CHAPTER 10 MANAGEMENT OF TRANSLATION EXPOSURE SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS QUESTIONS 1. Explain the difference in the translation process between the monetary/nonmonetary method and the temporal method. Answer: Under the monetary/nonmonetary method, all monetary balance sheet accounts of a foreign subsidiary are translated at the current exchange rate. Other balance sheet accounts are translated at the historical rate exchange rate in effect when the account was first recorded. Under the temporal method, monetary accounts are translated at the current exchange rate. Other balance sheet accounts are also translated at the current rate, if they are carried on the books at current value. If they are carried at historical value, they are translated at the rate in effect on the date the item was put on the books. Since fixed assets and inventory are usually carried at historical costs, the temporal method and the monetary/nonmonetary method will typically provide the same translation. 2. How are translation gains and losses handled differently according to the current rate method in comparison to the other three methods, that is, the current/noncurrent method, the monetary/nonmonetary method, and the temporal method? Answer: Under the current rate method, translation gains and losses are handled only as an adjustment to net worth through an equity account named the “cumulative translation adjustment” account. Nothing passes through the income statement. The other three translation methods pass foreign exchange gains or losses through the income statement before they enter on to the balance sheet through the accumulated retained earnings account. 3. Identify some instances under FASB 52 when a foreign entity’s functional currency would be the same as the parent firm’s currency. Answer: Three examples under FASB 52, where the foreign entity’s functional currency will be the same as the parent firm’s currency, are: i) the foreign entity’s cash flows directly affect the parent’s cash flows and are readily available for remittance to the parent firm; ii) the sales prices for the foreign entity’s products are responsive on a short-term basis to exchange rate changes, where sales prices are determined through worldwide competition; and, iii) the sales market is primarily located in the parent’s country or sales contracts are denominated in the parent’s currency. 4. Describe the remeasurement and translation process under FASB 52 of a wholly owned affiliate that keeps its books in the local currency of the country in which it operates, which is different than its functional currency. Answer: For a foreign entity that keeps its books in its local currency, which is different from its functional currency, the translation process according to FASB 52 is to: first, remeasure the financial reports from the local currency into the functional currency using the temporal method of translation, and second, translate from the functional currency into the reporting currency using the current rate method of translation. 5. It is, generally, not possible to completely eliminate both translation exposure and transaction exposure. In some cases, the elimination of one exposure will also eliminate the other. But in other cases, the elimination of one exposure actually creates the other. Discuss which exposure might be viewed as the most important to effectively manage, if a conflict between controlling both arises. Also, discuss and critique the common methods for controlling translation exposure. Answer: Since it is, generally, not possible to completely eliminate both transaction and translation exposure, we recommend that transaction exposure be given first priority since it involves real cash flows. The translation process, on-the-other hand, has no direct effect on reporting currency cash flows, and will only have a realizable effect on net investment upon the sale or liquidation of the assets. There are two common methods for controlling translation exposure: a balance sheet hedge and a derivatives hedge. The balance sheet hedge involves equating the amount of exposed assets in an exposure currency with the exposed liabilities in that currency, so the net exposure is zero. Thus when an exposure currency exchange rate changes versus the reporting currency, the change in assets will offset the change in liabilities. To create a balance sheet hedge, once transaction exposure has been controlled, often means creating new transaction exposure. This is not wise since real cash flow losses can result. A derivatives hedge is not really a hedge, but rather a speculative position, since the size of the “hedge” is based on the future expected spot rate of exchange for the exposure currency with the reporting currency. If the actual spot rate differs from the expected rate, the “hedge” may result in the loss of real cash flows. PROBLEMS 1. Assume that FASB 8 is still in effect instead of FASB 52. Construct a translation exposure report for Centralia Corporation and its affiliates that is the counterpart to Exhibit 10.6 in the text. Centralia and its affiliates carry inventory and fixed assets on the books at historical values. Solution: The following table provides a translation exposure report for Centralia Corporation and its affiliates under FASB 8, which is essentially the temporal method of translation. The difference between the new report and Exhibit 10.6 is that nonmonetary accounts such as inventory and fixed assets are translated at the historical exchange rate if they are carried at historical costs. Thus, these accounts will not change values when exchange rates change and they do not create translation exposure. Examination of the table indicates that under FASB 8 there is negative net exposure for the Mexican peso and the euro, whereas under FASB 52 the net exposure for these currencies is positive. There is no change in net exposure for the Canadian dollar and the Swiss franc. Consequently, if the euro depreciates against the dollar from €1.1000/$1.00 to €1.1786/$1.00, as the text example assumed, exposed assets will now fall in value by a smaller amount than exposed liabilities, instead of vice versa. The associated reporting currency imbalance will be $239,415, calculated as follows: Reporting Currency Imbalance= - €3,949,0000 - €3,949,0000 - = $239,415. €1.1786 / $1.00 €1.1000 / $1.00 Translation Exposure Report under FASB 8 for Centralia Corporation and its Mexican and Spanish Affiliates, December 31, 2013 (in 000 Currency Units) Canadian Mexican Swiss Dollar Peso Euro Franc Assets Cash CD200 Ps 6,000 € 825 SF 0 Accounts receivable 0 9,000 1,045 0 Inventory 0 0 0 0 Net fixed assets 0 0 0 0 Exposed assets CD200 Ps15,000 € 1,870 SF 0 Liabilities Accounts payable CD 0 Ps 7,000 € 1,364 SF 0 Notes payable 0 17,000 935 1,400 Long-term debt 0 27,000 3,520 0 Exposed liabilities CD 0 Ps51,000 € 5,819 SF1,400 Net exposure CD200 (Ps36,000) (€3,949) (SF1,400) 2. Assume that FASB 8 is still in effect instead of FASB 52. Construct a consolidated balance sheet for Centralia Corporation and its affiliates after a depreciation of the euro from €1.1000/$1.00 to €1.1786/$1.00 that is the counterpart to Exhibit 10.7 in the text. Centralia and its affiliates carry inventory and fixed assets on the books at historical values. Solution: This problem is the sequel to Problem 1. The solution to Problem 1 showed that if the euro depreciated there would be a reporting currency imbalance of $239,415. Under FASB 8 this is carried through the income statement as a foreign exchange gain to the retained earnings on the balance sheet. The following table shows that consolidated retained earnings increased to $4,190,000 from $3,950,000 in Exhibit 10.7. This is an increase of $240,000, which is the same as the reporting currency imbalance after accounting for rounding error. Note to instructor: Since Centralia and its affiliates carry inventory and fixed assets on the books at historical values, the monetary/monetary method (essentially IAS 21) will produce the same translation. Consolidated Balance Sheet under FASB 8 for Centralia Corporation and its Mexican and Spanish Affiliates, December 31, 2013: Post-Exchange Rate Change (in 000 Dollars) Centralia Corp. (parent) Mexican Affiliate Spanish Affiliate Consolidated Balance Sheet Assets Cash $ 950a $ 600 $ 700 $ 2,250 Accounts receivable 1,450b 900 887 3,237 Inventory 3,000 1,500 1,500 6,000 Investment in Mexican affiliate -c - - - Investment in Spanish affiliate -d - - - Net fixed assets 9,000 4,600 4,000 17,600 Total assets $29,087 Liabilities and Net Worth Accounts payable $1,800 $ 700b $1,157 $ 3,657 Notes payable 2,200 1,700 1,043e 4,943 Long-term debt 7,110 2,700 2,987 12,797 Common stock 3,500 -c -d 3,500 Retained earnings 4,190 -c -d 4,190 Total liabilities and net worth $29,087 aThis includes CD200,000 the parent firm has in a Canadian bank, carried as $150,000. CD200,000/(CD1.3333/$1.00) = $150,000. b$1,750,000 - $300,000 (= Ps3,000,000/(Ps10.00/$1.00)) intracompany loan = $1,450,000. c,dInvestment in affiliates cancels with the net worth of the affiliates in the consolidation. eThe Spanish affiliate owes a Swiss bank SF375,000 (÷ SF1.2727/€1.00 = €294,649). This is carried on the books, after the exchange rate change, as part of €1,229,649 = €294,649 + €935,000. €1,229,649/(€1.1786/$1.00) = $1,043,313. 3. In Example 10.2, a forward contract was used to establish a derivatives “hedge” to protect Centralia from a translation loss if the euro depreciated from €1.1000/$1.00 to €1.1786/$1.00. Assume that an over-the-counter put option on the euro with a strike price of €1.1393/$1.00 (or $0.8777/€1.00) can be purchased for $0.0088 per euro. Show how the potential translation loss can be “hedged” with an option contract. Solution: As in example 10.2, if the potential translation loss is $110,704, the equivalent amount in functional currency that needs to be hedged is €3,782,468. If in fact the euro does depreciate to €1.1786/$1.00 ($0.8485/€1.00), €3,782,468 can be purchased in the spot market for $3,209,289. At a striking price of €1.1393/$1.00, the €3,782,468 can be sold through the put for $3,319,993, yielding a gross profit of $110,704. The put option cost $33,286 (= €3,782,468 x $0.0088). Thus, at an exchange rate of €1.1786/$1.00, the put option will effectively hedge $110,704 - $33,286 = $77,418 of the potential translation loss. At terminal exchange rates of €1.1393/$1.00 to €1.1786/$1.00, the put option hedge will be less effective. An option contract does not have to be exercised if doing so is disadvantageous to the option owner. Therefore, the put will not be exercised at exchange rates less than €1.1393/$1.00 (more than $0.8777/€1.00), in which case the “hedge” will lose the $33,286 cost of the option. MINI CASE: SUNDANCE SPORTING GOODS, INC. Sundance Sporting Goods, Inc., is a U.S. manufacturer of high-quality sporting goods-principally golf, tennis and other racquet equipment, and also lawn sports, such as croquet and badminton-- with administrative offices and manufacturing facilities in Chicago, Illinois. Sundance has two wholly owned manufacturing affiliates, one in Mexico and the other in Canada. The Mexican affiliate is located in Mexico City and services all of Latin America. The Canadian affiliate is in Toronto and serves only Canada. Each affiliate keeps its books in its local currency, which is also the functional currency for the affiliate. The current exchange rates are: $1.00 = CD1.25 = Ps3.30 = A1.00 = ¥105 = W800. The nonconsolidated balance sheets for Sundance and its two affiliates appear in the accompanying table. Nonconsolidated Balance Sheet for Sundance Sporting Goods, Inc. and Its Mexican and Canadian Affiliates, December 31, 2013 (in 000 Currency Units) Sundance, Inc. (parent) Mexican Affiliate Canadian Affiliate Assets Cash $ 1,500 Ps 1,420 CD 1,200 Accounts receivable 2,500a 2,800e 1,500f Inventory 5,000 6,200 2,500 Investment in Mexican affiliate 2,400b - - Investment in Canadian affiliate 3,600c - - Net fixed assets 12,000 11,200 5,600 Total assets $27,000 Ps21,620 CD10,800 Liabilities and Net Worth Accounts payable $ 3,000 Ps 2,500a CD 1,700 Notes payable 4,000d 4,200 2,300 Long-term debt 9,000 7,000 2,300 Common stock 5,000 4,500b 2,900c Retained earnings 6,000 3,420b 1,600c Total liabilities and net worth $27,000 Ps21,620 CD10,800 aThe parent firm is owed Ps1,320,000 by the Mexican affiliate. This sum is included in the parent’s accounts receivable as $400,000, translated at Ps3.30/$1.00. The remainder of the parent’s (Mexican affiliate’s) accounts receivable (payable) is denominated in dollars (pesos). bThe Mexican affiliate is wholly owned by the parent firm. It is carried on the parent firm’s books at $2,400,000. This represents the sum of the common stock (Ps4,500,000) and retained earnings (Ps3,420,000) on the Mexican affiliate’s books, translated at Ps3.30/$1.00. cThe Canadian affiliate is wholly owned by the parent firm. It is carried on the parent firm’s books at $3,600,000. This represents the sum of the common stock (CD2,900,000) and the retained earnings (CD1,600,000) on the Canadian affiliate’s books, translated at CD1.25/$1.00. dThe parent firm has outstanding notes payable of ¥126,000,000 due a Japanese bank. This sum is carried on the parent firm’s books as $1,200,000, translated at ¥105/$1.00. Other notes payable are denominated in U.S. dollars. eThe Mexican affiliate has sold on account A120,000 of merchandise to an Argentine import house. This sum is carried on the Mexican affiliate’s books as Ps396,000, translated at A1.00/Ps3.30. Other accounts receivable are denominated in Mexican pesos. fThe Canadian affiliate has sold on account W192,000,000 of merchandise to a Korean importer. This sum is carried on the Canadian affiliate’s books as CD300,000, translated at W800/CD1.25. Other accounts receivable are denominated in Canadian dollars. You joined the International Treasury division of Sundance six months ago after spending the last two years receiving your MBA degree. The corporate treasurer has asked you to prepare a report analyzing all aspects of the translation exposure faced by Sundance as a MNC. She has also asked you to address in your analysis the relationship between the firm’s translation exposure and its transaction exposure. After performing a forecast of future spot rates of exchange, you decide that you must do the following before any sensible report can be written. a. Using the current exchange rates and the nonconsolidated balance sheets for Sundance and its affiliates, prepare a consolidated balance sheet for the MNC according to FASB 52. b. i. Prepare a translation exposure report for Sundance Sporting Goods, Inc., and its two affiliates. ii. Using the translation exposure report you have prepared, determine if any reporting currency imbalance will result from a change in exchange rates to which the firm has currency exposure. Your forecast is that exchange rates will change from $1.00 = CD1.25 = Ps3.30 = A1.00 = ¥105 = W800 to $1.00 = CD1.30 = Ps3.30 = A1.03 = ¥105 = W800. c. Prepare a second consolidated balance sheet for the MNC using the exchange rates you expect in the future. Determine how any reporting currency imbalance will affect the new consolidated balance sheet for the MNC. d. i. Prepare a transaction exposure report for Sundance and its affiliates. Determine if any transaction exposures are also translation exposures. ii. Investigate what Sundance and its affiliates can do to control its transaction and translation exposures. Determine if any of the translation exposure should be hedged. Suggested Solution to Sundance Sporting Goods, Inc. Note to Instructor: It is not necessary to assign the entire case problem. Parts a. and b.i. can be used as self-contained problems, respectively, on basic balance sheet consolidation and the preparation of a translation exposure report. a. Below is the consolidated balance sheet for the MNC prepared according to the current rate method prescribed by FASB 52. Note that the balance sheet balances. That is, Total Assets and Total Liabilities and Net Worth equal one another. Thus, the assumption is that the current exchange rates are the same as when the affiliates were established. This assumption is relaxed in part c. Consolidated Balance Sheet for Sundance Sporting Goods, Inc. its Mexican and Canadian Affiliates, December 31, 2013: Pre-Exchange Rate Change (in 000 Dollars) Sundance, Inc. (parent) Mexican Affiliate Canadian Affiliate Consolidated Balance Sheet Assets Cash $ 1,500 $ 430 $ 960 $ 2,890 Accounts receivable 2,100a 849e 1,200f 4,149 Inventory 5,000 1,879 2,000 8,879 Investment in Mexican affiliate -b - - - Investment in Canadian affiliate -c - - - Net fixed assets 12,000 3,394 4,480 19,874 Total assets $35,792 Liabilities and Net Worth Accounts payable $ 3,000 $ 358a $1,360 $ 4,718 Notes payable 4,000d 1,273 1,840 7,113 Long-term debt 9,000 2,121 1,840 12,961 Common stock 5,000 -b -c 5,000 Retained earnings 6,000 -b -c 6,000 a$2,500,000 - $400,000 (= Ps1,320,000/(Ps3.30/$1.00)) intracompany loan = $2,100,000. b,cThe investment in the affiliates cancels with the net worth of the affiliates in the consolidation. dThe parent owes a Japanese bank ¥126,000,000. This is carried on the books as $1,200,000 (=¥126,000,000/(¥105/$1.00)). eThe Mexican affiliate has sold on account A120,000 of merchandise to an Argentine import house. This is carried on the Mexican affiliate’s books as Ps396,000 (= A120,000 x Ps3.30/A1.00). fThe Canadian affiliate has sold on account W192,000,000 of merchandise to a Korean importer. This is carried on the Canadian affiliate’s books as CD300,000 (= W192,000,000/(W800/CD1.25)). b. i. Below is presented the translation exposure report for the Sundance MNC. Note, from the report that there is net positive exposure in the Mexican peso, Canadian dollar, Argentine austral and Korean won. If any of these exposure currencies appreciates (depreciates) against the U.S. dollar, exposed assets denominated in these currencies will increase (fall) in translated value by a greater amount than the exposed liabilities denominated in these currencies. There is negative net exposure in the Japanese yen. If the yen appreciates (depreciates) against the U.S. dollar, exposed assets denominated in the yen will increase (fall) in translated value by smaller amount than the exposed liabilities denominated in the yen. Translation Exposure Report for Sundance Sporting Goods, Inc. and its Mexican and Canadian Affiliates, December 31, 2013 (in 000 Currency Units) Japanese Mexican Canadian Argentin Korean Yen Peso Dollar e Austral Won Assets Cash ¥ 0 Ps 1,420 CD 1,200 A 0 W 0 Accounts receivable 0 2,404 1,200 120 192,000 Inventory 0 6,200 2,500 0 0 Fixed assets 0 11,200 5,600 0 0 Exposed assets ¥ 0 Ps21,224 CD10,500 A120 W192,000 Liabilities Accounts payable ¥ 0 Ps 1,180 CD 1,700 A 0 W 0 Notes payable 126,000 4,200 2,300 0 0 Long-term debt ¥ 0 7,000 2,300 0 0 Exposed liabilities ¥126,000 Ps12,380 CD 6,300 A 0 W 0 Net exposure (¥126,000) Ps 8,844 CD 4,200 A120 W192,000 b. ii. The problem assumes that Canadian dollar depreciates from CD1.25/$1.00 to CD1.30/$1.00 and that the Argentine austral depreciates from A1.00/$1.00 to A1.03/$1.00. To determine the reporting currency imbalance in translated value caused by these exchange rate changes, we can use the following formula: Net Exposure Currency i Net Exposure Currency i - Snew(i / reporting) Sold (i / reporting) = Reporting Currency Imbalance. From the translation exposure report we can determine that the depreciation in the Canadian dollar will cause a CD4,200,000 CD4,200,000 - = -$129,231 CD1.30 / $1.00 CD1.25 / $1.00 reporting currency imbalance. Similarly, the depreciation in the Argentine austral will cause a = -$3,495 reporting currency imbalance. In total, the depreciation of the Canadian dollar and the Argentine austral will cause a reporting currency imbalance in translated value equal to -$129,231 -$3,495= -$132,726. c. The new consolidated balance sheet for Sundance MNC after the depreciation of the Canadian dollar and the Argentine austral is presented below. Note that in order for the new consolidated balance sheet to balance after the exchange rate change, it is necessary to have a cumulative translation adjustment account balance of -$133 thousand, which is the amount of the reporting currency imbalance determined in part b. ii (rounded to the nearest thousand). Consolidated Balance Sheet for Sundance Sporting Goods, Inc. its Mexican and Canadian Affiliates, December 31, 2013: Post-Exchange Rate Change (in 000 Dollars) Cash $ 1,500 $ 430 $ 923 $ 2,853 Accounts receivable 2,100a 845e 1,163f 4,108 Inventory 5,000 1,879 1,923 8,802 Investment in Mexican affiliate -b - - - Investment in Canadian affiliate -c - - - Net fixed assets 12,000 3,394 4,308 19,702 Total assets $35,465 Liabilities and Net Worth Accounts payable $3,000 $ 358a $1,308 $ 4,666 Notes payable 4,000d 1,273 1,769 7,042 Long-term debt 9,000 2,121 1,769 12,890 Common stock 5,000 -b -c 5,000 Retained earnings 6,000 -b -c 6,000 CTA - - - (133) a$2,500,000 - $400,000 (= Ps1,320,000/(Ps3.30/$1.00)) intracompany loan = $2,100,000. b,cThe investment in the affiliates cancels with the net worth of the affiliates in the consolidation. dThe parent owes a Japanese bank ¥126,000,000. This is carried on the books as $1,200,000 (=¥126,000,000/(¥105/$1.00)). eThe Mexican affiliate has sold on account A120,000 of merchandise to an Argentine import house. This is carried on the Mexican affiliate’s books as Ps384,466 (= A120,000 x Ps3.30/A1.03). fThe Canadian affiliate has sold on account W192,000,000 of merchandise to a Korean importer. This is carried on the Canadian affiliate’s books as CD312,000 (=W192,000,000/(W800/CD1.30)). d. i. The transaction exposure report for Sundance, Inc. and its two affiliates is presented below. The report indicates that the Ps1,320,000 accounts receivable due from the Mexican affiliate is not also a translation exposure because this is netted out in the consolidation. However, the ¥126,000,000 notes payable of the parent is also a translation exposure. Additionally, the A120,000 accounts receivable of the Mexican affiliate and the W192,000,000 accounts receivable of the Canadian affiliate are both translation exposures. Transaction Exposure Report for Sundance Sporting Goods, Inc. and its Mexican and Canadian Affiliates, December 31, 2013 Affiliate Amount Account Translation Exposure Parent Ps1,320,000 Accounts Receivable No Parent ¥126,000,000 Notes Payable Yes Mexican A120,000 Accounts Receivable Yes Canadian W192,000,000 Accounts Receivable Yes d. ii. Since transaction exposure may potentially result in real cash flow losses while translation exposure does not have an immediate direct effect on operating cash flows, we will first address the transaction exposure that confronts Sundance and its affiliates. The analysis assumes the depreciation in the Canadian dollar and the Argentine austral have already taken place. The parent firm can pay off the ¥126,000,000 loan from the Japanese bank using funds from the cash account and money from accounts receivable that it will collect. Additionally, the parent firm can collect the accounts receivable of Ps1,320,000 from its Mexican affiliate that is carried on the books as $400,000. In turn, the Mexican affiliate can collect the A120,000 accounts receivable from the Argentine importer, valued at Ps384,466 after the depreciation in the austral, to guard against further depreciation and to use to partially pay off the peso liability to the parent. The Canadian affiliate can eliminate its transaction exposure by collecting the W192,000,000 accounts receivable as soon as possible, which is currently valued at CD312,000. The elimination of these transaction exposures will affect the translation exposure of Sundance MNC. A revised translation exposure report follows. Revised Translation Exposure Report for Sundance Sporting Goods, Inc. and its Mexican and Canadian Affiliates, December 31, 2013 (in 000 Currency Units) Japanese Yen Mexican Peso Canadian Dollar Argentine Austral Korean Won Assets Cash ¥ 0 Ps 484 CD 1,512 A 0 W 0 Accounts receivable 0 2,404 1,200 0 0 Inventory 0 6,200 2,500 0 0 Fixed assets 0 11,200 5,600 0 0 Exposed assets ¥ 0 Ps20,288 CD10,812 A 0 W 0 Liabilities Accounts payable ¥ 0 Ps 1,180 CD1,700 A 0 W 0 Notes payable 0 4,200 2,300 0 0 Long-term debt 0 7,000 2,300 0 0 Exposed liabilities ¥ 0 Ps12,380 CD6,300 A 0 W 0 Net exposure ¥ 0 Ps 7,908 CD4,512 A 0 W 0 Note from the revised translation exposure report that the elimination of the transaction exposure will also eliminate the translation exposure in the Japanese yen, Argentine austral and the Korean won. Moreover, the net translation exposure in the Mexican peso has been reduced. But the net translation exposure in the Canadian dollar has increased as a result of the Canadian affiliate’s collection of the won receivable. The remaining translation exposure can be hedged using a balance sheet hedge or a derivatives hedge. Use of a balance sheet hedge is likely to create new transaction exposure, however. Use of a derivatives hedge is actually speculative, and not a real hedge, since the size of the “hedge” is based on one’s expectation as to the future spot exchange rate. An incorrect estimate will result in the “hedge” losing money for the MNC. Management of Translation Exposure Chapter Ten Chapter Outline • Translation Methods • FASB Statement 8 • FASB Statement 52 • International Accounting Standards • Management of Translation Exposure • Empirical Analysis of the Change from FASB 8 to FASB 52 Translation Methods • Current/Noncurrent Method • Monetary/Nonmonetary Method • Temporal Method • Current Rate Method Current/Noncurrent Method • The underlying principal is that assets and liabilities should be translated based on their maturity. – Current assets translated at the spot rate. – Noncurrent assets translated at the historical rate in effect when the item was first recorded on the books. • This method of foreign currency translation was generally accepted in the United States from the 1930s until 1975, at which time FASB 8 became effective. Current/Noncurrent Method Balance Sheet Local Currency Current/ Noncurrent Cash € 2,100 $1,050 Inventory € 1,500 $750 Net fixed assets € 3,000 $1,000 Total Assets € 6,600 $2,800 Current liabilities € 1,200 $600 Long-Term debt $600 Common stock € 2,700 $900 Retained earnings € 900 $700 CTA -------- -------- Total Liabilities and Equity € 6,600 $2,800 • Current assets translated at the spot rate. e.g. €2 = $1 • Noncurrent assets translated at the historical rate in effect when the item was first recorded on the books. e.g. €3 = $1 Monetary/Nonmonetary Method • The underlying principle is that monetary accounts have a similarity because their value represents a sum of money whose value changes as the exchange rate changes. • All monetary balance sheet accounts (cash, marketable securities, accounts receivable, etc.) of a foreign subsidiary are translated at the current exchange rate. • All other (nonmonetary) balance sheet accounts (owners’ equity, land, etc.) are translated at the historical exchange rate in effect when the account was first recorded. Monetary/Nonmonetary Method • All monetary balance sheet accounts are translated at the current exchange rate. e.g. €2 = $1 • All other balance sheet accounts are translated at the historical exchange rate in effect when the account was first recorded. e.g. €3 = $1 Balance Sheet Local Monetary/ Currency Nonmonetary Cash € 2,100 $1,050 Inventory € 1,500 $500 Net fixed assets € 3,000 $1,000 Total Assets € 6,600 $2,550 Current liabilities € 1,200 $600 Long-Term debt € 1,800 $900 Common stock € 2,700 $900 Retained earnings € 900 $0 CTA -------- -------- Total Liabilities and € 6,600 $2,400 Equity Temporal Method • The underlying principal is that assets and liabilities should be translated based on how they are carried on the firm’s books. • Balance sheet account are translated at the current spot exchange rate if they are carried on the books at their current value. • Items that are carried on the books at historical costs are translated at the historical exchange rates in effect at the time the firm placed the item on the books. Temporal Method Balance Sheet Local Currency Temporal Cash € 2,100 $1,050 Inventory € 1,500 $900 Net fixed assets € 3,000 $1,000 Total Assets € 6,600 $2,950 Current liabilities € 1,200 $600 Long-Term debt $900 Common stock € 2,700 $900 Retained earnings € 900 $0 CTA -------- -------- Total Liabilities and Equity € 6,600 $2,400 • Items carried on the books at their current value are translated at the spot exchange rate. e.g. €2 = $1 • Items that are carried on the books at historical costs are translated at the historical exchange rates. e.g. €3 = $1 Current Rate Method • All balance sheet items (except for stockholder’s equity) are translated at the current exchange rate. • Very simple method in application. • A “plug” equity account named cumulative translation adjustment is used to balance the balance sheet. Current Rate Method Balance Sheet Local Currency Current Rate Cash €2,100.00 $1,050 Inventory €1,500.00 $750 Net fixed assets $1,500 Total Assets $3,300 Current liabilities €1,200.00 $600 Long-Term debt $900 Common stock €2,700.00 $900 Retained earnings €900.00 $360 CTA $540 Total Liabilities and Equity $3,300 • All balance sheet items (except for stockholder’s equity) are translated at the current exchange rate. • A “plug” equity account named cumulative translation adjustment is used to balance the balance sheet. How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Balance Sheet Local Current/ Monetary/ Temporal Current Currency Noncurrent Nonmonetary Rate Cash €2,100 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 Inventory €1,500 $750 $500 $900 $750 Net fixed assets €3,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,500 Total Assets €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 Current liabilities €1,200 $600 $600 $600 $600 Long-Term debt €1,800 $600 $900 $900 $900 Common stock €2,700 $900 $900 $900 $900 Retained earnings €900 $700 $150 $550 $360 CTA -------- -------- -------- -------- $540 Total Liabilities €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 and Equity Spot exchange rate How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Balance Sheet Local Current/ Monetary/ Temporal Current Currency Noncurrent Nonmonetary Rate Cash €2,100 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 Inventory €1,500 $750 $500 $900 $750 Net fixed assets €3,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,500 Total Assets €6,600 $2,800 Book $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 Current liabilities €1,200 $600 value of $600 $600 $600 Long-Term debt €1,800 $600 inventory $900 $900 $900 Common stock €2,700 $900 historic $900 $900 $900 Retained earnings €900 $700 rate $150 $550 $360 CTA -------- -------- -------- -------- $540 Total Liabilities €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 and Equity Book value of inventory Current value of inventory at spot exchange rate at spot exchange rate How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Balance Sheet Local Current/ Monetary/ Temporal Current Currency Noncurrent Nonmonetary Rate Cash €2,100 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 Inventory €1,500 $750 $500 $900 $750 Net fixed assets €3,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,500 Total Assets €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 Current liabilities €1,200 $600 $600 $600 $600 Long-Term debt €1,800 $600 $900 $900 $900 Common stock €2,700 $900 $900 $900 $900 Retained earnings €900 $700 $150 $550 $360 CTA -------- -------- -------- -------- $540 Total Liabilities €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 and Equity Historic rate Spot exchange rate How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Balance Sheet Local Current/ Monetary/ Temporal Current Currency Noncurrent Nonmonetary Rate Cash €2,100 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 Inventory €1,500 $750 $500 $900 $750 Net fixed assets €3,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,500 Total Assets €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 Current liabilities €1,200 $600 $600 $600 $600 Long-Term debt €1,800 $600 $900 $900 $900 Common stock €2,700 $900 $900 $900 $900 Retained earnings €900 $700 $150 $550 $360 CTA -------- -------- -------- -------- $540 Total Liabilities €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 and Equity Cash + Inventory + Net Fixed Assets How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Balance Sheet Local Current/ Monetary/ Temporal Current Currency Noncurrent Nonmonetary Rate Cash €2,100 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 Inventory €1,500 $750 $500 $900 $750 Net fixed assets €3,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,500 Total Assets €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 Current liabilities €1,200 $600 $600 $600 $600 Long-Term debt €1,800 $600 $900 $900 $900 Common stock €2,700 $900 $900 $900 $900 Retained earnings €900 $700 $150 $550 $360 CTA -------- -------- -------- -------- $540 Total Liabilities €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 and Equity Spot rate How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Balance Sheet Local Current/ Monetary/ Temporal Current Currency Noncurrent Nonmonetary Rate Cash €2,100 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 Inventory €1,500 $750 $500 $900 $750 Net fixed assets €3,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,500 Total Assets €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 Current liabilities €1,200 $600 $600 $600 $600 Long-Term debt €1,800 $600 $900 $900 $900 Common stock €2,700 $900 $900 $900 $900 Retained earnings €900 $700 $150 $550 $360 CTA -------- -------- -------- -------- $540 Total Liabilities €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 and Equity Historical rate Spot rate How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Balance Sheet Local Current/ Monetary/ Temporal Current Currency Noncurrent Nonmonetary Rate Cash €2,100 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 Inventory €1,500 $750 $500 $900 $750 Net fixed assets €3,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,500 Total Assets €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 Current liabilities €1,200 $600 $600 $600 $600 Long-Term debt €1,800 $600 $900 $900 $900 Common stock €2,700 $900 $900 $900 $900 Retained earnings €900 $700 $150 $550 $360 CTA -------- -------- -------- -------- $540 Total Liabilities €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 and Equity Requires income statement data (see slides 23, 24, 25) How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Balance Sheet Local Current/ Monetary/ Temporal Current Currency Noncurrent Nonmonetary Rate Cash €2,100 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 $1,050 Inventory €1,500 $750 $500 $900 $750 Net fixed assets €3,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,500 Total Assets €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 Current liabilities €1,200 $600 $600 $600 $600 Long-Term debt €1,800 $600 $900 $900 $900 Common stock €2,700 $900 $900 $900 $900 Retained earnings €900 $700 $150 $550 $360 CTA -------- -------- -------- -------- $540 Total Liabilities €6,600 $2,800 $2,550 $2,950 $3,300 and Equity Under the current rate method, a “plug” equity account named cumulative translation adjustment balances the balance sheet. How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Local Current/ Monetary/ Temporal Current Income Statement Currency Noncurrent Nonmonetary Rate Sales € 10,000 $4,000 $4,000 $4,000 $4,000 COGS € 7,500 $3,000 $2,500 $3,000 $3,000 Depreciation € 1,000 $333 Net operating income € 1,500 $1,167 Income tax (40%) € 600 Profit after tax € 900 Foreign exchange gain (loss) $300 -$550 $150 Net income € 900 $700 $150 $550 $360 Dividends € 0 $0 $0 $0 $0 Addition to Retained Earnings € 900 $700 $150 $550 $360 Sales translate at the average exchange rate over the period, €2.50 = $1 Income Statement Local Currency Current/ Monetary/ Noncurrent Nonmonetary Temporal Current Rate How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Income Statement Local Currency Current/ Monetary/ Noncurrent Nonmonetary Temporal Current Rate How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 Income Statement Local Currency Current/ Monetary/ Noncurrent Nonmonetary Temporal Current Rate How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 First solve for retained earnings so total assets = total liabilities: total assets – current liabilities – long-term debt – common stock $2,800 – $600 – $600 – $900 = $700 = addition to retrained earnings Add back on dividends to get net income. Then solve for forex gain (loss) by differencing profit after tax and net income: $700 – $400 = $300. Income Statement Local Currency Current/ Monetary/ Noncurrent Nonmonetary Temporal Current Rate How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 First solve for retained earnings so total assets = total liabilities: total assets – current liabilities – long-term debt – common stock $2,550 – $600 –$900 –$900 = $150 = addition to retrained earnings Add back on dividends to get net income. Then solve for forex gain (loss) by differencing profit after tax and net income: $150 – $700 = –$550. Income Statement Local Currency Current/ Monetary/ Noncurrent Nonmonetary Temporal Current Rate How Various Translation Methods Deal with a Change from €3 = $1 to €2 = $1 First solve for retained earnings so total assets = total liabilities: total assets – current liabilities – long-term debt – common stock $2,950 – $600 –$900 – $900 = $550 = addition to retrained earnings Add back on dividends to get net income. Then solve for forex gain (loss) by differencing profit after tax and net income: $550 – $400 = $150. FASB Statement 8 • Essentially the temporal method, with some subtleties. – Such as translating inventory at historical rates, which is a hassle. • Requires taking foreign exchange gains and losses through the income statement. • This leads to variability in reported earnings, which leads to irritated corporate executives. FASB Statement 52 • The mechanics of the FASB 52 translation process – Function currency – Reporting currency • Highly inflationary economies The Mechanics of FASB Statement 52 • Function currency – The currency that the business is conducted in. • Reporting currency – The currency in which the MNC prepares its consolidated financial statements. The Mechanics of FASB Statement 52 • Two-stage process – First, determine in which currency the foreign entity keeps its books. – If the local currency in which the foreign entity keeps its books is not the functional currency, remeasurement into the functional currency is required. – Second, when the foreign entity’s functional currency is not the same as the parent’s currency, the foreign entity’s books are translated using the current rate method. The Mechanics of FASB Statement 52 Highly Inflationary Economies • Foreign entities are required to remeasure financial statements using the temporal method “as if the functional currency were the reporting currency.” International Accounting Standards • Since January 2005, all companies doing business in the European Union must use the accounting standards distributed by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). • Similar to the American FASB, the IASB publishes it standards in a series of pronouncements called International Financial Reporting Standards. • It also adopted and maintains the pronouncements of the predecessor body, the IASC, called International Accounting Standards (IAS). International Accounting Standards • IAS 21, The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates is the European standard for handling foreign currency translation. • IAS 21 most closely resembles the monetary/nonmonetary translation method discussed earlier in the chapter. International Accounting Standards • In 2009 IASB and FASB issued a memorandum of understanding to achieve substantial convergence of accounting standards by 2011. • Consequently, most countries may soon follow a common standard for foreign currency translation. Management of Translation Exposure • Translation exposure vs. transaction exposure • Hedging translation exposure – Balance sheet hedge – Derivatives hedge • Translation exposure vs. operating exposure Translation Exposure versus Transaction Exposure • Translation exposure – The effect that unanticipated changes in exchange rates has on the firm’s consolidated financial statements. – An accounting issue. • Transaction exposure – The effect that unanticipated changes in exchange rates has on the firm’s cash flows. – A finance issue and the subject of Chapter 8. • It is generally not possible to eliminate both translation exposure and transaction exposure. Hedging Translation Exposure • If the managers of the firm wish to manage their accounting numbers as well as their business, they have two methods for dealing with translation exposure: – Balance sheet hedge – Derivatives hedge Balance Sheet Hedge • Eliminates the mismatch between net assets and net liabilities denominated in the same currency. • May create transaction exposure, however. Derivatives Hedge • An example would be the use of a forward contract with a maturity of the reporting period to attempt to manage the accounting numbers. • Using a derivatives hedge to control translation exposure really involves speculation about foreign exchange rate changes, however. Translation Exposure versus Operating Exposure • The effect that unanticipated changes in exchange rates has on the firm’s ongoing operations. • Operating exposure is a substantive issue with which the management of the firm should concern itself with. Empirical Analysis of the Change from FASB 8 to FASB 52 • There did not appear to be a revaluation of firms’ values following the change. • This suggests that market participants do not react to cosmetic earnings changes. • Other researchers have found similar results when investigating other accounting changes. • This highlights the futility of attempting to manage translation gains and losses. Solution Manual for International Financial Management Cheol S. Eun, Bruce G. Resnick 9780077861605
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