ethnography of black street-corner men. Did his study support the cultural or structural explanation of racial inequality? Answer: Elliot Liebow found that the reason that these men did not have steady employment was not due to any intrinsic characteristics, fixed cultural preferences, or lack of work ethic. Their unemployment was due to concrete (structural) obstacles in finding steady work. Their decisions to turn down jobs were rational calculations concerning the marginal gains of and the stress brought on by the job. Therefore, he concluded that social policy aimed at eliminating racial inequality should not seek to reform individuals or modify cultural norms regarding traits such as persistence and patience but rather expand the structural opportunities open to them. 14. What does the U.S. Census Bureau predict that the demographic changes in the twenty-first century will be? Answer: The U.S. Census Bureau predicts that there will be a continuation of the trends that have been going on for some time: There will be a decrease in the white population and stability in the black and American Indian populations, compared to dynamic growth among Hispanics and Asian Americans. 15. What do sociologists predict that the future will hold for the U.S. labor market? Answer: Sociologist Richard Alba sees a smooth transfer of opportunities from whites to nonwhites without any competitive conflict. Older whites will retire, leaving good jobs for younger people. He feels it is important for the nation to invest in the education of blacks and Hispanics to better prepare this future workforce. Essay 1. Why do contemporary sociologists reject Max Weber's definition of race yet embrace his definition of ethnicity? Answer: Max Weber felt that races stemmed from inherited traits that derived from common descent. His view is referred to as essentialism, meaning that these traits are part of a person's essence. Sociologists today believe that race is a subjective judgment and a social construct that assigns meaning to perceived physical characteristics. Max Weber described ethnicity as belief in shared descent, which coincides with the contemporary sociological definition of ethnicity, which is as a system for classifying people who are believed to share common descent, based on perceived cultural similarities. 2. In the United States, race has traditionally mattered more than ethnicity. Explain, with a historical analysis of the impact of race in the United States, why this is. Answer: For most of the nation's history, being white and male was a necessary requirement in order to enjoy the full benefits of citizenship. Being white protected a person from being a slave. It also opened access to better schools, better jobs, the right to vote, and better neighbourhoods. Until 1952, only white immigrants could become U.S. citizens. Although some white immigrants, such as Italians and the Irish, did experience discrimination, their exclusion was not written into U.S. law to the same extent as race-based barriers. 3. Scholars have argued that race has been used as a tool of domination. Explain how race has been used to justify power inequalities. Answer: Beliefs about racial differences grew out of a context of conquest, exploitation, and enslavement and have a lengthy history of being used to justify power inequalities. Racial groups tend to be seen as a hierarchy with one race on top and other races relegated to inferior statuses. Racial categories tend to be imposed on individuals or groups by others while ethnic labels are self-imposed. 4. Explain what is meant by a social construct and why sociologists describe race as a social construct. Answer: A social construct is a social phenomenon (for example a belief, discourse, or category) that is invented by individuals and is shaped by the social forces present in the time and place of its creation. Race, as a social construct, attaches meaning to perceived physical characteristics and, at times, has been used to justify oppression and genocide. The construct of race is redefined over time to suit our needs and is shaped by different forces and ideas as one travels from one country to another. 5. Sociologists have determined that there are noticeable variations in the way in which people around the world feel about race. How can the variations on race thinking best be explained? Answer: The first explanation is that, as the Western concept of race and racial hierarchies spread across the globe in the wake of imperial conquest, they blended with local beliefs and prejudices to create many new nuanced concepts of race. The second approach for explaining different explanations in race thinking tends to focus on demographic, economic, and political factors. For example, since black slaves were a source of free labor in the United States, whites wanted to safeguard their numbers and found ways to classify mixed-race people as black to maintain slave populations. 6. Discuss the differences between individual and institutional discrimination and provide an example of each one. Answer: Individual discrimination is an intentional action carried out by an individual or a small group meant to harm members of a specific group. Institutional discrimination occurs when the actions or policies of organizations exclude or harm members of a certain group. An important difference between individual and institutional discrimination is that individuals who discriminate do so intentionally whereas for institutions, discrimination may be intentional or unintentional. Examples of discrimination: individual discrimination—a manager at a convenience store does not like Asians and refuses to hire them; institutional discrimination—a company consistently refuses to promote women and minorities to managerial positions. 7. Discuss the difference between prejudice and discrimination. Could a person be prejudiced without discriminating? Could a person discriminate without being prejudiced? Answer: Prejudices are negative beliefs that are held about entire groups. They are prejudgments of individuals based on stereotypes, which are generalizations about a group of people. Discrimination differs from prejudice in that it involves actions rather than beliefs. It includes any behavior that harms individuals or puts them at a disadvantage on the basis of their group membership. A person could hold prejudicial beliefs without acting upon them. For example, a business owner may dislike a minority group but will not discriminate because it is a poor business decision, and illegal. A person could discriminate without being prejudiced. For example, a manager could tell an employee not to help gay people and, even if the employee does not have prejudiced beliefs about gay people, the employee may discriminate in order to keep his or her job. 8. Discuss how psychologists have explained racism and the shortcomings of these explanations. How do sociologists explain racism? Answer: The earliest research on prejudice and discrimination was conducted by psychologists. The presence of racism was dismissed as an expression of a personality disorder. Psychological approaches have been criticized for overlooking the context that gives shape to the beliefs and behavior that underlie racism. These approaches also view racism as an abnormal condition when, in fact, large numbers of Americans throughout history have expressed racist thoughts and beliefs. Sociologists feel that normative theories best explain the presence of racism. These theories posit that people learn the norms that operate in society at large. They consider the types of situations that encourage or give rise to prejudicial beliefs or discriminatory acts. Norms are seen early in people's development, in play patterns in children, when choosing partners for games. 9. Define what is meant by felon disenfranchisement and discuss the consequences of this phenomenon. Who is most likely to be affected by it? Answer: African American men make up 40 percent of the prison population but only 12 percent of the general population. As a result, a disproportionate number of African Americans are denied their voting rights because of felon disenfranchisement laws, which end a person's right to vote following a felony conviction. One in seven African American men is denied the right to vote as a result. Felon disenfranchisement can have serious consequences for electoral outcomes. Some believe that if felons had had the right to vote, Al Gore would have carried the state of Florida and won the 2000 election over George W. Bush. 10. Explain what is meant by affirmative action. What necessitated the need for affirmative action? How have people responded to affirmative action? Answer: Affirmative action is a set of government policies regarding employment and education that seek to increase the representation of minorities and women in fields from which they have historically been excluded. Affirmative action is undertaken in an effort to counter the historical effects of discrimination. It is a practice that involves considering a person's race when making decisions that are likely to have an impact on existing patterns of social inequality. For example, when hiring two equally qualified people for a job, race may be a deciding factor. Many people feel that affirmative action is a form of reverse discrimination. Sociologists argue that without affirmative action, discrimination in hiring practices will persist. Test Bank for The Sociology Project : Introducing the Sociological Imagination Jeff Manza, Richard Arum, Lynne Haney 9780205949601, 9780205093823, 9780133792249
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