CH-10 Buying and Disposing – Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being : Book Guide

Chapter 10 Buying and Disposing CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When students finish this chapter they should: •Understand that many factors at the time of purchase dramatically influence the consumer’s decision-making process. •Understand that other people in the shopping context can influence a purchase decision. •Understand that perceptions of time and consumer responses to this can be influenced by altering aspects of the physical context. •Understand that factors such as the retail setting, store image, atmospherics, and salesperson can impact consumer decision making. •Understand that marketers need to be concerned about a consumer’s evaluations of a product after he or she buys it as well as before the purchase takes place. •Understand that one emerging trend involves temporary ownership or usage of consumer goods. •Understand that disposing of products when consumers no longer need or want them is a major concern both to marketers and to public policymakers. CHAPTER SUMMARY •The act of purchase can be affected by many factors. These include the consumer’s antecedent state (mood), whether the consumer is under time pressure or not, and disposition toward shopping. Time is an important resource that often determines how much effort and search will go into a decision. •The usage context of a product can be a basis for segmentation. Consumers look for different product attributes depending on the uses to which they intend to put their purchases. The presence or absence of other people—and the types of people they are—can also affect a consumer’s decisions. •In many cases retailing is like theatre; that is, the consumer’s evaluation of stores and products may depend on the type of “performance” he or she witnesses. This evaluation can be influenced by the actors (salespeople), the setting (the store environment), and the props (store displays). A store image, like a brand personality, is determined by a number of factors, such as perceived convenience, sophistication, knowledge of salespeople, and so on. •Because many purchase decisions are not made until the consumer is actually in the store, point-of-purchase (POP) stimuli are important sales tools. These include product samples, elaborate package displays, place-based media, and in-store promotional materials, such as “shelf talkers.” POP stimuli are particularly useful in stimulating impulse buying, where a consumer yields to a sudden urge for a product. •The consumer’s encounter with a salesperson is a complex and important process. The outcome can be affected by such factors as the salesperson’s similarity to the customer and his or her perceived credibility. •Consumer satisfaction is determined by the person’s overall feeling toward the product after purchase. Many factors influence perceptions of product quality, including price, brand name, and product performance. Satisfaction is often determined by the degree to which a product’s performance is consistent with the consumer’s prior expectations of how well it will function. •Product disposal is an increasingly important problem. Recycling is one option that will continue to be stressed as consumers’ environmental awareness grows. Products may also be introduced by consumers into secondary markets during a process of lateral cycling, which occurs when objects are sold second-hand, fenced, or bartered. LECTURE/DISCUSSION IDEAS XI. INTRODUCTION – Buying and disposing process II. SITUATIONAL EFFECTS ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR – Can either be behavioural (entertaining friends) or perceptual (being depressed). ‘Who am I right now?’ o Day reconstruction method – Used to track mood changes Class Interaction Opportunity: How is furniture designed differently for homes, lake cabins, and university residences? Why is the furniture different?  Hallmark Cards owes much of its success to identifying situations that merit the purchase of a greeting card. As a way to smooth out demand between holidays, the company created non-occasion cards for both kids and adults. For example: "You’re getting a card and it’s not even your birthday! That’s because you don’t have to have a birthday to be special to me. I love you ALL the time!i  Many situational factors affect the market for sporting goods retailers.ii Class Interaction Opportunity: How might you change the image of Nestlé’s Quik, repackage it, and sell it to different markets. (Note: For all practical purposes this has already been done--it is called Sego, Slim Fast or Instant Breakfast.) A. Physical and Social Surroundings – Both determine motives for product usage o Co-Consumers •Presence or absence of other customers can be positive or negative •Crowds can make the experience more intense •Store customers can serve as a store attribute (e.g., people tend to shop where other shoppers are like them) •Crowd can make a dull situation exciting Class Interaction Opportunity: What goes through your mind when you go to a new restaurant and there are empty tables everywhere? B. Temporal Factors – ‘Making time;’ ‘spending time;’ ‘time is money’ 1. Economic time – An economic variable that must be divided among activities, e.g., there are workaholics and those who play all the time  Consumers can be characterized in terms of their pattern of time allocation or timestyle. •Time poverty – About 1/3 of Americans say they feel rushed •Polychronicity – Doing more than one thing at a time (eat while watching TV) Class Interaction Opportunity: Do “waiting lines” exist on the Internet? When do you have to wait? Is it irritating? How can it be overcome? 2. Psychological time – Experience of time is subjective and influenced by immediate priorities and needs •Categories of time – When people are likely to be receptive to marketing messages •Flow time – so absorbed in an activity that nothing else is noticed •Occasion time – ads that are relevant to special moments •Deadline time – worst time to catch attention •Leisure time – more likely to notice ads or try new things •Time to kill – more receptive to commercial messages while waiting •Metaphors – Specifically those that capture perspectives on time •Time is a…pressure cooker; map; mirror; river; feast •Society’s differ on time perspectives – Western societies have linear, separable time where events proceed in an orderly sequence •Queuing theory – the mathematical study of waiting lines •Distracting the consumer to shorten the apparent wait time: •Hotels put mirrors by elevators •Self-service •Time-of-Day – Some products and services are associated with time of day, e.g., coffee and cereal in the morning, wine with dinner, dancing at night C. Antecedent States: If It Feels Good, Buy It – Mood or physiological condition can affect purchases •Everyone is Irish on St. Patrick’s Day •Eat before going to the supermarket or you’ll buy more o Mood – Pleasure and arousal; we like things better when we are in a positive mood (crowds at Mardi Gras but not crowds at a riot); weather, store design, music, and television programming affect our moods Class Interaction Opportunity: If you were a salesperson, when would be the best time to sell to you? D. Shopping: A Job or an Adventure? – Functional, pleasurable, tangible, and intangible reasons 1. Reason for shopping o Hedonic shopping motives include: •Social experiences: the shopping center is the community gathering place •Sharing of common interests: specialty shops •Interpersonal attraction: shopping mall is a teenage hangout •Instant status: salespeople wait on you •Thrill of the chase: some like to haggle and bargain o Shopping orientations include: •Economic consumer: rational, goal-oriented shopper (e.g., most for your money) •Personalized consumer: attraction to store personnel (e.g., Cheers, ‘where everybody knows your name’) •Ethical consumer: likes the underdog (e.g., supports locally owned stores) •Apathetic consumer: doesn’t like to shop (e.g., it’s an unpleasant chore) •Recreational shopper: it’s a fun, social activity (e.g., likes watching people) Class Interaction Opportunity: In which shopping orientation category would you put yourself? Your closest friend? Mom? Dad? 2. E-Commerce: Clicks versus Bricks – experience is different offline versus online; pros and cons of e-commerce •Online shoppers value these aspects of a website: • the ability to click on an item to create a pop-up window with more details • the ability to click on an item and add it to your cart without leaving the page • the ability to merchandise more tangibly • The ability to enter all data related to your purchase on one page • The ability to mix and match product images E. Retailing as Theatre – Malls are becoming giant entertainment centres; four basic kinds of themes: •Landscape themes – associations with nature •Marketplace themes – associations with man-made places •Cyberspace themes – associations with information and communication technology •Being space – converting a store into a commercial living room Class Interaction Opportunity: Is there a mall or a store or a shopping district that you like to go to even if you don't want to buy something? What is the attraction? F. Store Image – Stores have personalities o Store gestalt – Overall feeling toward the store (e.g., fantastic! The pits!) 1. The shifting retail landscape – Grocery stores and discounters are starting to stock items traditionally found in pharmacies and vice versa 2. Atmospherics – Conscious design of space to appeal to customer (colour, sounds, smells, décor, lighting) Class Interaction Opportunity: How do you describe the atmosphere at Wal-Mart? McDonald's? The college or university library? A local pub? A local fancy restaurant? Do you think the atmosphere accomplishes what is it supposed to?  A study conducted in a wine store found that brighter in-store lighting led shoppers to examine more of the store's merchandise.iii G. In-Store Decision Making – 2 out of 3 supermarket decisions are made in the aisles 1. Spontaneous shopping o Unplanned buying – Recognition of a new need while in the store o Impulse buying – Sudden urge can’t resist (candy at checkout counter) o Planning versus impulse shopping •Planners: know specific products and brands •Partial planners: know products but choose brand in the store •Impulse purchasers: do no advance planning whatsoever Class Interaction Opportunity: When it comes to shopping, would you describe yourself as a planner, partial planner, or an impulse buyer? Why? 2. Point-of-Purchase stimuli – Impulse purchases increase 10% with POP displays (e.g., demonstrations, free samples, coupon-dispensing machine, music, audio ads) Class Interaction Opportunity: Have students describe some interesting or unique POP materials that they have seen. Do they think it is ethical to put marketing materials in restrooms?  In-store advertising is a relatively new addition to POP techniques. Wal-Mart has been using it in the US since 2000 and we are likely to continue to see more of it. In-store ads are timely; and like other POP stimuli, they reach people as they are about to make a purchase. However, in-store ads have to be particularly attention-getting because shoppers are there to shop, not to watch TV, and the environment is very busy. Customized ads that hold attention for the full 30 seconds as customers walk by is a creative challenge. H. The Salesperson – The most important in-store factor  People from different cultures may stress certain attributes at the bargaining table. Research suggests that French negotiators are influenced by the personal characteristics of their counterparts across the table (especially that person’s similarity to themselves), and the British tend to emphasize status or role. In contrast, these factors do not sway Americans as much. They are more affected by the actual conditions during negotiations and stress the importance of problem solving and information exchange. Chinese negotiators tend to be extremely competitive, while in Japan sellers defer to buyers and tend to reciprocate when offers of cooperation are made.iv o Resource exchange – What do I want from the salesperson? (Expertise, reassurance, trustworthiness, proper appearance, age and gender, attractive) o The sales interaction – Between seller and buyer •The seller’s age, appearance, education level, and motivation to sell will have an effect on the buyer’s confidence in the seller •The seller’s knowledge of the customers’ traits, preferences, needs and wants •Some buyers are assertive and aggressive while others are timid Class Interaction Opportunity: What stores do you like to go to because you like the salespeople? What do you like about them? What are some of the stores you hate to shop at due to the salespeople? What don't you like about them? 1. Has it destroyed customer service? – Voice activated response systems III. POSTPURCHASE SATISFACTION – Overall feelings or attitude after the purchase A. Perceptions of Product Quality – Determined by price, brand name, advertising, warranties, follow-up letters, or phone calls; quality is meaningless if everyone can have it! Class Interaction Opportunity: What are some products you buy that you insist on getting the highest quality? What are some products you buy where "less than the best" is all right? Why do you think you decided this? •Expectancy disconfirmation model – Prior expectations on the level of quality influences satisfaction  A study of major appliance purchases found that 33 percent of those consumers who were satisfied with the brand they bought repurchased that brand at a later time. In contrast, only 7 percent of dissatisfied customers stuck with the same brand. Further, between 17 percent and 25 percent of major appliance purchases resulted in dissatisfaction. A manufacturer with a market share of 5 percent would thus lose $31 million if dissatisfaction with its products were equal to the industry average.v B. Acting on Dissatisfaction – Three different courses of action •Voice response: speak directly to retailer •Private response: tell my friends about the dissatisfaction (boycott) •Third party response: Better Business Bureau, letter-to-the-editor, lawsuit Class Interaction Opportunity: What do you usually do when you are dissatisfied with a product or service? Class Interaction Opportunity: Consumers often assume that booking airline tickets and hotel rooms on the Internet will give them greater satisfaction, not only in price, but in quality. Yet anecdotes suggest that prices may be lower when bookings are made by telephone, and that individual hotels resent low-priced bookings. C. The Real Value of Happy Customers – Telling others D. Total Quality Management: Going to the Gemba – Gemba in Japanese means one true source of information; complex set of management and engineering procedures aimed at reducing errors and increasing quality E. The Evolution of Product Ownership – Trend away from purchase and ownership to temporary, shared, and experiences •Transumer – opting for the above rather than acquiring tangible goods IV. PRODUCT DISPOSAL – Some people have more trouble with this than others: ‘pack rats’ A. Disposal Options o Keep the item: move it to attic, basement, or garage o Temporarily dispose of it: lend it to someone (kids in college or university) o Permanently dispose of it: give it away, sell it (e.g., garage sale, kijiji), trash Class Interaction Opportunity: What do you and your family usually do with products they no longer use? •Recycling – The ‘throw away’ society but we may be slowly changing our attitudes (e.g., ‘avoid filling up landfills,’ ‘save the environment,’ ‘reduce waste,’ ‘provide for future generations’)  See reference for a discussion and analysis of recycling behaviour among Danish consumers.vi  One telephone survey found that women were more likely to participate in recycling activities than were male respondents. This finding can be used to stimulate discussion about decision-making dynamics in families regarding recycling.vii B. Lateral Cycling: Junk versus ‘Junque’ – Trash man will no longer take ‘everything you want to throw away,’ thus more second-hand sales and purchases (e.g., flea markets, garage sales, classified ads, hand-me-downs, used-merchandise stores, antique stores) •Divestment rituals – consumers take steps to gradually distance themselves from things they treasure; use of professional organizers Class Interaction Opportunity: Have students discuss experiences they have had buying/selling items on eBay, Kijiji, Craigs List or other sites. What effect do they think such sites have had on the economy? END-OF-CHAPTER SUPPORT MATERIAL Summary of Special Feature Boxes 1. Marketing Insight I: Personalization via Technology This box discusses how marketers are using technology to adapt to different consumption situations, using McDonalds and billboards as examples. 2. CB As I See It Dr. Kelley Main, University of Manitoba conducts research on how consumers perceive salespeople, finding that consumers are overly suspicious in retail settings and view salesclerks negatively due to unconscious perceptions of ulterior motives, and consumers will view their purchase more positively if salespeople don’t attempt to flatter them, regardless of when the flattery takes place. 3. Marketing Insight II: Time Poverty Consumers are increasingly feeling a sense of time poverty and this box presents creative ways marketers are dealing with this issue. The restaurant and grocery industry using smartphone technologies are highlighted as examples to save customers time. 4. Marketing Insight III: Digitally Enhancing Disneyland Disney is using smartphone technologies and this box shows how they employ such technologies to enhance the consumer experience. 5. Marketing Insight IV: Virtual Currency In this box the topic of virtual currency is put in the spotlight. Electronic devices permit individuals to make electronic commerce transactions. A lot of this activity is propelled by the spread of near field communications (NFC) technology that allows devices near to one another (like a smartphone and a NFC terminal in a store) to establish radio communication. Various examples are provided. 6. Marketing Insight V: Being Space This box examines the popular theming strategy known as being space. This kind of environment resembles a commercial living room, where consumers can go to relax, be entertained, hang out with friends, escape the everyday, or even learn. Various examples such as Starbucks probably comes to mind. 7. Marketing Insight VI: Customer Dissatisfaction in a Digital Age In a world where consumers have multiple avenues to communicate their dissatisfaction to others, encouraging post-purchase satisfaction becomes increasingly important. 8. Consumers in Focus I: Product Disposal In general, and particularly relevant to quickly obsolete technology changes, how to dispose of products has become a big concern for consumers and companies. Some current practices for dealing with product waste are presented as examples in this box. 9. Consumers in Focus II: Ex-Boyfriend Jewelry Consistent with new needs for product disposal, this box provides an example of www.exboyfriendjewelry.com, which provides an outlet for getting rid of unwanted jewelry and sharing experiences. Review Questions 1. What is meant by the situational self-image? Give an example of this phenomenon. Answer: A reason to take environmental circumstances seriously is that the role a person plays at any one time is partly determined by his situational self-image—he basically asks: “Who am I right now?” 2. Describe the difference between density and crowding. Why is this difference relevant in purchase environments? Answer: Density term refers to the actual number of people occupying a space although the psychological state of crowding exists only if a negative affective state occurs as a result of this density. 3. What is time poverty, and how can it influence our purchase decisions? Answer: Many consumers believe they are more pressed for time than ever before. Time poverty refers to the feeling of having insufficient time to meet all obligations and desires. This can influence purchase decisions by leading people to prioritize convenience, often opting for more expensive, time-saving options like prepared meals or premium services. It can also drive impulsive buying, as individuals may seek quick solutions to their time constraints. 4. What are the two dimensions that determine whether we will react positively or negatively to a purchase environment? Answer: Pleasure—–a person can enjoy or not enjoy a situation, and arousal—he can feel stimulated or not. 5. List three separate motivations for shopping, giving an example of each. Answer: Social experiences: the shopping center or department store has replaced the traditional town square or county fair as a community gathering place. Sharing of common interests: stores frequently offer specialized goods that allow people with shared interests to communicate. Interpersonal attraction: shopping centers are a natural place to congregate. The shopping mall has become a central “hangout” for teenagers. Instant status: as every salesperson knows, some people savor the experience of being waited on, even though they may not necessarily buy anything. The thrill of the hunt: some people pride themselves on being able to find the best bargains. 6. What are some important pros and cons of e-commerce? Answer: Numerous benefits and limitations of e-commerce are listed in the text for both the consumer and the marketer. 7. List three factors that help to determine store image. Answer: Colour, scents, and sounds. 8. What is the difference between unplanned buying and impulse buying? Answer: Unplanned buying may occur when a person is unfamiliar with a store’s layout or perhaps when under some time pressure; or, a person may be reminded to buy something by seeing it on a store shelf. In contrast, impulse buying occurs when the person experiences a sudden urge he cannot resist. 9. How do a consumer’s prior expectations about product quality influence his satisfaction with the product after he buys it? Answer: Consumers form beliefs about product performance based on prior experience with the product and/or communications about the product that imply a certain level of quality. When something performs the way we thought it would, we may not think much about it. If it fails to live up to expectations, negative feelings may result. On the other hand if performance happens to exceed our expectations, we are satisfied and pleased. 10. List three actions a consumer can take if he is dissatisfied with a purchase. Answer: Voice response: the consumer can appeal directly to the retailer for redress (e.g., a refund). Private response: express dissatisfaction about the store or product to friends and/or boycott the store. As we’ll discuss later in the text, negative word-of- mouth (WOM) can be very damaging to a store’s reputation. Third-party response: the consumer can take legal action against the merchant, register a complaint with the Better Business Bureau, or perhaps write a letter to the newspaper. 11. What is lateral cycling and why is it important to marketing? Answer: Lateral cycling occurs when already purchased goods are sold to others or exchanged. These are important alternate marketing systems that operate informally. Consumers are interested in the resale value of their products and will consider this value as a factor when purchasing a product. Also, consumers are becoming more interested in purchasing used products, which may reduce the number of new products purchased. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR CHALLENGE Discussion Questions 1. Is the customer always right? Why or why not? Answer: Use this question in conjunction with the section on Post-Purchase Satisfaction to direct students to concepts that would govern whether or not the customer should always be treated as though they are right. The customer is not always right, as their demands can sometimes be unreasonable or harmful to the business. However, prioritizing customer satisfaction is crucial for maintaining good relationships and loyalty. Balancing customer needs with business integrity ensures a sustainable approach to customer service. 2. Discuss some of the motivations for shopping as described in the chapter. How might a retailer adjust his or her strategy to accommodate these motivations? Answer: Shopping motives listed in the chapter are: 1) functional and tangible needs, 2) pleasurable and intangible reasons, 3) social experiences, 4) sharing of common interests, 5) interpersonal attraction, 6) instant status, and 7) “the thrill of the chase.” Shopping is a way of acquiring needed products as well as satisfying some important social need. Retailers might adjust their strategies to accommodate these motives by creating a theme environment, like that of the Banana Republic. They might offer additional complementary services-for example, a tanning salon might include manicures, massages, and makeovers. Encourage your students to think of specific examples appropriate for their favourite stores. 3. What are some positive and negative aspects of requiring employees who interact with customers to wear some kind of uniform or to mandate a dress code in the office? Answer: Employee uniforms will impact the overall image and atmospherics of some retail outlets. The positive aspects of requiring employees who interact with customers to wear some kind of uniform or to mandate a dress code in the office include: 1) portraying a professional image, 2) helping employees to feel “equal” in terms of dress, and 3) making it easier for customer to identify employees of the business. The negative aspects include some employees might feel uncomfortable in some uniforms, others may feel their “freedom” of apparel (to look good) is being limited, and employees may also feel their individuality is being restricted. Students should quite easily identify examples of some jobs or professions that require uniforms (e.g., police, firefighters, nurses, priests, McDonald's staff.) 4. Think about exceptionally good and bad salespeople you have encountered in the past. What qualities seem to differentiate them? Answer: The instructor might ask students to recall the last time they went shopping. In the context of that shopping trip, students should describe the characteristics of the salespeople who assisted them. The instructor, or a member of the class, should generate a list of the most common traits mentioned and use the class discussion to profile both good and bad salespeople. The students also should be encouraged to consider the text discussion of source credibility, including such characteristics as similarity, attractiveness, expertise, trustworthiness, likeability, etc. Exceptionally good salespeople are typically knowledgeable, attentive, and empathetic, understanding customer needs and providing personalized solutions. They exhibit strong communication skills and integrity, fostering trust. In contrast, bad salespeople often seem pushy, indifferent, or poorly informed, focusing more on making a sale than on meeting the customer's needs, which can lead to a negative experience. 5. Discuss the concept of time style. Based on your own experiences, how might consumers be segmented in terms of their time styles? Answer: The concept of “time style” reflects how individuals allocate their time to various activities. You might want to discuss your own time style with the class and encourage students to do the same. A discussion of how consumers might be segmented on the basis of their time styles should be included. Products that benefit from different time styles also could be discussed. For example: how much time do you spend teaching, grading papers, researching, doing university and community service. How much time do you spend with your family, doing household chores, eating, sleeping, exercising, having fun, etc. 6. Several men’s clothing retailers nationwide now provide free booze to their male clientele to encourage them to hang out in their stores. Is it ethical to encourage customers to get wasted before they shop? Answer: The instructor could ask students to share any experiences that they have had with this tactic. Why would a retailer use this tactic? What are the negative implications of offering free alcohol to customers? What safeguards could retailers implement? Encouraging customers to consume alcohol before shopping raises ethical concerns. It can impair judgment, leading to potentially regrettable purchases and financial decisions. While offering a drink can enhance the shopping experience, promoting excessive drinking to influence buying behavior crosses ethical boundaries and could result in legal liabilities for the retailer. 7. How is the internet changing the buying behaviour of consumers? Trends such as the sharing economy and creative ways of recycling create many opportunities for marketers. Can you identify some? Answer: Student answers will vary but most will have some direct experience in this area. A common example of this is car co-ops such as Car2Go and Zipcar. Another example is Bag, Borrow, or Steal, a website that allows fashion-conscious females to temporarily rent a high-end designer purse. They don’t have to spend thousands of dollars, and can update and rotate the item with the outfit or the season as desired. Other industries, including transportation (Uber), hospitality (Airbnb), and even errand running (Task Rabbit), have successfully leveraged the sharing economy. The internet is changing consumer buying behavior by increasing access to information, enabling comparison shopping, and facilitating online reviews. The sharing economy, like Uber and Airbnb, offers convenience and cost savings, while recycling trends inspire eco-friendly products and services. Marketers can capitalize on these trends by promoting sustainability, leveraging social proof, and creating innovative, community-driven offerings. 8. Some retailers work hard to cultivate a certain look or image, and they may even choose employees who fit this look. Abercrombie & Fitch, for example, seems to link itself to a clean-cut, all-American image. A federal lawsuit filed in 2003 claimed that Abercrombie & Fitch systematically “refuses to hire qualified minority applicants as brand representatives to work on the sales floor and discourages applications from minority applicants.” Abercrombie has said the complaints are without merit, and that the company has “zero tolerance for discrimination.” We know the Hooters restaurant chain is known for its attractive female waitresses. Should a retailer have the right to recruit employees who are consistent with its image even if this means excluding certain types of people (e.g. non-Caucasians, men) from the sales floor? Answer: Traditionally, the law has allowed for hiring people with a certain look or body type if it can be proven that this is a necessary component of the product or service. For example, airlines can refuse to hire flight personnel that exceed a weight and size limitation (or terminate them if they exceed the limitations after being hired) because there is limited space to work on the airplanes. Ethnic restaurants can choose to only hire people of that ethnicity. Modeling agencies and movie/TV production companies make hiring decisions based almost exclusively on the way people look. However, for many chains such as Abercrombie & Fitch, it is difficult to justify this link. And in a case such as theirs, they would be unwise to attempt such a link for reasons of public perception. Since this lawsuit, Abercrombie & Fitch has implemented personnel policies to ensure that this problem will be eliminated. Retailers can curate their brand image to align with their marketing strategies, but they must balance this with non-discrimination laws. Excluding individuals based on race, gender, or other protected characteristics violates equal employment opportunity regulations. While companies have the right to influence their brand image, they must do so without engaging in discriminatory practices. 9. The mall of the future will most likely be less about purchasing products than exploring them in a physical setting. This means that retail environments will have to become places to build brand images, rather than just places to sell products. What are some strategies stores can use to enhance the emotional/sensory experiences of their customers? Answer: Students will likely focus on strategies being used by large retailers, including the swank environments in new malls (leather furniture, premium floor coverings, HD big- screen monitors, fountains and landscaping, high-end play areas, and family bathrooms). But they may be reminded of the many themed restaurants that have opened (including those that feature attractions like live high-divers). Stores can enhance emotional and sensory experiences by incorporating immersive environments with interactive displays, engaging store layouts, and personalized service. They can also use sensory elements like music, scents, and lighting to create memorable atmospheres. Offering hands-on experiences and events can further deepen customer engagement and strengthen brand connections. 10. The store environment is heating up, as more and more companies put their promotional dollars into point-of-purchase efforts. Shoppers are now often confronted with visual programming at the checkout counter, computer monitors attached to their shopping carts, and so on. We’re increasingly exposed to ads in non-shopping environments. Do you feel that these innovations are overly intrusive? At what point might shoppers “rebel” and demand some peace and quiet while shopping? Do you see any market potential in the future for stores that counter market by promising a hands-off shopping environment? Answer: Student opinions will vary based on their knowledge/experience and feelings/beliefs about place-based media. Students might also be asked to consider a more objective opinion, in light of what they have learned from this course. They should be challenged to view the advantages and disadvantages of these practices from the perspectives of both consumers and retailers. Innovations in point-of-purchase advertising can be intrusive, potentially overwhelming shoppers with constant stimuli. As consumers seek more tranquil and focused shopping experiences, there could be a growing demand for stores that offer a peaceful, less cluttered environment. Future market potential exists for retailers that emphasize simplicity and minimalism, catering to those who prefer a hands-off shopping experience. 11. Court cases in recent years have attempted to prohibit special interest groups from distributing literature in shopping malls. Mall managers' claims that these centers are private property. On the other hand, these groups argue that the mall is a modern- day version of the town square, and as such is a public forum. What is the current status of the mall as a public forum? Do you agree with this concept? Answer: One view: the mall can be considered a private space into which the public is invited to partake of services. Unlike the “town hall”, which is publicly-owned and operated, the consumer citizens do not have the same rights. Another view: with a bona fide invitation to the public to enter a mall should come citizen rights to free speech, etc. Experiential Exercises 12. Conduct naturalistic observation at a local mall. Sit in a central location and observe the activities of mall employees and patrons. Keep a log of the non-retailing activity you observe (e.g., special performances, exhibits, socializing, etc.). Does this activity enhance or detract from business conducted at the mall? As malls become more like high-tech game rooms, how valid is the criticism raised that shopping areas are only encouraging more loitering by teenage boys, who don’t spend a lot in stores and simply scare away other customers? Answer: Now that students have been exposed to a variety of consumer behaviour constructs, they are likely to see things in the retail context that they didn’t notice before. They will probably notice a wide variety of non-retailing activities in the mall. Encourage students to think about the advantages and disadvantages of these other activities from both the consumers’ and retailers’ points of view. Encourage students to develop a specific plan for dealing with teenage loitering that would work, be legal, and would not interfere with normal store and mall traffic. Students might interview mall officials or security officers to get their viewpoint about loitering. (Possible Field Project Idea) Observing a local mall might reveal that non-retailing activities like special performances and social events can enhance the mall’s appeal, attracting diverse crowds and increasing foot traffic. However, the rise of high-tech, entertainment-focused environments may indeed lead to more loitering, particularly among teenagers, who might not contribute significantly to sales. This can sometimes deter other shoppers, affecting the overall shopping experience and potentially diminishing retail revenues. 13. Select three competing clothing stores in your area and conduct a store image study for each. Ask a group of consumers to rate each store on a set of attributes and plot these ratings on the same graph. Based on your findings, are there any areas of competitive advantage or disadvantage you could bring to the attention of store management? Answer: Students should review the section on store image (including Atmospherics) before beginning this exercise. You might encourage the students to select stores that are very different from each other rather than “direct competitors.” Consider using this as an opportunity to discuss the strengths and weakness of this type of market research. (Possible Field Project Idea). Non-retailing activities like performances can boost mall traffic and appeal, creating a vibrant atmosphere. However, high-tech and entertainment-focused setups may attract loitering teenagers who don’t spend much, potentially deterring other shoppers and impacting sales. Balancing engaging activities with effective crowd management is crucial for maintaining a positive shopping environment and maximizing revenue. 14. What applications of queuing theory can you find employed among local services? Interview consumers who are waiting on lines to determine how (if at all) this experience affects their satisfaction with the service. Answer: Students should consider the explanation of queuing theory—the mathematical study of waiting in lines—as part of the psychological time construct. As suggested, a consumer’s experience of waiting can radically influence his or her perception of service quality. Although we assume that something must be pretty good if we have to wait for it, the negative feelings aroused by long waits can quickly discourage consumers. Lines at movie theaters, restaurants, ticket booths, and university class registration all provide contexts in which students might investigate the psychology of time. (Possible Field Project Idea). Non-retailing activities like performances can enhance mall appeal and increase foot traffic. However, high-tech features may attract loitering teenagers who don't contribute significantly to sales, possibly deterring other shoppers. Balancing engaging events with effective crowd management is essential to maintaining a positive shopping environment and ensuring revenue growth. 15. New interactive tools are being introduced that allow surfers on sites such as www.landsend.com to view apparel product selections on virtual models in full, 360- degree, rotational view. In some cases the viewer can modify the bodies, face, skin colouring, and hairstyles of these models. In others, the consumer can project his or her own likeness into the space by scanning a photo into a “makeover” program. Visit www.landsend.com or another site that offers a personalized mannequin. Surf around. Try on some clothes. How was your experience? How helpful was this mannequin? When you shop for clothes online, would you rather see how they look on a body with dimensions the same as yours or on a different body? What advice can you give website designers who are trying to personalize these shopping environments by creating lifelike models to guide you through the site? Answer: Many students, particularly those who are familiar with personalized mannequins, will derive a great deal of value from this method. Others simply will not see the point. Using virtual mannequins on sites like www.landsend.com can enhance the online shopping experience by allowing you to see how clothes might fit and look on various body types. Seeing items on models with dimensions similar to yours is often more helpful, as it provides a better sense of fit. Website designers should focus on accuracy and user-friendly features, such as clear customization options and realistic visuals, to create a more personalized and effective shopping environment. 16. Interview people who are selling items at a flea market or garage sale. Ask them to identify some items to which they had a strong attachment. Then, see if you can prompt them to describe one or more divestment rituals they went through as they prepared to offer these items for sale. Answer: Student results will depend entirely on the outcomes that they receive from respondents. Interviewing sellers at a flea market or garage sale often reveals strong emotional ties to certain items. Sellers might describe divestment rituals such as reminiscing over the item's history, taking photos to remember it by, or carefully cleaning it before sale. These rituals help them process the emotional transition of parting with cherished belongings. 17. Identify three people who own an electric coffeemaker. Then, “go to the gemba” by observing them as they actually prepare coffee in the appliance at home. Based on what you observe, what recommendations might you make to the designer of a new coffeemaker model that would improve customers’ experience with the product? Answer: Given the modern infatuation with coffee, responses to this will likely have something to do with upscale blends and flavors, ability to make cappuccino/espresso products, etc. Buying coffee retail is much more about the experience than the actual coffee. Home use may start to mirror this. CASE STUDY TEACHING NOTES 1. How have disposal behaviours changed in Canada? Do you think there are differences in behaviour across provinces and in rural versus urban centers? What do you anticipate for the future? Answer: People often form strong attachments to products and, as a result, the decision to dispose of something may be a difficult one. However, when a customer decides that a product is no longer of use, several choices are available. The person can (1) keep the item (2) temporarily dispose of it or (3) permanently dispose of it. Although we live in a “throwaway society” and subsequently create a significant amount of waste, there has been a recent trend towards consumer recycling behaviour. Lateral cycling, for example, allows consumers to sell and exchange already purchased objects to others. Flea markets, garage sales, Craigslist, bartering for services, hand-me-downs and the black market all represent important alternative marketing systems that allow the re-use of other people’s things. Divestment rituals also help consumers take gradual steps to distance themselves from things they treasure so that they can sell them or give them away. Consumer trends in recycling vary across provinces and in rural versus urban centers. Consumers, for example, are more likely to recycle if they are surrounded by like-minded consumers who recycle or if public policy initiatives pushes them to recycle. Provinces and rural areas that place less of an emphasis on “environment-friendly” policies or do not impose concrete/specific recycling rules (that minimize the perceived effort of recycling) will have fewer consumers that recycle. In contrast, provinces and urban areas that place a larger emphasis on “reducing waste” and impose concrete/specific recycling rules will have more consumers that recycle. Interestingly, the Internet continues to revolutionize the recycling process. As example, millions of consumers flock to online classifieds and auction pages such as Craigslist and eBay to sell and trade their “treasures.” As a result, in the future, consumers may be less bound by the “recycling habits” of the city or province in which they live and they will be able to leverage a broader system of recycling facilitated by technology. 2. Should Terryl expand her operations across Canada? If so, how should she proceed? Answer: Yes, in order to grow her business, Terryl should expand her operations across Canada. However, Terry must keep in mind that consumer trends in recycling vary across provinces as noted in Question 1. Because mattress recycling is a relatively new industry, Terryl is more likely to be successful in cities and provinces in which there is support for recycling (i.e., there are concrete and specific regulations regarding recycling). Because the perceived effort involved in recycling is lower (i.e. specific provincial policy encourages consumers to recycle), Terryl’s marketing messages should be easily processed and accepted by consumers. 3. What is the role of public policy here? Do you agree with the notion that government should play an active role in guiding sustainable consumption behaviours among the population? Why or why not? Does Terryl need favourable government policy to succeed? Explain. Answer: Because we live in a “throw away” society in which we rarely use as much as 12% of the products we buy, the issue of product disposal is vital. In fact, public policy can play a critical role in encouraging sustainable consumer behaviours. As noted in Question 2, effective public policies can help lower consumer’s perceived effort of recycling. By implementing specific/concrete ways in which consumers can recycle, public policy efforts can lower the “amount of trouble” the consumer has to go through to recycle. In addition, specific rules here link consumer’s instrumental goals to terminal values such as the “promotion of health and avoidance of sickness” or “the provision for future generations.” As a result, public policy can play a role in tapping into consumer’s underlying values and motivate them to adopt more environmentally responsible behaviours. 4. How would you convince consumers to adopt specific recycling behaviours? What positioning strategy/messaging would you utilize? What barriers exist here? How would you overcome them? Answer: Because Canadians are open to recycling behaviours if they don’t have to pay for it and if it will not take significant effort/ change their consumption patterns, Terryl could frame her marketing messages in terms of a loss frame (what consumers would lose if they did not recycle, i.e., filled up landfills, health-risk, and sickness). By pairing a loss-frame with very concrete and detailed information on how to recycle, the message would be easier for consumers to cognitively process. As a result, the perceived effort involved in recycling would be lower and people would be more likely to recycle. Conversely, Terryl could also frame her marketing messages in terms of a gain frame (what consumers would gain if they were to recycle). This may be more effective in cities and provinces where there are less specific regulations regarding recycling. By pushing consumers to think in a more abstract way about recycling (i.e., such as the environmental benefits realized), consumers would be more likely to recycle in this instance. FIELD PROJECT IDEAS Individual Assignments 1. Ask students to visit competing discount houses, supermarkets, department stores, or specialty shops in your area and describe the image they have of each store. What factors account for the image differences? For the poorest image store, design a strategy for upgrading its image. Answer: Students can analyze the image of various stores by examining factors like store layout, customer service, and product quality. For a store with the poorest image, a strategy could include updating the store’s design, improving customer service, and enhancing product selection to better align with customer expectations. 2. Have students of legal age visit a couple of nearby "watering holes." When they return to class, ask they to comment on the atmosphere at each establishment visited. Answer: Students can evaluate the atmosphere of local bars or lounges based on factors such as ambiance, service quality, and clientele. This insight helps understand how atmosphere influences customer experience and business success. 3. Ask students to dress in older clothes and visit one of the finer clothing stores in your area. Have students express an interest in trying on some clothes and observe the reaction of the store employees. Then ask students to return in a few days in better clothes and repeat the process. Have the student explain his or her observations to the class. Answer: Observing staff reactions to customers dressed differently can reveal biases in customer service. Students can discuss how appearance impacts service and how stores might improve inclusivity and customer treatment across different social groups. 4. Assign students to develop a questionnaire to measure consumer satisfaction and dissatisfaction with a durable good (such as a car, computer, or smartphone) purchased within the last year. Have students survey a few friends who bought that item and determine their level of satisfaction. See if any action was taken to resolve any dissatisfaction. What are the marketing implications? Answer: Developing a consumer satisfaction survey for durable goods helps gauge user experiences and identify common issues. Analyzing responses can reveal potential improvements and marketing strategies to address dissatisfaction and enhance product appeal. 5. Have students visit a local supermarket and question the manager regarding how shelf space is allocated. What and who determines which products are placed on the shelves, how much space they are allocated, and at what level they are displayed on the shelf? Answer: Students can ask the supermarket manager about shelf space allocation, including factors like sales volume, product margins, and supplier influence. They should understand that product placement decisions are often based on profitability, market trends, and promotional agreements. 6. Encourage students to visit three small clothing stores and assess their layouts. What differences does they observe? What factors might account for these differences? Would the student recommend any layout changes based on observation? Answer: Observing different clothing store layouts reveals variations in space utilization, product display, and customer flow. Differences might stem from store size, target market, or branding. Recommendations could include optimizing layout for better customer navigation and showcasing high-margin items. 7. Ask students to interview a complaint handler for a local department store to describe a recent experience with a dissatisfied customer. The complaint handler should explain why the customer was unhappy. Have students explore whether complainers seem to have any common traits. Answer: Interviewing a complaint handler can provide insights into common issues causing dissatisfaction and typical customer traits. Complaints might reveal patterns in customer expectations and service failures, helping improve handling strategies. 8. Ask students to relate to the class a purchase experience in which dissatisfaction resulted from the product or service purchased. Have students tell the class how he/she reacted in terms of post-purchase dissonance. How could the seller avoid future similar incidents? Answer: Students should describe a purchase experience where dissatisfaction led to post-purchase dissonance, such as regret or buyer’s remorse. They should discuss their reactions and how the seller might improve communication and quality to prevent similar issues. Team Assignments 9. Distribute to the class a list of specific products and the stores that stock those particular products. Then have students write down the name of the store where he or she would most probably go to buy that product. Have them explain their choices. Answer: Students should list preferred stores for specific products based on factors like brand loyalty, store reputation, and perceived value. They can explain their choices by considering aspects such as convenience, store atmosphere, and past shopping experiences. 10. A popular word in society is “conservation.” Many consumers have become more interested in conserving than in “throwing away.” See what ideas the class has for creative recycling. Can they figure out a way to profitably market these ideas to the public? Answer: Students can brainstorm creative recycling ideas, such as upcycling materials into new products or implementing take-back programs. They should explore ways to market these ideas by highlighting environmental benefits and appealing to eco-conscious consumers, potentially creating profitable business models. Individual or Team Assignments 11. Ask students or a team to bring to class advertisements which demonstrate a store's effort to cultivate a particular image among consumers. Do they think the ads are effective? Answer: Students should analyze advertisements aimed at creating a specific store image and evaluate their effectiveness based on visual appeal, message clarity, and alignment with the store’s branding. They can discuss how well the ads resonate with target audiences and reinforce the intended image. 12. Have students bring to class two advertisements that they believe promote a product in a way that is inconsistent with what the product can deliver. The students should explain their reasoning. Answer: Students should present ads that misrepresent a product’s capabilities, explaining how the ads create unrealistic expectations. They can discuss the impact of such discrepancies on consumer trust and brand reputation. 13. Ask a team to visit a nearby popular mall to observe the activities of customers and employees. What non-retailing activities do they observe (e.g., art exhibits, performances, fitness walking, socializing, etc.)? Are these activities beneficial or harmful to retailers? Answer: Observations of non-retailing activities at a mall, like art exhibits or social events, should be analyzed for their impact on retail. These activities can attract foot traffic and enhance the mall's appeal, but may also cause distractions or loitering that could affect store sales. 14. Have students or a team of students bring several mail-order catalogues to class and discuss the differences between the in-store and non-store purchasing processes. You might have the student(s) draw up a “profile” of a typical purchaser from each of these catalogues. Answer: Comparing mail-order catalogues with in-store purchasing, students should discuss differences in shopping experiences, such as convenience, product evaluation, and customer service. They can profile typical catalog purchasers, noting their preferences and shopping behaviors. eLAB Individual Assignments 1. Go to www.mountaindew.com. One of the primary features of this website is the entertainment provided for the viewer. What features do you find? Were you entertained or was this page really for another market segment (if so, who)? What would an entertaining website have to do with encouraging the consumer to buy the product? Because the consumer cannot buy the product online, does this website make much sense? Explain. Answer: The website features flashy graphics, games, videos, and social media integration, clearly aiming to entertain. While it was engaging, it seemed more tailored to a younger, thrill-seeking audience rather than a general market. Entertaining websites can create brand loyalty and buzz, indirectly encouraging purchases. Despite not selling products online, it builds brand identity and consumer interest, making the website logical for marketing purposes. 2. Go to www.bestbuy.com. The Best Buy website promises interactivity with the customer. What evidence do you find that this has occurred (if any)? Evaluate the Best Buy website as to ease of use and customer involvement? What are your impressions about the Best Buy approach? What is the company doing right and what are they doing wrong with respect to customer buying? Answer: Evidence of interactivity includes customer reviews, Q&A sections, and chat support. The site is user-friendly with clear navigation and a clean layout. Best Buy excels in providing detailed product information and customer interaction, enhancing the buying experience. However, they could improve by streamlining the checkout process and offering more personalized recommendations. 3. Go to www.starbucked.com. What is the overall purpose of this website? Based on the information given on this website, discuss how consumers can become so dissatisfied that they would create or participate in such a website. Give examples of the different possible courses of action for reacting to poor service. Answer: The purpose of this website is to highlight consumer dissatisfaction with Starbucks. Dissatisfied consumers create or join such websites due to perceived poor service or unmet expectations. For example, frequent mistakes in orders or unfriendly staff can lead to frustration. Possible actions include providing feedback to the company, seeking resolutions via customer service, or switching to competitors. eLAB Team Assignments 1. Go to www.bananarepublic.com and www.oldnavy.com (note: both retail brands are owned by The Gap). Have your group compare these two websites as to online atmosphere. Next, if possible, go to a Banana Republic and Old Navy store to determine the differences between in-store atmospheres. Comment on what you find. How have the two retail brands positioned themselves to build distinct brands? Is there consistency between the approaches used on the web versus the approaches used in the retail environment? Explain. What improvements should either or both retail brands make with respect to consumer buying? Explain how you arrived at your suggestion(s). Answer: Banana Republic's website exudes a sophisticated, upscale atmosphere, while Old Navy's site is more vibrant and casual. In-store, Banana Republic offers a polished, high-end experience, contrasting with Old Navy's bright, family-friendly vibe. Both brands maintain consistent web and in-store atmospheres, but Old Navy could enhance its online product descriptions and Banana Republic could improve its site navigation to better reflect their respective brand identities. 2. Go to www.customerssuck.com. As a group, examine accounts given by employees as to the outrageous behavior observed in retail settings. Summarize the findings. What conclusions can be made from this? Answer: Employee accounts highlight various instances of unreasonable customer behavior, including rudeness, unrealistic demands, and lack of respect for retail staff. These stories illustrate the significant challenges retail workers face daily, emphasizing the need for better customer education and respect for service employees. 3. Visit www.customerrespect.com/ and learn about what they do about treating online customers. Is this service necessary? Answer: The website focuses on helping companies improve their online customer interactions through research, consulting, and evaluation. This service is necessary as it ensures that businesses understand and meet customer needs, enhancing overall satisfaction and loyalty in a competitive online marketplace. 4. Visit www.alibaba.com/, one of the biggest global B2B exchanges, and determine how they do business. What benefits do they offer sellers and buyers? Can a company like www.ebay.com move into this space? Why or why not? Answer: Alibaba offers a comprehensive platform for global B2B transactions, providing benefits like bulk buying, secure payment methods, and extensive product listings. While eBay operates primarily in the B2C and C2C spaces, its move into B2B would require significant adjustments to cater to wholesale transactions and larger businesses. PROFESSORS ON THE GO! Chapter Objectives
When students finish this chapter they should understand why: •Many factors at the time of purchase dramatically influence the consumer’s decision-making process Have students employ the Day Reconstruction method to document their own behaviour for a day and report on the findings. What trends do they notice? Are there things that they found that they did not expect? Have someone visit a local supermarket and question the manager regarding how shelf space is allocated. What and who determines which products are placed on the shelves, how much space they are allocated, and at what level they are displayed on the shelf? •Other people in the shopping context can influence a purchase decision Have students brainstorm a list of products or experiences where the presence (or absence) of other customers will function as an attribute of the product. How do others influence their experience with the product? •Perceptions of time and consumer responses to this can be influenced by altering aspects of the physical context What actions are retailers taking to appeal to consumers experiencing ‘time poverty?’ What examples can you find of marketers manipulating psychological time? •Factors such as the retail setting, store image, atmospherics, and the salesperson can impact consumer decision-making Have students go to a shopping mall. Have them analyze the behaviour of shoppers based on observation only. Can they determine the nature of people’s reasons for shopping? Have them keep track and present the results to the class. Ask students to visit competing discount houses, supermarkets, department stores, or specialty shops in your area and describe the image they have of each store. What factors account for the image differences? For the poorest image store, design a strategy for upgrading its image. Student groups should visit three small clothing stores and assess their layouts. What differences do they observe? What factors might account for these differences? Would the student recommend any layout changes based on observation? Go to www.mountaindew.com. One of the primary features of this website is the entertainment provided for the viewer. What features do you find? Were you entertained or was this page really for another market segment (if so, who)? What would an entertaining website have to do with encouraging the consumer to buy the product? Because the consumer cannot buy the product online, does this website make much sense? Explain. •Marketers need to be concerned about a consumer’s evaluations of a product after s/he buys it as well as before the purchase takes place Have students talk to other students at the university or college. What forms of complaint behaviour do they observe? What strategies could the university or college follow to alleviate these complaints? Ask students to relate to the class a purchase experience in which dissatisfaction resulted from the product or service purchased. Have the student tell the class how he or she reacted in terms of post-purchase dissonance. How could the seller avoid future similar incidents? Have groups or pairs of students interview a complaint handler for a local department store to describe a recent experience with a dissatisfied customer. The complaint handler should explain why the customer was unhappy. Do the complainers seem to have any common traits? Go to www.customerssuck.com. As a group, examine accounts given by both employees and customers as to the outrageous behaviour observed in retail settings. Summarize the findings. What conclusions can be made from this? •Understand that one emerging trend involves temporary ownership or usage of consumer goods What types of products are students currently renting or borrowing that traditionally might have been bought? (e.g., car share). What are the benefits to consumers relative to owning? Can students brainstorm any opportunities for further temporary ownership opportunities? •Disposing of products when consumers no longer need or want them is a major concern both to marketers and to public policymakers Many consumers have become more interested in conserving than in “throwing away.” Have students think of ideas they have for creative recycling. Then see if they can figure out ways to profitably market these ideas to the public? Give students the assignment of selling something through an online site that they think is worthless junk. Have them share their results with the class. Were the results unexpected? Was it worth the time to do this? What was the highest selling price of a person’s “junk?” Free-cycle something. Then take something free off of www.kijiji.ca. Report on the experience including the feelings of giving/receiving, the benefit or value to the giver/receiver, and so on. Have each student think of a time when he or she had to get rid of something that had been significant to them. Analyze this situation in terms of divestment rituals. ENDNOTES i Isadore Barmash, "Sending the Very Best, for No Particular Reason," New York Times (June 9, 1991): F12. ii Kenneth C. Gehrt, Thomas N. Ingram, and Vince Howe, "Nonstore Versus Store Retailing: A Situationally Based Market Structure Assessment," Journal of Direct Marketing 5 (Spring 1991) 2: 44-53. iii Erin White, “In-store TVs Hit Consumers Where They Shop,” The Wall Street Journal Europe, March 23, 2004: A4; Alastair Ray, “Own-brand broadcaster tunes in,” Financial Times, March 16, 2004: 8. iv Nigel C.G. Campbell, John L. Graham, Alain Jolibert, and Hans Gunther, "Marketing Negotiations in France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States," Journal of Marketing 52 (April 1988): 49- 62. v Joseph W. Newman and Richard A. Werbel, "Multivariate Analysis of Brand Loyalty for Major Household Appliances," Journal of Marketing Research 10 (November 1973): 404-09. vi John Thogersen, "A Model of Recycling Behaviour, with Evidence from Danish Source Separation Programmes," International Journal of Research in Marketing 11 (March 1994) 2: 145-163. vii David Bejou and Debbie M. Thorne, "Exploring the Differences Between Recyclers and Non-Recyclers: The Roles of Demographics and Personal Factors," in Marketing: Toward the Twenty-First Century, ed. Robert L. King (Richmond, Va.: The Southern Marketing Association, 1991), 110-15; see also Jacob Hornik, Michelle Madansky, Joseph Cherian, and Chem Narayna, "Consumer’s Recycling Behaviour: A Meta-Analysis," in Marketing Technical Report and Reprint Series (Chicago, Ill.: The University of Chicago, 1992). Solution Manual for Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being Michael R. Solomon, Katherine White, Darren W. Dahl 9780133958096