Chapter 10 Language and Learning Disorders TRUE OR FALSE 1. One major theme underlying the modern field of language and learning disorders is an interest in how well individuals function in some intellectual/communication areas relative to other areas. Answer: True 2. Although learning problems have long been recognized, it was not until the 1960s that a field of study grew around the concept of specific learning disabilities. Answer: True 3. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Answer: True 4. The definition of learning disability used by the federal government includes youngsters whose disability appears to be caused by economic disadvantage. Answer: False 5. The most common way to identify a learning disability is to compare general intellectual functioning and functioning in a specific achievement area. Answer: True 6. There is little variability in how states implement Response to Intervention programs. Answer: False 7. Semantics of a language refers to meanings in the language. Answer: True 8. By 2 years of age, most children speak in phrases or sentences of two or more words. Answer: True 9. Prevalence of language disorder is higher in girls than in boys, but the opposite is true for reading disorder. Answer: False 10. It is generally thought that receptive-expressive language disorder is a less severe disorder than expressive disorder. Answer: False 11. Language disorders and reading disabilities appear to be unrelated. Answer: False 12. Reading disabilities are differentiated by deficits in word level reading versus comprehension. Answer: True 13. Samuel Orton emphasized perceptual rather than language deficits as underlying reading problems. Answer: True 14. Recognizing that the word “mad” has three sounds is an example of phonological decoding. Answer: False 15. Phonological deficits are evident in all cases of reading disability. Answer: False 16. The male to female ratio for reading disability diagnosis in clinic samples is 3 or 4 to 1. Answer: True 17. Males with comorbid reading disability and ADHD are more likely to exhibit ODD and CD than males with only reading disability. Answer: True 18. Transcription involves putting ideas into written form. Answer: True 19. When adding 2 + 3, children will start with counting all (1- 2- 3- 4- 5) and develop into counting on (start with 2 and then add 3- 4- 5). Answer: True 20. Research indicates that males are more likely to have math disabilities than girls. Answer: False 21. Conti-Ramsden and Botting, 2004, found that 11 year-olds with language impairments were 3 times as likely to experience victimization more than once a week than typical 11 year-olds. Answer: True 22. It is unlikely that motivation plays a role in learning disabilities because children’s beliefs and attitudes are unrelated to academic success. Answer: False 23. The right and left planum temporal areas of the brain are usually equal in size in persons in the general population but are asymmetrical in size in the presence of language and learning disorders. Answer: False 24. Research indicates that interventions have little impact on brain functioning. Answer: False 25. A twin study on language disorders found a concordance rate of 75% in MZ pairs. Answer: True 26. The heritability rate of reading disorders has been estimated at 60. Answer: True 27. The concordance rate for a math disability is higher in MZ vs. DZ twins. Answer: True 28. Data from behavior genetic studies indicate that environmental influences on language and learning disorders are unlikely. Answer: False 29. Study habits, motivation, and self-esteem are important factors when evaluating a student for language or learning disorders. Answer: True 30. Response to intervention is often conceptualized as a prevention effort with universal, secondary, and tertiary prevention components, Answer: True 31. Articulation and expressive skills are more easily remediated than receptive skills. Answer: True 32. The Fast For Word program, designed to improve the speed of auditory processing, has proven to be highly effective in recent meta analytic studies. Answer: False 33. According to the meta-analysis conducted by Swanson and Hoskyn, a combination of direct instruction and strategy instruction is the most effective approach for treating learning problems. Answer: True 34. Although direct instruction has been shown to be effective in treating learning disorders, cognitive approaches have been shown to be surprisingly ineffective. Answer: False 35. According to data from the U.S. Department of Education (2007), approximately 41% of persons aged 3 to 21 years who received services had specific learning disabilities. Answer: True 36. A majority of youth with learning disabilities (70%) are in full time special education classes. Answer: False MULTIPLE CHOICE 37. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142) has been amended several times over the years and is now retitled the A. Education for All Disabled Children Act. B. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. C. Individualized Education for those with Disabilities Act. D. Education for Individuals with Disabilities Act. Answer: B 38. Which condition is excluded from the federal government’s definition of specific learning disabilities? A. Learning problems due to emotional disturbance B. Learning problems due to brain dysfunction C. Learning problems due to perceptual handicaps D. Learning problems due to dyslexia Answer: A 39. A major criticism of excluding children from being diagnosed with learning disabilities on the basis of primary emotional disturbance or economic disadvantage is that A. these children may create problems for students in the general education classroom. B. it is clearly a way that the government avoids paying more for special education. C. it is often difficult to determine whether these other factors lead to learning disabilities or vice versa. D. these children need the label in order to receive benefits or services. Answer: C 40. When learning disabilities are identified by a child’s performing below expected grade or age, A. the child must be at least two grades or years behind what is expected. B. the child must be at least three grades or years behind what is expected. C. a large discrepancy with peers appears more serious for younger than older children. D. a large discrepancy with peers appears more serious for older than younger children. Answer: C 41. Which of the following is true regarding the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach? A. Children are exposed to interventions before they are diagnosed. B. The 2004 reauthorization of IDEA discouraged the use of the RTI approach. C. The impact of poor instruction cannot be eliminated. D. Professionals agree on how the approach should be conceptualized. Answer: A 42. Overall, children with learning disabilities tend to perform _________ on tests of general intelligence. A. Markedly below average B. In the low average range C. In the high average range D. Markedly above average Answer: B 43. Phonemes are to _________ as graphemes are to _________. A. meanings; form B. form; meanings C. sound; letters D. letters; sound Answer: C 44. The pragmatics of a language refers to A. meanings of the language. B. the sounds of the language and rules for combining them. C. the use of the language in a social context. D. the organization of words into phrases and sentences. Answer: C 45. Carlos makes incorrect sounds and at times omits sounds when speaking. When given a choice between “boat” or “bowl,” he does not know which word rhymes with “coat”. His most likely diagnosis would be A. morphological disorder. B. expressive language disorder. C. receptive language disorder. D. phonological disorder. Answer: D 46. Jimmy has been diagnosed with expressive language disorder. We would thus expect Jimmy A. to have problems in understanding what others say to him. B. to speak in simplified, sometimes incorrect, sentences. C. to have age-appropriate vocabulary. D. to respond atypically to the speech of others, almost as if he were deaf. Answer: B 47. With regard to language expression and reception, A. expression develops earlier than reception. B. expression and reception develop at about the same time. C. children with expressive problems necessarily have receptive problems. D. children with receptive problems usually have expressive problems. Answer: D 48. Which of the following is an example of a receptive language skill? A. Babbling B. Combining vowel sounds C. Using pronouns D. Following commands Answer: D 49. Risk for continuing language problems increases across which order of language disorders? A. Simple phonological, receptive-expressive, expressive B. Expressive, receptive-expressive, simple phonological C. Expressive, simple phonological, receptive-expressive D. Simple phonological, expressive, receptive-expressive Answer: D 50. Which is true with regard to the prevalence of language disorders? A. Prevalence for specific language impairments ranges from 3 to 7 percent. B. Prevalence is equal across socioeconomic groups. C. Language disorders usually appear around age 8 or 9. D. Phonological problems are rare and typically persist into adulthood. Answer: A 51. With regard to the psychological deficits underlying specific language disabilities, A. executive functions have been most investigated. B. auditory processing and memory for sound are implicated. C. it is likely that one deficit is responsible for all the different types of language problems. D. most language disorders appear to be caused by underlying motivational deficits. Answer: B 52. Which term refers to a specific mathematics disability? A. Dysnumeria B. Dysgraphia C. Aphasia D. Dyscalculia Answer: D 53. Which of the following is a DSM-IV criterion for a learning disability? A. A discrepancy between a standardized measure of language and of reading skills B. A discrepancy between a standardized measure of intelligence and a specific achievement C. A deficit in executive functions and attention is clearly evident D. A discrepancy that is caused by a sensory deficit Answer: B 54. Early explanations of dyslexia emphasized _________ deficits; current explanations emphasize _________ deficits. A. hearing; visual B. visual; hearing C. visual; language D. language; visual Answer: C 55. Investigations of reading, especially of learning to read, emphasize the critical role of A. syntax. B. phonological processing. C. pragmatics. D. semantic processing. Answer: B 56. Gina has difficulties in recognizing that words can be broken into sound segments. Gina appears to have a problem in A. semantic processing. B. phonological awareness. C. short-term memory for sound. D. pragmatic intentions. Answer: B 57. Jill can decode and recognize single words. She can read aloud an entire passage of text; however, she is unable to accurately answer questions about what she has just read. Jill is likely experiencing A. dyslexia. B. deficits in phonological decoding. C. expressive language disorder. D. problems with comprehension. Answer: D 58. In the Lipka, Lesaux and Sieqel (2006) study, youth with late emerging learning problems A. had mastered early phonological processing skills, but lost the ability as they aged. B. had masked early deficits by learning to sight read words. C. made up a small percentage (less than 10%) of the sample. D. demonstrated motivational deficits. Answer: B 59. The prevalence of reading disorders in the school population is estimated as A. 1 to 5 percent. B. 10 to 15 percent. C. 15 to 20 percent. D. 20 to 25 percent. Answer: B 60. With regard to the developmental outcome for specific childhood reading disabilities, A. most all cases of reading problems are remediated by adolescence. B. phonological problems are usually remediated by adolescence. C. reading problems tend to persist into later years but there is individual variation. D. the “Mathew Effect” indicates that weak readers tend to catch up to strong readers over time. Answer: C 61. Karen has difficulty understanding the goal of her classroom writing assignments. She cannot seem to develop a plan or organize her written assignments. She does not seem to see her mistakes so she turns in work that needs significant revision even after several drafts. Her sentence structure is poor and she rarely divides her work into paragraphs. What is her likely diagnosis? A. Writing disorder, text generation B. Dyslexia C. Writing disorder, transcription D. Aphasia Answer: A 62. The most appropriate time for identifying writing disorder probably is A. when the child begins to try to draw and color. B. when the child enters school, that is, about five years of age. C. about 8 years of age. D. about 14 years of age. Answer: C 63. Which of the following is true regarding math disabilities? A. Children with math disabilities are well researched. B. Math disabilities co-occur with reading disabilities about 10% of the time. C. The acquisition of arithmetic skills is highly sensitive to the quality of instruction in the classroom. D. Math disabilities are the least likely of all disabilities to persist into adulthood Answer: C 64. Which is true of peer evaluations of learning disabled (LD) children relative to evaluations of non-learning disabled children? A. LD children are rejected or neglected B. LD children are rated as more popular C. Research finding have been inconsistent D. LD children are evaluated almost identically to non-LD children Answer: A 65. Jack believes that he will fail at most academic tasks. He tends to give up easily on tasks and considers himself “stupid”. He repeatedly states, “School is just not my thing. What is the point of trying?” This is evidence for A. a mastery orientation. B. hopelessness. C. conduct disorder. D. a helplessness orientation. Answer: D 66. The planum temporale is located in which part of the brain? A. the hypothalamus B. the temporal and parietal lobes C. the temporal lobes and cerebellum D. the thalamus Answer: B 67. Which of the following is true regarding language and reading and brain function? A. Broca’s area is related to phonological processing. B. Wernicke’s plays a central role in rapid word recognition. C. Strong readers rely more on the back areas of the brain when reading. D. In individuals with reading disabilities, the posterior left side of the brain appears to be overactive when engaging in reading tasks. Answer: C 68. With regard to genetic influence, A. both single-gene and multiple-gene effects may be involved in the transmission of language and reading disabilities. B. most cases of reading disability are known to be caused by chromosome 21 abnormalities. C. reading but not language disabilities run in families. D. language but not reading disabilities run in families. Answer: A 69. Which of the following is true regarding the FOXP2 story? A. The family members with the mutation all exhibited verbal dyspraxia. B. The family members with the mutation had higher nonverbal IQ scores than family members without the mutation. C. The mutation was on chromosome 2. D. FOXP2 has since been found to be related to other speech and language disorders. Answer: A 70. Assessment of learning disabilities A. usually occurs in mental health clinics and hospitals. B. usually occurs by preschool age. C. requires a battery of tests to evaluate general intelligence and specific academic skills and achievements. D. typically has placed the most emphasis on evaluating the child’s motivation and social environment. Answer: C 71. Which of the following is true regarding the prevention of language and learning disabilities? A. It is of minor concern since most of America’s youth acquire the necessary learning skills. B. Earlier treatment is more successful than later treatment. C. Currently most disabilities are identified by age 4. D. Children who are late talkers or exhibit other problems early on are unable to develop normal language skills. Answer: B 72. The psychoeducational treatment approach to LD A. aimed to improve the child's social behavior so that classroom learning was facilitated. B. emphasized direct practice on academic tasks. C. focused on relieving perceptual and cognitive deficits thought to underlie LD. D. was proven to be the most effective treatment for LD. Answer: C 73. Which treatment model has been the most successful in remediating learning disabilities? A. The medical model that recommends stimulant medication B. The medical model that recommends a combination of stimulant medication and vitamins C. Direct instruction and cognitive approaches D. The perceptual-motor model Answer: C 74. Swanson and Hoskyn’s meta-analysis of the effectiveness of interventions for learning disabilities found that A. direct instruction was the most effective. B. strategy instruction was the most effective. C. the combination of direct instruction and strategy instruction was the most effective. D. adding direct instruction to strategy instruction did not increase effectiveness. Answer: C 75. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act was enacted in what year? A. 1975 B. 1985 C. 1960 D. 1965 Answer: A 76. Which of the following is not mandated by IDEA for the education of students with handicaps? A. All children should receive the most appropriate education. B. Parents have rights to participate in decisions regarding their children’s education. C. Educational plans must be constructed for all students. D. All children must be educated in general education classrooms. Answer: D 77. The concept of inclusion as applied to youngsters with disabilities argues that children are best educated in A. educational settings best matched to their specific needs. B. resource rooms. C. general education classrooms. D. educational settings that have special education teachers. Answer: C 78. Currently, most students with learning disabilities receive their educational experiences in A. general education classes and resource classes. B. separate classes. C. classes in special schools. D. after school instruction facilities. Answer: A 79. Which is true with regard to the education of students with learning disabilities? A. Included students with disabilities do not do as well on standardized achievement tests as students in special education classrooms. B. Students with disabilities have lower self-esteem than students without disabilities, and that can be exacerbated by inclusion. C. It has been documented that non-disabled students have poorer outcomes when they share the classroom with learning disabled students. D. General education teachers are often well prepared for inclusion practices. Answer: B BRIEF ESSAY QUESTIONS 80. Discuss criticisms of the definition of specific learning disabilities that is employed by the federal government. Answer: The federal definition of specific learning disabilities (SLD) faces several key criticisms: 1. Vagueness: The definition is seen as too broad and ambiguous, leading to inconsistent identification. 2. Exclusionary: It excludes conditions like visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, which can overlap with SLDs. 3. Discrepancy Model: This traditional model delays diagnosis until there is a significant gap between IQ and achievement. 4. RTI Model: The Response to Intervention model varies widely in implementation and effectiveness. 5. Assessment Issues: It lacks comprehensive, multi-disciplinary assessments. 6. Stigmatization: Labels can negatively affect a child's self-esteem and social interactions. 7. Bias: There is potential for cultural and linguistic biases in assessments. 8. Early Intervention: Insufficient emphasis on early intervention and prevention. These criticisms call for a more precise, inclusive, and flexible approach to defining and identifying SLDs. 81. Review the methods for identifying learning problems (IQ-Achievement Discrepancy, Below Average Achievement, and RTI). What are the problems with each approach? Answer: 1. IQ-Achievement Discrepancy: • Method: Compares IQ and academic achievement scores. • Problems: Delays identification, may miss average IQ children with specific learning issues, cultural bias, narrow focus. 2. Below Average Achievement: • Method: Measures academic performance against a benchmark. • Problems: Arbitrary benchmarks, over-identification, ignores cognitive potential, cultural and socio-economic bias. 3. Response to Intervention (RTI): • Method: Uses increasing levels of intervention based on student response. • Problems: Inconsistent application, resource-intensive, delays special education, subjective judgments. Each method has limitations, suggesting the need for a more integrated approach. 82. Define the terms used for the basic components of language: Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics. Answer: 1. Phonology: The study of the sound system of a language, including rules for combining phonemes. 2. Morphology: The study of the structure and formation of words, including morphemes, the smallest units of meaning. 3. Syntax: The set of rules that govern sentence structure and word order. 4. Semantics: The study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences represent objects, actions, and ideas. 5. Pragmatics: The study of how context influences language interpretation and use in social interactions. 83. Describe the clinical manifestations of phonological, expressive, and receptive-expressive language disorders as they are defined by the DSM-IV. Answer: 1. Phonological Disorder: • Difficulty articulating speech sounds. • Mispronunciations (e.g., "wabbit" for "rabbit"). • Speech hard to understand, not due to physical or neurological issues. 2. Expressive Language Disorder: • Limited vocabulary and short, simple sentences. • Difficulty recalling words and forming sentences. • Delayed language milestones, not explained by other factors. 3. Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder: • Problems understanding and producing language. • Difficulty following directions and comprehending complex sentences. • Limited vocabulary and simple sentences. • Social communication issues, not due to hearing or intellectual impairments. 84. Describe the theories underlying language impairments (information-processing model, auditory processing, verbal, short, and working memory). Answer: 1. Information-Processing Model: • Theory: Language impairments are caused by deficits in the cognitive processes that handle information. This includes difficulties in encoding, storing, and retrieving linguistic information. • Impairment: Individuals may struggle with the speed and accuracy of processing language-related information, leading to difficulties in understanding and producing language. 2. Auditory Processing: • Theory: Language impairments result from difficulties in processing auditory information. This includes problems with perceiving, analyzing, and interpreting sounds. • Impairment: Individuals may have trouble distinguishing between different sounds, understanding rapid speech, or processing spoken language in noisy environments, which can affect language development and comprehension. 3. Verbal Memory: • Theory: Language impairments are linked to difficulties in verbal memory, which involves the ability to remember and manipulate spoken information. • Impairment: Individuals may struggle to recall words, sentences, or verbal instructions, impacting their ability to follow conversations or instructions and learn new vocabulary. 4. Short-Term Memory: • Theory: Language impairments stem from deficits in short-term memory, which is the ability to hold a small amount of information in an accessible state for a short period. • Impairment: Individuals may find it hard to keep track of information long enough to process and understand it, leading to challenges in following multi-step instructions or retaining information from a conversation. 5. Working Memory: • Theory: Language impairments are associated with working memory deficits, which involve the ability to hold and manipulate information temporarily while performing cognitive tasks. • Impairment: Individuals may struggle with complex language tasks that require simultaneous processing and storage of information, such as understanding long sentences, solving verbal problems, or engaging in conversation. These theories highlight different cognitive processes that can contribute to language impairments, emphasizing the multifaceted nature of language disorders. 85. What criteria are used in the DSM-IV to define specific disabilities in reading, written expression, and mathematics? Answer: 1. Reading Disorder (Dyslexia): • Reading skills significantly below expected level for age and education. • Impairment in reading accuracy, speed, or comprehension. • Interference with academic or daily activities. • Not due to sensory deficits or other conditions. 2. Disorder of Written Expression (Dysgraphia): • Writing skills significantly below expected level for age and education. • Impairment in spelling, grammar, punctuation, or organization. • Interference with academic or daily activities. • Not due to sensory deficits or other conditions. 3. Mathematics Disorder (Dyscalculia): • Mathematical ability significantly below expected level for age and education. • Impairment in calculation, number sense, or reasoning. • Interference with academic or daily activities. • Not due to sensory deficits or other conditions. In each case, the difficulties must be substantial and not explained by other factors. 86. Although many skills are required for competent reading, phonological processing skills appear to play a central role. Summarize findings that implicate such skills in dyslexia. Answer: Phonological processing skills are crucial for competent reading, and research has consistently implicated deficits in these skills in individuals with dyslexia. Here is a summary of findings that support this connection: 1. Phonological Awareness: Individuals with dyslexia often have difficulties with phonological awareness, which is the ability to recognize and manipulate the sounds of language. This includes tasks such as identifying, blending, segmenting, and manipulating individual sounds (phonemes) in words. Studies have shown that phonological awareness deficits are a strong predictor of reading difficulties in individuals with dyslexia. 2. Phonological Memory: Phonological memory refers to the ability to remember and manipulate phonological information in short-term memory. Individuals with dyslexia often have deficits in phonological memory, which can affect their ability to remember and recall phonological information, such as letter-sound correspondences or whole words. 3. Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN): RAN is the ability to quickly name a series of familiar items, such as letters, numbers, or colors. Research has shown that individuals with dyslexia often have slower RAN times, particularly for letters and digits. This suggests that difficulties in rapid naming may contribute to the reading difficulties observed in dyslexia. 4. Neurobiological Evidence: Neuroimaging studies have provided evidence of differences in brain activation patterns between individuals with dyslexia and typically developing readers during phonological processing tasks. These differences often involve areas of the brain that are important for phonological processing, such as the left temporoparietal and occipitotemporal regions. 5. Genetic and Familial Factors: There is evidence to suggest that phonological processing deficits in dyslexia may have a genetic component. Studies have shown that individuals with a family history of dyslexia are more likely to exhibit similar phonological processing difficulties, indicating a hereditary link. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of phonological processing skills in the development of reading ability and the central role they play in the reading difficulties observed in individuals with dyslexia. Phonological processing deficits are considered a core feature of dyslexia, and interventions targeting these skills are often effective in improving reading outcomes for individuals with dyslexia. 87. Describe the three pathways to reading disability noted by Lipka et al. (2006). Answer: Lipka et al. (2006) identified three pathways to reading disability: 1. Phonological Processing Deficits: • Characteristics: Difficulties in phonological processing, including phonological awareness, phonological memory, and rapid naming. • Impact on Reading: Individuals with this pathway struggle with decoding (i.e., sounding out words) and may have difficulty connecting letters to their corresponding sounds. • Example Intervention: Phonological awareness training, which focuses on teaching the sounds associated with letters and how to manipulate them in words. 2. Processing Speed Deficits: • Characteristics: Slow processing speed, particularly in tasks involving rapid naming of letters, numbers, or colors (RAN tasks). • Impact on Reading: Individuals with this pathway may have difficulty fluently and quickly recognizing words, leading to poor reading fluency. • Example Intervention: Interventions aimed at increasing processing speed, such as repeated practice with rapid naming tasks. 3. Executive Function Deficits: • Characteristics: Weaknesses in executive functions, such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control. • Impact on Reading: Individuals with this pathway may struggle with tasks requiring organization, planning, and monitoring of reading comprehension. • Example Intervention: Interventions targeting executive functions, such as working memory training or strategies to improve organization and planning skills. These pathways highlight the diverse cognitive processes involved in reading and the different ways in which deficits in these processes can lead to reading difficulties. Interventions tailored to target the specific deficits associated with each pathway can be effective in improving reading outcomes for individuals with reading disabilities. 88. What is the typical developmental course for individuals with reading disabilities? What is the Mathew Effect? What does the research tell us about the impact of having both reading disability and ADHD? Answer: 1. Typical Developmental Course for Individuals with Reading Disabilities: • Early signs may include delays in language development, difficulty with rhyming, and struggles with learning letters and their sounds. • In kindergarten and early elementary school, difficulties with phonological processing become more evident, leading to challenges in learning to read and spell. • Without intervention, these difficulties can persist into adolescence and adulthood, impacting academic achievement and potentially leading to low self-esteem and other emotional issues. 2. Mathew Effect: • The Mathew Effect is a term used to describe the phenomenon where early differences in reading ability can have a long-term impact on academic success. Children who start off with better reading skills tend to improve at a faster rate and achieve higher levels of reading proficiency compared to those who start off with poorer reading skills. This effect is based on the idea that early success in reading can lead to more opportunities for reading practice and exposure to more complex texts, which further enhances reading skills. 3. Impact of Having Both Reading Disability and ADHD: • Research suggests that individuals with both reading disabilities and ADHD may experience more severe academic and behavioral difficulties compared to those with either condition alone. • These individuals may have greater challenges with attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity, which can exacerbate their difficulties with reading and academic achievement. • However, the exact nature of the relationship between reading disability and ADHD is complex and varies among individuals. Some research suggests that the two conditions may share underlying neurocognitive deficits, while others suggest that they are distinct but overlapping disorders. Overall, early identification and intervention for reading disabilities are crucial to help mitigate the long-term impact of these difficulties. Collaborative and comprehensive approaches that address both reading and ADHD symptoms can be effective in supporting individuals with these co-occurring conditions. 89. Describe deficits displayed by youngsters with specific disorders of written expression. Answer: Youngsters with specific disorders of written expression (dysgraphia) may display deficits such as: • Poor handwriting legibility and consistency • Spelling errors, including phonetic and non-phonetic mistakes • Grammar and punctuation mistakes • Difficulty organizing thoughts and ideas for writing • Poor fine motor coordination affecting writing • Slow processing speed and working memory issues Interventions focusing on handwriting, spelling, grammar, and writing organization can help address these difficulties. 90. Describe deficits displayed by youngsters with specific disorder in mathematics, as well as the skills needed for acquiring basic mathematics skills. Answer: Youngsters with specific disorders in mathematics, also known as dyscalculia, may display the following deficits: 1. Number Sense: • Difficulty understanding the magnitude of numbers and their relationships (e.g., understanding that 5 is greater than 3). • Challenges with counting, ordering, and comparing numbers. 2. Basic Calculation Skills: • Difficulty with basic arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. • Problems with memorizing and applying math facts. 3. Mathematical Reasoning: • Difficulty understanding and applying mathematical concepts and operations in problem-solving situations. • Challenges with understanding math language and symbols. 4. Spatial Reasoning: • Difficulty with understanding and visualizing spatial relationships, which can impact understanding geometry and measurement concepts. 5. Memory and Attention: • Working memory deficits can affect the ability to remember and manipulate numbers and mathematical operations. • Attention deficits can lead to difficulties in maintaining focus during math tasks. Skills needed for acquiring basic mathematics skills include: 1. Number Sense: • Understanding the meaning of numbers and their relationships. • Recognizing and counting numbers in various contexts. 2. Basic Arithmetic: • Understanding and applying addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division concepts. • Memorizing math facts (e.g., multiplication tables). 3. Mathematical Reasoning: • Applying mathematical concepts to solve problems. • Understanding mathematical language and symbols. 4. Spatial Reasoning: • Understanding and visualizing geometric shapes and spatial relationships. • Applying measurement concepts. 5. Memory and Attention: • Using working memory to hold and manipulate numbers and operations. • Maintaining attention during math tasks. Interventions for dyscalculia often focus on building foundational math skills, providing multisensory instruction, and incorporating visual aids and manipulatives to enhance understanding and retention of mathematical concepts. 91. Youngsters with language and learning disorders are at risk for social problems. Discuss three possible causes of these problems. Answer: Youngsters with language and learning disorders are at risk for social problems due to several factors: 1. Communication Difficulties: • Cause: Language disorders can impair verbal and nonverbal communication skills, making it challenging for youngsters to express themselves clearly and understand others. • Effect: This can lead to misunderstandings, social isolation, and difficulty forming and maintaining friendships. 2. Academic Struggles: • Cause: Learning disorders can make it difficult for youngsters to keep up with their peers academically, leading to low self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy. • Effect: These negative feelings can impact their social interactions and sense of belonging in social settings. 3. Misunderstanding Behavior: • Cause: Behaviors associated with language and learning disorders, such as impulsivity, hyperactivity, or withdrawal, can be misunderstood by peers and adults. • Effect: This can result in social rejection, bullying, and difficulty fitting in with peer groups. Overall, these factors can contribute to social problems for youngsters with language and learning disorders, highlighting the importance of early intervention and support to help them develop social skills and cope with these challenges. 92. Diagram the cycle of academic failure and low motivation often seen in children with learning disabilities. What factors impact motivation? Answer: The cycle of academic failure and low motivation in children with learning disabilities can be depicted as follows: 1. Learning Disability: The child has a specific learning disability that makes it difficult to acquire and apply academic skills. 2. Academic Challenges: Due to the learning disability, the child struggles with academic tasks such as reading, writing, or math. 3. Failure in School: The academic challenges lead to repeated failures in school, including poor grades and difficulty keeping up with peers. 4. Low Self-Esteem: The failures and challenges can result in low self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy. 5. Low Motivation: Low self-esteem and lack of success in school can lead to low motivation to try new tasks or engage in learning activities. 6. Avoidance Behaviors: The child may avoid academic tasks or school-related activities to protect themselves from further failure or embarrassment. 7. Continued Academic Struggles: Avoidance behaviors and low motivation can perpetuate the cycle of academic failure, leading to further challenges in learning and achievement. Factors that impact motivation in children with learning disabilities include: 1. Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations. Children with learning disabilities may have low self-efficacy due to past failures. 2. Perceived Control: The extent to which children believe they have control over their academic outcomes. Feeling helpless or lacking control can reduce motivation. 3. Goal Orientation: The goals children set for themselves in academic tasks. Children who set challenging but attainable goals are more likely to be motivated. 4. Interest and Enjoyment: The level of interest and enjoyment children experience in academic tasks. Finding tasks enjoyable can increase motivation. 5. Attributions and Expectations: How children attribute their successes and failures. Children who attribute failure to lack of ability are less likely to be motivated to try again. 6. Support and Feedback: The support and feedback children receive from parents, teachers, and peers can impact their motivation. Positive support and constructive feedback can increase motivation. Understanding and addressing these factors can help break the cycle of academic failure and low motivation in children with learning disabilities. 93. Describe the possible psychosocial variables that can impact learning. Include both family and educational variables. Answer: Psychosocial variables encompass a range of factors that can impact learning and academic achievement. These variables include both family and educational factors: 1. Family Variables: • Parental Involvement: The degree to which parents are involved in their child's education can impact learning. Supportive and involved parents can positively influence academic outcomes. • Family Socioeconomic Status (SES): SES can impact access to resources such as educational materials, tutoring, and enrichment activities, which can affect learning opportunities. • Family Stress: High levels of stress within the family can impact a child's ability to focus and learn. Stressors such as financial difficulties, family conflict, or health issues can affect learning outcomes. • Parental Expectations: Parental expectations and attitudes towards education can influence a child's motivation and academic achievement. High expectations can motivate children to excel, while low expectations can lead to underachievement. 2. Educational Variables: • Teacher Support: The quality of the teacher-student relationship and the level of support provided by teachers can impact learning. Supportive teachers who provide feedback and encouragement can enhance learning outcomes. • Classroom Environment: The classroom environment, including factors such as class size, classroom management, and resources available, can impact learning. A positive and stimulating environment can promote learning. • School Climate: The overall climate of the school, including factors such as safety, culture, and support services, can impact learning. A positive school climate can foster academic achievement. • Peer Relationships: Peer relationships can influence learning. Positive peer interactions can enhance learning, while negative peer interactions can be a distraction. These psychosocial variables interact with each other and with individual characteristics to influence learning outcomes. Understanding these variables can help educators and parents create environments that support optimal learning and academic achievement. 94. Shaywitz (2003) outlined clues that parents can use to determine if their child needs further assessment for a reading disorder. Name and explain one clue from each time period (preschool, kindergarten and first grade, second grade and beyond). Answer: Shaywitz (2003) outlined clues that parents can use to determine if their child needs further assessment for a reading disorder: 1. Preschool: • Clue: Difficulty with language skills. • Explanation: Children who struggle with language skills, such as difficulty pronouncing words, limited vocabulary, or trouble understanding and following directions, may be at risk for reading difficulties later on. Early language difficulties can be a precursor to reading disorders and may warrant further assessment. 2. Kindergarten and First Grade: • Clue: Struggles with learning letter names and sounds. • Explanation: Difficulty learning the alphabet and associating letters with their sounds can be an early sign of a reading disorder. Children who have trouble with these basic literacy skills may benefit from additional support and assessment to address potential reading difficulties. 3. Second Grade and Beyond: • Clue: Reading below grade level despite instruction. • Explanation: Children who continue to struggle with reading and are significantly below grade level despite receiving instruction may have a reading disorder. Persistent difficulties with reading fluency, accuracy, and comprehension can indicate the need for further assessment and intervention to address underlying reading difficulties. These clues can help parents identify potential reading difficulties in their children and seek appropriate support and intervention to address these challenges. 95. What are the concerns regarding prevention outlined in the text? Answer: The concerns regarding prevention outlined in the text include: 1. Inadequate understanding: There is a lack of understanding about the causes and consequences of child sexual abuse and rape, hindering effective prevention efforts. 2. Insufficient resources: There is a shortage of resources allocated to prevention programs, limiting their reach and impact. 3. Lack of awareness: Many individuals, including potential victims and bystanders, are unaware of the signs of child sexual abuse and rape, preventing early intervention. 4. Stigma and shame: Victims often face stigma and shame, which may deter them from reporting abuse or seeking help, perpetuating a culture of silence. 5. Complexity of prevention: Preventing child sexual abuse and rape requires a multifaceted approach, including education, policy changes, and societal attitudes, making it a complex and challenging issue to address. 6. Underreporting: Due to various reasons such as fear of retaliation, lack of trust in authorities, or self-blame, many cases of child sexual abuse and rape go unreported, making it difficult to prevent future incidents. 7. Limited access to services: Some communities may lack access to adequate support services for victims of child sexual abuse and rape, further complicating prevention efforts. Addressing these concerns requires a comprehensive and coordinated effort involving multiple stakeholders, including government agencies, educational institutions, healthcare providers, and community organizations. 96. Describe direct instruction and cognitive (or strategy) approaches to the remediation of learning disabilities. Answer: Direct instruction and cognitive (or strategy) approaches are two common methods used in the remediation of learning disabilities. Here's a description of each: 1. Direct Instruction: Direct instruction is a systematic and explicit teaching method that involves breaking down skills into smaller, more manageable parts and teaching them sequentially. This approach emphasizes teacher-led instruction, active student participation, and frequent feedback. Direct instruction is often used to teach basic academic skills, such as reading, writing, and math, to students with learning disabilities. It is characterized by: • Structured lessons: Lessons are carefully planned and structured to introduce new concepts or skills in a logical sequence. • Modeling: Teachers provide clear examples and demonstrations of how to perform a task or solve a problem. • Guided practice: Students are given opportunities to practice new skills with support and guidance from the teacher. • Feedback: Teachers provide immediate and specific feedback to students to correct errors and reinforce learning. 2. Cognitive (or Strategy) Approaches: Cognitive approaches to remediation focus on improving underlying cognitive processes, such as memory, attention, and problem-solving skills, that may be impaired in students with learning disabilities. These approaches aim to teach students strategies for learning and thinking that can help them compensate for their difficulties. Cognitive approaches often involve: • Metacognitive strategies: Teaching students to be aware of their own thinking processes and to use strategies such as planning, monitoring, and evaluating their learning. • Compensatory strategies: Teaching students alternative ways to approach tasks or solve problems, such as using mnemonic devices or visual aids. • Explicit instruction: Providing clear and explicit instruction on how to use specific strategies, and giving students opportunities to practice and apply these strategies in different contexts. Both direct instruction and cognitive approaches can be effective in remediating learning disabilities, and a combination of these approaches is often used to address the diverse needs of students with learning disabilities. The key is to provide individualized instruction that targets the specific needs and strengths of each student. 97. List and describe the areas of assessment proposed by Taylor (1989). Answer: Taylor (1989) proposed several areas of assessment for individuals with learning disabilities. These areas focus on identifying the specific needs and strengths of the individual to inform intervention and support. Here are the areas of assessment proposed by Taylor: 1. Cognitive Assessment: This involves assessing intellectual functioning, including abilities such as reasoning, problem-solving, memory, and processing speed. Cognitive assessment helps identify the individual's cognitive strengths and weaknesses. 2. Academic Achievement Assessment: This assesses the individual's academic skills in areas such as reading, writing, math, and spelling. It helps identify areas of academic difficulty and guides intervention planning. 3. Information Processing Assessment: This assesses how the individual processes information, including attention, memory, and executive functioning skills. Information processing assessment helps identify underlying cognitive processes that may impact learning. 4. Social-Emotional Assessment: This assesses the individual's social and emotional functioning, including social skills, behavior, and self-regulation. Social-emotional assessment helps identify factors that may impact the individual's learning and well-being. 5. Adaptive Behavior Assessment: This assesses the individual's adaptive skills, such as communication, daily living skills, and socialization. Adaptive behavior assessment helps identify areas where the individual may need support in everyday life. 6. Environmental Assessment: This assesses the individual's learning environment, including home, school, and community settings. Environmental assessment helps identify environmental factors that may impact the individual's learning and behavior. 7. Functional Assessment: This assesses the individual's ability to perform specific tasks or activities. Functional assessment helps identify areas where the individual may need support to achieve functional independence. 8. Transition Assessment: This assesses the individual's readiness for transitions, such as from school to post-secondary education or employment. Transition assessment helps identify goals and supports needed for successful transitions. By conducting assessments in these areas, professionals can develop a comprehensive understanding of the individual's strengths and needs, which can inform intervention planning and support the individual's overall development and well-being. 98. Describe federal mandates for the education of students with handicaps, especially those of IDEA, and how students with learning disabilities have been affected. Answer: The federal mandates for the education of students with handicaps, particularly under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), have had a significant impact on the education of students with learning disabilities. IDEA is a federal law that mandates the provision of special education services to eligible students with disabilities. Here's a description of IDEA and its impact on students with learning disabilities: 1. Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE): IDEA guarantees students with disabilities the right to a free appropriate public education. This means that eligible students are entitled to special education and related services designed to meet their unique needs at no cost to the parents. 2. Individualized Education Program (IEP): IDEA requires schools to develop an individualized education program (IEP) for each eligible student with a disability. The IEP is a written plan that outlines the student's educational goals, the services and supports they will receive, and how progress will be measured. 3. Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): IDEA mandates that students with disabilities be educated in the least restrictive environment appropriate to their needs. This means that students should be placed in general education classrooms to the maximum extent possible, with appropriate supports and services. 4. Procedural Safeguards: IDEA includes procedural safeguards to protect the rights of students with disabilities and their parents. These safeguards include the right to participate in IEP meetings, the right to receive prior written notice before any change in placement or services, and the right to dispute resolution through mediation or due process. 5. Transition Services: IDEA requires schools to provide transition services to help students with disabilities prepare for life after high school. These services may include vocational training, job placement assistance, and independent living skills training. Students with learning disabilities have been greatly affected by IDEA, as it has provided them with legal rights and protections that ensure they receive the specialized instruction and support they need to succeed in school. IDEA has also led to increased awareness and understanding of learning disabilities, leading to more effective interventions and support for students with these disabilities. 99. How are learning disabilities being handled in the educational system? Consider controversies about special education, appropriate educational settings, and inclusion. Answer: Learning disabilities are handled in the educational system through a combination of specialized instruction, individualized support, and accommodations. However, there are several controversies surrounding the education of students with learning disabilities, including debates about special education, appropriate educational settings, and inclusion. Here's an overview: 1. Special Education: One controversy revolves around the effectiveness and implementation of special education programs for students with learning disabilities. Some argue that special education segregates students and stigmatizes them, while others believe it provides necessary support and tailored instruction. 2. Appropriate Educational Settings: There is debate about the most appropriate educational setting for students with learning disabilities. Some advocate for full inclusion in general education classrooms, arguing that it promotes socialization and access to the general curriculum. Others argue that some students may benefit from more specialized instruction in separate classrooms or schools. 3. Inclusion: Inclusion is the practice of educating students with disabilities in general education classrooms alongside their non-disabled peers to the maximum extent possible. While inclusion is supported by IDEA and promotes integration and acceptance, there are concerns about whether it adequately meets the needs of students with learning disabilities and whether it places undue burden on teachers and schools. Overall, the handling of learning disabilities in the educational system involves balancing the need for specialized support with the goal of inclusion and access to the general curriculum. The debate continues about the most effective approaches and settings for educating students with learning disabilities. Test Bank for Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology Rita Wicks-Nelson, Allen C. Israel 9781317351344, 9780205036066, 9780205901128
Download
Close
Close
