CH-10-12 The News Media and the Internet: Communicating Politics – We The People: An Introduction to American Government : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 10 to 12 Chapter 10 The News Media and the Internet: Communicating Politics Learning Objectives Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following: •Summarize the history of the media and media coverage of politics. •Describe the media and identify their political functions. •Summarize new media’s influence on politics. •Analyze the news audience and the widening gap in the information levels of citizens. Chapter Outline I. Media Change: From the Nation’s Founding to Today A. Rise of Objective Journalism B. Rise of Cable TV and Partisan Talk Shows C. Rise of the Internet II. The Media: Content and Functions A. Information-Centered Communication 1. The Signaling Function 2. The Common-Carrier Function 3. The Watchdog Function B. Partisan-Centered Communication C. Entertainment-Centered Communication III. Media Audiences and Effects A. The Traditional Audience B. The Partisan Audience C. The Inattentive Audience IV. Summary Focus and Main Points The news media (press) are a key intermediary between Americans and their leaders. For nearly everyone, politics is a secondhand experience, something they observe through the media rather than directly. However, the news media are a different kind of intermediary than political parties and interest groups. Parties and groups seek influence in order to promote particular leaders or policies. Some media outlets have that as their goal, but other media outlets seek primarily to inform the public about politics and still other media outlets use politics primarily as a way to entertain their audience. Most citizens are exposed in varying degrees to all of these types of media outlets. This chapter describes the media’s role in American politics, starting with the history of the media and proceeding from there to a discussion of the media’s functions. The chapter concludes with a look at the media audience. These are the main ideas presented in the chapter: •The American news media were initially tied to the nation’s political party system (the partisan press) but gradually developed an independent position (the objective press). In the process, the news shifted from a political orientation, which emphasizes political values and ideas, to a journalistic orientation, which stresses newsworthy information and events. •In recent decades, new forms of media have emerged—cable television shows, partisan talk shows, and Internet outlets. Their norms and standards differ from each other, and from those of the traditional news media. •Media outlets seek to attract an audience by meeting people’s information needs, playing to their partisan bias, or feeding their desire to be entertained. All media outlets engage in each of these activities to a degree, but most outlets have one of the three as the primary focus. •The audience for public affairs has been fragmenting, largely as a result of the expanded number of media outlets created by the advent of cable television and the Internet. Citizens have more choices than ever before and have tailored their choices to their information interests and partisan leanings. Chapter Summary In the nation’s first century, the press was allied closely with the political parties and helped the parties mobilize public opinion. Gradually, the press freed itself from this partisan relationship and developed a form of reporting known as objective journalism, which emphasizes fair and accurate accounts of newsworthy developments. That model still governs the news reporting of the traditional media—daily newspapers and broadcasters—but does not hold for the newer media—radio talk shows, cable TV talk shows, and Internet blogs. Although some of them cover politics in the traditional way, many of them transmit news through a partisan lens. The press performs four basic functions. First, in their signaling function, journalists communicate information to the public about breaking events and new developments. This information makes citizens aware of developments that affect their lives. However, because of the media’s need to attract an audience, breaking news stories often focus on developments, such as celebrity scandals, that have little to do with issues of politics and government. Second, the press functions as a common carrier in that it provides political leaders with a channel for addressing the public. Increasingly, however, the news has centered nearly as much on the journalists themselves as on the newsmakers they cover. In a third function, that of watchdog, the press acts to protect the public by exposing deceitful, careless, or corrupt officials. Finally, the press has a partisan function. Although the traditional media perform this function to a degree, the newer media—the talk shows and partisan internet sites—specialize in it. Their influence has contributed to a rising level of political polarization in the United States. The onset of cable television also brought a powerful entertainment component to news delivery as a means of gaining competitive advantage, and many Internet outlets also use this strategy. The news audience has changed substantially in the past few decades. Daily newspapers and broadcast news have lost audiences to cable television and the Internet. At the same time, the emergence of cable television and the Internet, moving the media system from low-choice to high-choice, has made it easier for citizens to avoid news when using the media. Although some citizens today consume more news than was possible at an earlier time, other citizens—young adults, in particular— consume less news than was previously typical. A consequence is that young adults are less informed politically relative to both older adults and to earlier generations of young adults. With the increase in partisan media, there has been a corresponding increase in the number of people who primarily get their information from partisan sources, leading to a greater level of partisanship overall. Social media has exacerbated this problem. The incredible variety of choice in news has also led to a less-attentive and less-informed public overall. Major Concepts news The news media’s version of reality, usually with an emphasis on timely, dramatic, and compelling events and developments. news media (press) Print, broadcast, cable, and Internet organizations that are in the news-reporting business. partisan press Newspapers and other communication media that openly support a political party and whose news tends to follow the party line. objective journalism A model of news reporting that is based on the communication of “facts” rather than opinions and that is “fair” in that it presents all sides of partisan debate. signaling (signaler) function The responsibility of the media to alert the public to important developments as soon as possible after they happen or are discovered. agenda setting The power of the media through news coverage to focus the public’s attention and concern on particular events, problems, issues, personalities, and so on. common-carrier function The media’s function as an open channel through which political leaders can communicate with the public. framing The process by which the media play up certain aspects of a situation while downplaying other aspects, thereby providing a particular interpretation of the situation. watchdog function The accepted responsibility of the media to protect the public from incompetent or corrupt officials by standing ready to expose any official who violates accepted legal, ethical, or performance standards. partisan function Efforts by media actors to influence public response to a particular party, leader, issue, or viewpoint. high-choice media system A media system in which audiences have such a wide range of choices that they can largely control the type of information to which they are exposed. priming The way in which the context established by media messages affects how people interpret the information they receive. Lecture Outline This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid. The author focuses on the role of the media in politics in this chapter and begins with a review of the news media’s historical development, and then examines the current trends in reporting. The change from a partisan to an objective press is chronicled, and the author examines issues of press freedom and conformity. The roles that the news media perform in the American political system are discussed. The chapter ends with a focus on the relationship between the media and the public in the modern age, including changing patterns of news consumption, and highlights the effects of new media forms like the Internet. I. Media Change: From the Nation’s Founding to Today The framers recognized the important role of communication in a democratic society. The evolution of the American media can be roughly divided into two stages: from partisanship to objective journalism. •Early American newspapers were openly partisan, being closely associated with political parties and politicians who provided financial support. Such was the case with Jefferson and Hamilton’s early involvement in the publication of partisan papers. •Technological changes, such as the invention of the telegraph and rotary press, decreased printing costs and led to an increase in circulation and the decline of the partisan press. •Yellow journalism, which emphasized sensational stories without regard for truth, replaced partisan reporting in some newspapers around the turn of the century. This type of journalism was exemplified by the battle between William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. The second stage was that of objective journalism. •The excesses of yellow journalism gave way to objective journalism, or reporting that emphasizes facts over opinion, presenting both sides of a partisan debate. An architect of this new model was Adolph Ochs of the New York Times. •Today objective journalism has been altered by the removal of the Fairness Doctrine, which has led to an increase in editorializing in television and radio. Reporting now attempts to explain why something is or has occurred, but also produces more opinionated news coverage. •The rise in television news added a visual dimension. The advent of CNN and the rapid increase of cable subscribers made round-the-clock television news a reality. •The internet further expanded citizens’ options for getting news and information. Although it has been a somewhat democratizing influence, a very small number of websites capture the majority of viewers. Partisan media has been a particular problem for internet sites. II. The Media: Content and Functions The news media operate as gatekeepers, choosing which stories to report on out of the immense number of news items that occur each day. Journalists’ selections are channeled by four functions—the signaling, common-carrier, watchdog, and partisan functions. •The media perform the signaler role when alerting the public to important developments soon after they happen. The ability to focus the public’s attention and influence its beliefs is referred to as agenda setting, a subset of the signaler role. •As signalers, the news media are caught in a constant struggle between informing the public and attracting an audience. News organizations are businesses that need consumers, and certain types of news stories told in certain ways draw more of an audience than others. •The media’s common-carrier role enables them to serve as an open channel of communication between political leaders and the public. By framing stories in different selected contexts, journalists affect public perceptions of news content. •The watchdog role is the media protecting the public by exposing officials who violate accepted legal, ethical, or performance standards. The press tends to stress bad news. The press has not always fulfilled its watchdog role, though the Internet has expanded the media’s watchdog capacity. •The media also now serve a partisan function—acting as advocates for particular political viewpoints or interests. The traditional media continue to be mostly neutral, attempting to avoid overtly partisan leanings. Talk shows, on both radio and television, and Internet blogs and opinion sites are typically very partisan. •With the rise of cable news and later the Internet, media sources have attempted to compete by encouraging and entertainment component in their reporting and presentation. III. Medias Audience and Effects Today’s news and public affairs audience is spread across a variety of outlets with differing styles and standards of presentation. In this high-choice media system, people’s media exposure is largely within their control. •Partisanship plays a larger part in today’s media because the newer media, like cable outlets and the Internet, rely on it to expand and maintain their audiences. •The partisan tendency of many news outlets contributes to party polarization. The multiple media now available have not led Americans to be more informed about public affairs, because the same media also make it possible for people to avoid the news. •With the rise of cable television, round-the-clock news coverage grew in popularity—but at the same time, viewers gained access to entertaining alternatives to the nightly news broadcast. Younger adults especially have come to neglect the news in favor of other content. •The widening gap in news consumption has led to a widening age gap in political information between younger and older adults. Younger people are less informed than older people about political matters. •As partisan news and media outlets have grown in number, so has partisanship among the public. The capacity to self-select news sources that agree with a partisan viewpoint exacerbates this problem •The proliferation of news sources has also contributed to an inattentiveness to news and an overall lowering of knowledge about public affairs. Complementary Lecture Topics Below are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general, these topics assume that students have read the chapter beforehand. •The news industry thrives on dramatic, fast-paced stories. However, not all important stories are dramatic, and not all dramatic stories are important. Which types of issues, events, institutions, and interests are likely to be downplayed or overplayed because of the media’s need for exciting news? Are there any public policies that may rectify the situation? •Does the First Amendment’s guarantee of freedom of the press place a special obligation on the media to behave responsibly? The media have become increasingly powerful as a force in American politics. Is there a corresponding need for new checks on the power of the media? If so, what might these be? •It is an unquestioned assumption by many in the journalistic profession that objective journalism is the proper standard for reporting. Are there disadvantages to an objective press? Are there any benefits of a partisan press? How would a partisan press change the nature of news and public opinion? Has the media’s transition to objective journalism been offset by the modern reporter’s personal biases? Class Discussion Topics 1. Ask students if they believe additional legal checks should be placed on America’s mass media. Why or why not? How might these constraints conflict with the freedom of the press guarantee found in the Bill of Rights? Answer: Discussion Question: • Do you believe additional legal checks should be placed on America's mass media? Why or why not? Considerations: 1. Arguments for Additional Checks: • Misinformation and Fake News: Legal checks could help prevent the spread of false information and sensationalism. • Privacy Protection: Stricter regulations could protect individuals' privacy and prevent unethical practices like intrusive paparazzi behavior. • Reducing Harmful Content: Regulations could limit the spread of harmful or offensive content. 2. Arguments Against Additional Checks: • Freedom of the Press: The First Amendment guarantees freedom of the press. Additional legal checks could infringe on this right and limit the media's ability to report freely and critically. • Censorship Concerns: Increased regulation could lead to government overreach and censorship, stifling free expression and dissent. • Self-Regulation: The media industry can self-regulate through ethical codes and standards, maintaining a balance between responsible reporting and freedom. Conclusion: • Discuss how additional legal constraints might conflict with the freedom of the press guarantee in the Bill of Rights. Encourage students to consider the balance between protecting society and preserving fundamental freedoms. 2. It is an unquestioned assumption by many in the journalistic profession that objective journalism is the proper standard for reporting. Are there disadvantages to an “objective” press? Are there any benefits of a partisan press? How would a partisan press change the nature of news and public opinion? Has the media’s transition to objective journalism been offset by the modern reporter’s personal biases? Answer: Discussion Question: • Are there disadvantages to an "objective" press? Are there any benefits of a partisan press? How would a partisan press change the nature of news and public opinion? Considerations: 1. Objective Journalism: • Advantages: Provides balanced reporting, avoids bias, and aims to inform the public with facts. It serves as a neutral ground for public discourse. • Disadvantages: Can sometimes lead to "bothsidesism," where opposing viewpoints are presented as equally valid, even if one side is factually incorrect or harmful. It may also mask the inherent biases of reporters. 2. Partisan Press: • Advantages: Offers clear perspectives and ideological stances, which can help readers understand complex issues through a specific lens. It can mobilize and engage audiences with shared beliefs. • Disadvantages: May contribute to polarization and echo chambers, where audiences only consume news that aligns with their views. It can also lead to biased reporting and lack of diverse perspectives. 3. Talk with your class about the era of muckraking and yellow journalism. Ask them to evaluate current news coverage for a week or two and compare today’s styles of reporting with the past. You might include television coverage. Is there more emphasis on selling papers or attracting viewers than on providing useful information? Answer: • A partisan press could lead to more opinion-driven content and less emphasis on fact-based reporting. It may shift public opinion by reinforcing existing beliefs and reducing exposure to opposing viewpoints. Conclusion: • Discuss whether the modern reporter's personal biases have offset the media's transition to objective journalism. Encourage students to consider the value of both objective and partisan journalism in a democratic society. 3. Muckraking, Yellow Journalism, and Current News Coverage Activity: • Historical Context: Discuss the era of muckraking and yellow journalism, focusing on sensationalism, investigative journalism, and the pursuit of reform. • Current News Analysis: Ask students to evaluate current news coverage over a week or two, including television, print, and online sources. Discussion Points: • Comparing Past and Present: Compare modern reporting styles with those of the muckraking and yellow journalism eras. Is there an emphasis on sensationalism or investigative journalism today? • Commercial Interests: Discuss whether there is more emphasis on attracting viewers or selling papers than providing useful information. Consider the role of clickbait, infotainment, and 24-hour news cycles. Conclusion: • Encourage students to critically assess the balance between commercial interests and journalistic integrity in today's media landscape. 4. Ask your class to refer to the section of the newspaper where the editorials, syndicated columns, cartoons, and letters to editors are located. Tell them how to differentiate among these types of editorializing, especially relating to political coverage. Ask them to find and hand in examples of these different types of coverage, including an article about a political event. Discuss the biases of syndicated columnists in area papers. Answer: Activity: • Identifying Editorializing: Instruct students to find examples of editorials, syndicated columns, political cartoons, and letters to the editor. They should also find an article about a political event. • Differentiating Types: • Editorials: Written by the editorial board, expressing the newspaper's official stance on issues. • Syndicated Columns: Written by individual columnists, often featuring opinionated and analytical pieces. • Political Cartoons: Use satire and imagery to comment on political events and issues. • Letters to the Editor: Written by readers, offering personal opinions and reactions to news and editorials. Discussion Points: • Bias and Perspective: Analyze the biases of syndicated columnists and discuss how they influence the portrayal of political events. Discuss the role of editorials and letters in reflecting public opinion and stimulating debate. 5. Provide your students with a guide to high-quality news sources available in their learning resource center, as well as other print and broadcast sources accessible to them. Show them where to find political news in their local papers and how to differentiate between news reporting and commentary on the news in editorials, syndicated columns, and letters to the editor. If resources are available, you can include sources for political news and information available through the Internet, including information about their own representatives and capabilities for e-mailing the White House. Answer: Activity: • Resource Guide: Provide students with a list of high-quality news sources available in their learning resource center and other accessible print and broadcast sources. • Finding Political News: Show students where to find political news in local papers and how to differentiate between news reporting and commentary. Online Resources: • Internet Sources: Introduce students to reliable online sources, including websites for political news, fact-checking, and information about their representatives. • Engaging with Government: Explain how students can use the Internet to email their representatives, including the White House. Conclusion: • Emphasize the importance of media literacy and the ability to critically evaluate sources. Encourage students to diversify their news consumption to gain a well-rounded understanding of current events. Chapter 11 Congress: Balancing National Goals and Local Interests Learning Objectives Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following: •Describe factors affecting congressional elections. •Explain how Congress is structured. •Describe the functions of Congress. •Describe the leadership positions in the House and Senate. •Describe the sources of congressional power. •Explain the legislative process. Chapter Outline I. Congress as a Career: Election to Congress A. Using Incumbency to Stay in Congress 1. The Service Strategy: Taking Care of Constituents 2. Campaign Fundraising: Raking in the Money 3. Redistricting: Favorable Boundaries for House Incumbents B. Pitfalls of Incumbency 1. Disruptive Issues 2. Personal Misconduct 3. Turnout Variation: The Midterm Election Problem 4. Primary Election Challengers 5. General Election Challengers: A Problem for Senators 6. A New Threat: Super PACs D. Who Are the Winners in Congressional Elections? II. Parties and Party Leadership A. Party Unity in Congress B. Party Leadership in Congress 1. House Leaders 2. Senate Leaders B. Party Leaders and Their Members III. Committees and Committee Leadership A. Committee Jurisdiction B. Committee Membership C. Committee Chairs D. Committee or Party: Which Is in Control? IV. How a Bill Becomes Law A. Committee Hearings and Decisions B. From Committee to the Floor C. Leadership and Floor Action D. Conference Committees and the President V. Congress’s Policymaking Role A. The Lawmaking Function of Congress 1. Broad Issues: Fragmentation as a Limit on Congress’s Role 2. Congress in the Lead: Fragmentation as a Policymaking Strength B. The Representation Function of Congress 1. Representation of States and Districts 2. Representation of the Nation through Parties C. The Oversight Function of Congress VI. Congress: An Institution Divided VII. Summary Focus and Main Points The positioning of Congress as the first among equals in a system of divided powers reflected the framers’ trust in representative institutions. The framers’ vision of a preeminent Congress has not fully met the test of time, however. Over time, power has shifted from Congress to the presidency and, today, both institutions have a central role in lawmaking. The points emphasized in the chapter are: •Congressional elections usually result in the reelection of the incumbent. Congressional office provides incumbents with substantial resources (free publicity, staff, and legislative influence) that give them (particularly House members) a major advantage in election campaigns. •Leadership in Congress is provided by party leaders, including the Speaker of the House and the Senate majority leader. Party leaders are in a more powerful position today than a few decades ago because the party caucuses in Congress are more ideologically cohesive than in the past. •Much of the work of Congress is done mainly through its committees and subcommittees, each of which has its own leadership and its designated policy jurisdiction. •Because of its fragmented structure, Congress is not well suited to take the lead on major national policies, which has allowed the president to assume this role. At the same time, Congress is well organized to handle policies of narrower scope. •In recent decades, congressional Republicans have become more uniformly conservative and congressional Democrats have become more uniformly liberal. This has made it easier for each party’s members to band together but harder for them to reach agreement with the other party’s members, which has increased the frequency of legislative deadlock. •Congress’s policymaking role is based on three major functions: lawmaking, representation, and oversight. Chapter Summary Members of Congress, once elected, are likely to be reelected. Members of Congress can use their office to publicize themselves, pursue a service strategy of responding to the needs of individual constituents, and secure pork-barrel projects for their states or districts. The fact that they hold a position in Congress also helps them attract campaign contributions from individual donors and PACs. Incumbency carries some risks. Members of Congress must take positions on controversial issues, may blunder into political scandal or indiscretion, must deal with changes in the electorate, or may face strong challengers. By and large, however, the advantages of incumbency far outweigh the disadvantages. Congress is a fragmented institution. It has no single leader; rather, the House and Senate have separate leaders, neither of whom can presume to speak for the other chamber. The chief party leaders in Congress are the Speaker of the House and the Senate majority leader. They share leadership power with committee and subcommittee chairpersons, who have influence on the policy decisions of their committee or subcommittee. Congress’s fragmentation is partially offset by partisanship, which serves as a common bond between members of the same party. In the past few decades, that bond has strengthened to the point where congressional Republicans and Democrats have regularly found themselves on the opposite sides of legislative issues. In some cases, the partisan gap has been so wide that compromise has failed, resulting in legislative delay and deadlock. Committees are the locus of most of the day-to-day work of Congress. Each House and Senate standing committee has jurisdiction over bills in a particular area (such as agriculture or foreign relations), as does each of its subcommittees. Increased partisanship has reduced the power of committees somewhat in recent years, as it has increased the number of issues on which Republicans and Democrats compete nationally. One major function of Congress is to enact legislation. Yet the role it plays in developing legislation depends on the type of policy involved. Because of its divided chambers and committee structure, as well as the concern of its members with state and district interests, Congress, through its party leaders and caucuses, only occasionally takes the lead on broad national issues. Congress instead typically looks to the president for this leadership. Nevertheless, presidential initiatives are passed by Congress only if they meet its members’ expectations and usually only after a lengthy process of compromise and negotiation. Congress is more adept at handling legislation that deals with problems of narrow interest. Legislation of this
sort is decided mainly in congressional committees, where interested legislators, bureaucrats, and groups concentrate their efforts on issues of mutual concern. A second function of Congress is the representation of various interests. Members of Congress are highly sensitive to the state or district on which they depend for reelection. They do respond to overriding national interests, but local concerns usually get priority. National or local representation often operates through party representation, particularly on issues that divide the Democratic and Republican parties and their constituent groups, which is increasingly the case. Congress’s third function is oversight—the supervision and investigation of the way the bureaucracy is implementing legislatively mandated programs. Although oversight is a difficult and time-consuming process, it is one of the major ways that Congress exercises control over the executive branch. Major Concepts bicameral legislature A legislature that has two chambers (the House and the Senate, in the case of the United States). bill A proposed law (legislative act) within Congress or another legislature. cloture A parliamentary maneuver that, if a three-fifths majority votes for it, limits Senate debate to 30 hours and has the effect of defeating a filibuster. conference committee A temporary committee that is formed to bargain over the differences in the House and Senate versions of a bill. A conference committee’s members are usually appointed from the House and Senate standing committees that originally worked on the bill. constituency The people residing within the geographic area represented by an elected official. filibuster A procedural tactic in the U.S. Senate whereby a minority of legislators prevents a bill from coming to a vote by holding the floor and talking until the majority gives in and the bill is withdrawn from consideration. gerrymandering The process by which the party in power draws election district boundaries in a way that enhances the reelection prospects of its candidates. Hastert Rule A informal rule used by House Republicans when they are in the majority. It holds that the Speaker should bring a bill to the floor only if it’s supported by a majority of House Republicans. incumbent The current holder of a particular public office. jurisdiction (of a congressional committee) The policy area in which a particular congressional committee is authorized to act. law (as enacted by Congress) A legislative proposal, or bill, that is passed by both the House and the Senate and is not vetoed by the president. lawmaking function The authority (of a legislature) to make the laws necessary to carry out the government’s powers. midterm election The congressional election that occurs midway through the president’s term of office. open-seat election An election in which there is no incumbent in the race. oversight function A supervisory activity of Congress that centers on its constitutional responsibility to see that the executive carries out the laws faithfully. party caucus A group that consists of a party’s members in the House or the Senate and that serves to elect the party’s leadership, set policy goals, and plan party strategy. party leaders Members of the House and the Senate who are chosen by the Democratic or Republican caucus in each chamber to represent the party’s interests in that chamber and who give some central direction to the chamber’s work. party unity The degree to which a party’s House or Senate members act as a unified group to exert collective control over legislative action. pork (pork-barrel spending) Spending whose tangible benefits are targeted at a particular legislator’s constituency. reapportionment The reallocation of House seats among states after each census as a result of population changes. redistricting The process of altering election districts in order to make them as nearly equal in population as possible. Redistricting takes place every 10 years, after each population census. representation function The responsibility of a legislature to represent various interests in society. seniority A member of Congress’s consecutive years of service on a particular committee. service strategy Use of personal staff by members of Congress to perform services for constituents in order to gain their support in future elections. standing committees Permanent congressional committees with responsibility for a particular area of public policy. An example is the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. veto The president’s rejection of a bill, thereby keeping it from becoming law unless Congress overrides the veto. Lecture Outline This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid. Congress has multiple functions; it is both a lawmaking institution for the nation, a representative assembly for the states and districts, and an oversight institution for other branches of government. The framers intended Congress to be first among equals, but changes in the twentieth century have shifted the balance of power toward the presidency. I. Congress as a Career: Election to Congress Congressional careerism is the norm in the modern Congress, and the first reason for this is that most members of congress succeed in getting reelected. •Some states and districts are so heavily Republican or Democratic that the candidate of the majority party nearly always wins. •An incumbent promotes his or her reelection prospects by catering to his or her constituency. The pull between serving local or national interests is a constant question for lawmakers in Congress. •Members of Congress can use their incumbency to attain electoral mastery, raise campaign funds, claim credit for congressional achievements, perform constituency services, and garner publicity. •Incumbency can also have its drawbacks. Improper conduct, troublesome issues, variation in turnout, strong challengers, and redistricting (for House members) can hurt an incumbent in an election. •Although incumbents ordinarily have a fundraising advantage, the situation can change if they appear vulnerable; and the threat has increased with the emergence of super PACs, which can pour millions of dollars into a challenger’s campaign. •Senators must be at least 30 years of age; their counterparts in the House must be at least 25 years of age. •The winners of congressional seats are not representative of the general population. Members of Congress tend to be disproportionately white, male, highly educated, and employed in professional settings (the most common of which is as an attorney). II. Parties and Party Leadership Party leadership is one of the various channels through which power is distributed in Congress. Still, members in Congress retain a great deal of independence because they are largely responsible for getting themselves elected. •Each congressional party has attaned a high level of party unity, banding together on legislation and standing against the opposite party. •The party leaders in the House are the Speaker, the majority and minority leaders, and the majority and minority whips. The Speaker is the most powerful, with the power to control legislation and the rules. •The Senate party leaders are the majority and minority leaders and the majority and minority whips. The majority leader has powers similar to those of the Speaker of the House, although the position is overall less powerful. •Party leaders have some formal powers but their influence rests mainly on the fact that their colleagues entrust them with the leadership. III. Committees and Committee Leadership •Most of the business of Congress is done in committees and subcommittees. •Committees can be divided into four important types: standing, select, joint, and conference. Standing committees are permanent, while select committees are created to perform specific tasks. Joint committees are made up of members from both houses and perform an advisory function. Conference committees are formed to work out differences between House and Senate versions of a particular bill. •Committees and subcommittees are essential for dealing with the workload of Congress; committee staffs perform an almost entirely legislative function. •Committee jurisdiction refers to the policy area that falls within a committee’s authority. •Responsibility in Congress is thoroughly divided, with each subcommittee or committee having formal authority over a particular area of public policy. •Committee membership varies, but the majority party has the majority of seats and holds the chair of each committee or subcommittee. •Committee chairs are selected through a system of seniority, though this system is not absolute and is less strictly adhered to now than in the past. •Committees decentralize power in Congress and serve individual members’ power and reelection needs. IV. How a Bill Becomes Law A bill is first proposed by a member of Congress, introduced into the House or Senate, and then sent to a relevant committee. If considered to have merit, the bill will be sent to the floor of that chamber for debate. •Most bills die in committee. •If a bill emerges from committee with the support of nearly all its members, it will most likely be passed by the vote of the full chamber. •In the Senate, a three-fifts majority may vote for cloture, limiting debate to 30 hours. Cloture is used to defeat a filibuster, a Senate tactic whereby a minority can block a bill by talking until the bill is withdrawn or altered. •A bill passed by both houses must be reconciled into an identical bill through conference committee. •A bill must be passed in identical form by both chambers of Congress before it is forwarded to the president for approval. In the case of a presidential veto, Congress must secure an overriding vote (a two-thirds majority vote in both chambers) to finally make it law. The lengthy and complex legislative process helps ensure that most legislation (about 90 percent) is killed before it reaches the president’s desk. V. Congress’s Policymaking Role Congress is ill-designed to develop national policies or undertake comprehensive planning. •Fragmentation of its authority and workload works against Congress’s ability to take the lead in formulating national policies. •The members’ reelection needs are a further obstacle to developing or implementing broad national policies. Congress is well-designed to deal with narrow policy issues and local concerns. Committees and various congressional caucuses help advance local and special interests. The decentralized nature of the legislative process ensures that major national legislation faces greater obstacles than those focusing on narrow policy issues. •Congress generally takes presidential initiatives only as a starting point and amends them significantly. The success of a presidential initiative is largely dependent on which party is in control of Congress. •In general, Congress looks to the president to initiate significant policy measures, but then often acts to delay and modify these initiatives. Congress’s role in areas of national importance is often reactive. The president has the advantage of being a singular authority and representing a national political base. •Congress’s fragmented nature leads it to succeed at “distributive” legislation, in which it distributes benefits to a particular group while spreading the costs across the taxpaying public. The representation function of Congress is a constant struggle between representatives’ duty to the nation and duty to their constituents—and the need to get reelected. Most members of Congress have a local orientation, despite the constitutional emphasis on their higher duty to the nation. •Members of Congress are wary of antagonizing local interests, and often advance constituent concerns through practices such as logrolling and pork barrel politics. •Political partisanship is a key factor in determining the stand that members of Congress will take, particularly on national issues and those involving a conflict of interests. Republicans and Democrats do differ on their basic philosophies and along the liberal-conservative dimension. Increased partisanship has lowered productivity and the public’s opinion of Congress. Oversight is the congressional function of ensuring that the executive branch implements laws faithfully and spends allocated money properly. •Oversight is an important, but often unrewarding, congressional function and is hence often given lowest priority in relation to the other functions. •Oversight is pursued vigorously only when committee members are displeased with a particular agency, when a particular program requires major changes, or when there is the appearance of a scandal or wrongdoing, especially by the opposition political party. •Congress has the ability to restrain bureaucratic action, but often does not follow through; the biggest obstacle to effective oversight is the sheer magnitude of the task. •Congressional interest in oversight increases substantially in one area: when the White House is the target, and the president is from the opposite party. VI. Congress: An Institution Divided Agreement within each chamber and between the chambers is required to pass legislation; but several factors work against a spirit of compromise. •Because of their local base and determination to be reelected, members of Congress tend to cater to the demands of special interests. •Party unity in Congress enables the majority to overcome obstacles to action; but it also enables the minority to block action. The essential structure of Congress makes it easier to block than enact legislation, even in the face of urgent national problems. Complementary Lecture Topics The following are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general, these topics assume that students have read the chapter beforehand. •Today, the combination of safe seats and the incumbency advantage makes it difficult for challengers to remove members of Congress from office. Does this mean that voters no longer have a real choice during elections? What does safe incumbency imply for public influence on the legislative process? •Americans tend to hold a negative view of Congress as an institution, often accompanied by a favorable impression of their local representative. Can this apparent contradiction be explained by the constituency orientation of many members of Congress? •Compared to legislatures of other Western democracies, which put more emphasis on party leadership and unity, Congress is far more individualistic by nature. Why? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each system? Which interests tend to dominate each system? •Congressional careerism was not widespread in nineteenth-century America but has become the norm in present-day American politics. Relate this development to social, economic, and political change, and assess its implications. •Some analysts maintain that the United States is poorly served by a Congress that is often beset by inaction and localism. Supporters of Congress maintain that the institution is a superior deliberative and representative institution. Which argument is the more persuasive, and why? •The focus of members of Congress on local and constituent concerns can be explained
by the importance of these issues to reelection. Should steps (such as a constitutional limit on length of service in Congress) be taken to reduce the policy influence of reelection pressure? •Discuss the policymaking relationship between the president and Congress in terms of the distribution of power between the two institutions. What impact would a line-item veto have on this relationship? •What are the chances of Congress formulating a successful national drug policy (or any similar policy)? How would the fragmented nature of Congress affect the policymaking process? What would be the sources of leadership and information within the institution? Class Discussion Topics 1. Congress, a national institution, seems increasingly incapable of presenting constructive responses to national problems such as health care, drug policy, revision of social services, changing orientation of the military, and other issues. Can this be overcome within the existing institutional structure of Congress? What role can the American people and interest groups play in addressing important issues? Answer: Challenges Facing Congress: • Gridlock and Partisanship: Congress often struggles with gridlock due to intense partisanship, making it difficult to address complex national issues effectively. • Slow Response: The institutional structure of Congress, with its lengthy deliberative processes and numerous stakeholders, can lead to slow responses to pressing issues. Potential Solutions Within the Existing Structure: • Reforming Procedures: Streamlining legislative procedures and reducing the influence of partisan gridlock through rules changes could improve efficiency. This includes reforming filibuster rules or modifying committee structures. • Improving Collaboration: Encouraging greater bipartisanship and collaboration among members, as well as enhancing communication between Congress and the executive branch, could facilitate more effective problem-solving. Role of the American People and Interest Groups: • Public Pressure: The American people can influence Congress through public opinion, protests, and advocacy. Engaging in grassroots campaigns and contacting representatives can drive legislative action. • Interest Groups: Interest groups play a critical role in lobbying Congress, providing expertise, and mobilizing public support for specific issues. They can help shape policy discussions and legislative priorities through advocacy and funding. Conclusion: • Addressing Congressional inefficiency may require both structural reforms and active engagement from citizens and interest groups. The collaborative efforts of all stakeholders can help overcome gridlock and improve responsiveness to national problems. 2. Look up congressional investigations back to the Nixon administration, identifying the purpose and topic of the investigations. Find out how much money has been spent so far on each investigation. Talk about the purpose for such investigations and evaluate their worth to the American political system. Answer: Historical Investigations: • Nixon Administration: • Watergate Scandal (1972-1974): Focused on the break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters and the subsequent cover-up. The investigation led to President Nixon’s resignation. Costs are estimated to be around $10 million. • Subsequent Investigations: • Iran-Contra Affair (1980s): Investigated the illegal sale of arms to Iran and funding of Contra rebels in Nicaragua. Costs estimated at $10-15 million. • Clinton-Lewinsky Scandal (1998-1999): Investigated President Bill Clinton’s extramarital affair and subsequent perjury. Costs estimated at $40-50 million. • Benghazi Attack (2012): Investigated the attack on the U.S. consulate in Libya and the response by the State Department. Costs estimated at $7 million. • Russia Investigation (2016-2019): Investigated Russian interference in the 2016 election and possible collusion with the Trump campaign. Costs estimated at $32 million. Purpose and Evaluation: • Purpose: Congressional investigations aim to uncover facts, hold individuals accountable, and provide transparency on significant issues. They can lead to legislative changes and reforms. • Evaluation: The worth of investigations can be assessed by their impact on policy, public trust, and accountability. While some investigations have led to significant reforms, others may be seen as politically motivated or costly without substantial outcomes. Conclusion: • Investigations are a crucial part of oversight and accountability but should be balanced with considerations of cost and effectiveness. Evaluating their impact helps ensure they serve the public interest and contribute to the political system constructively. 3. Have students research, identify, and distinguish among the various roles members of Congress can adopt, such as the trustee role, instructed delegate, responsible party role and more. Look at differences in the ways that women and minorities serve their constituents and the use of caucuses to focus interests of members. Answer: Roles of Members of Congress: 1. Trustee Role: • Definition: Members act according to their own judgment and conscience, prioritizing the national interest over constituent preferences. • Example: Voting based on personal principles even if it conflicts with constituents' views. 2. Instructed Delegate: • Definition: Members vote according to the preferences and instructions of their constituents, prioritizing direct representation. • Example: Holding town hall meetings to gauge constituent opinions and voting accordingly. 3. Responsible Party Role: • Definition: Members act in accordance with their party’s platform and policies, helping to promote party goals and coherence. • Example: Supporting party-sponsored legislation and advocating for party positions. Differences in Representation: • Women and Minorities: Studies suggest that women and minority representatives may focus more on issues affecting their specific communities and engage in more inclusive policymaking. They often serve as advocates for marginalized groups and contribute diverse perspectives to the legislative process. • Caucuses: Congressional caucuses, such as the Congressional Black Caucus or the Congressional Hispanic Caucus, allow members to collaborate on issues important to their constituencies and advocate for policies reflecting their interests. Conclusion: • Understanding the various roles members of Congress can adopt helps in evaluating their performance and contributions. The diversity of representation and the role of caucuses enrich the legislative process by addressing a broader range of issues and perspectives. Chapter 12 The Presidency: Leading the Nation Learning Objectives Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following: •Describe the evolution of presidential power. •Summarize the president’s roles. •Describe the presidential election process. •Explain the structure of the executive branch. •Identify and explain sources of presidential power. Chapter Outline I. Foundations of the Modern Presidency A. The Changing Conception of the Presidency B. The Need for a Strong Presidency II. Choosing the President A. The Nominating Campaign: Primaries and Caucuses B. The National Party Conventions C. The General Election Campaign 1. Election Strategy 2. Media and Money 3. The Winners III. Staffing the Presidency A. The Vice President B. The Executive Office of the President (EOP) C. The Cabinet and Agency Appointees D. The Problem of Control IV. Factors in Presidential Leadership A. The Force of Circumstance B. The Stage of the President’s Term C. The Nature of the Issue: Foreign or Domestic D. Relations with Congress 1. Seeking Cooperation from Congress 2. Benefiting from Partisan Support in Congress 3. Colliding with Congress E. Public Support 1. Events and Issues 2. The Televised Presidency V. The Illusion of Presidential Government VI. Summary Focus and Main Points This chapter examines the roots of presidential power, the presidential selection process, the staffing of the presidency, and the factors associated with the success and failure of presidential leadership. The main ideas of this chapter are: •Over time, the presidency has become a more powerful office. This development owes largely to the legacy of strong presidents and to domestic and international developments that have increased the need for executive leadership. •The modern presidential campaign is a marathon affair in which selfselected candidates seek a strong start in the nominating contests and a well-run media campaign in the general election. •The president could not control the executive branch without a large number of presidential appointees—advisers, experts, and skilled managers— but the sheer number of these appointees is itself a challenge to presidential control. •The president’s election by national vote and position as sole chief executive make the presidency the focal point of national politics. Nevertheless, whether presidents are able to accomplish their goals depends on their personal capacity for leadership, national and international conditions, the stage of their presidency, the partisan composition of Congress, and whether the issue is foreign or domestic. Chapter Summary The presidency has become a much stronger office than the framers envisioned. The Constitution grants the president substantial military, diplomatic, legislative, and executive powers, and in each case the president’s authority has increased measurably over the nation’s history. Underlying this change is the president’s position as the one leader chosen by the whole nation and as the sole head of the executive branch. These features of the office have enabled presidents to claim broad authority in response to the increased demands placed on the federal government by changing global and national conditions. During the course of American history, the presidential selection process has been altered in ways intended to make it more responsive to the preferences of ordinary people. Today, the electorate has a vote not only in the general election but also in the selection of party nominees. To gain nomination, a presidential hopeful must win the support of the electorate in state primaries and open caucuses. To then win the presidency, the candidates must invest enormous amounts of money in a media-centered campaign in order to win the required number of electoral college votes for victory. Although the campaign tends to personalize the presidency, the responsibilities of the modern presidency far exceed any president’s personal capacities. To meet their obligations, presidents have surrounded themselves with large staffs of advisers, policy experts, and managers. These staff members enable the president to extend control over the executive branch while at the same time providing the information necessary for policymaking. All recent presidents have discovered, however, that their control of staff resources is incomplete and that some things that others do on their behalf can work against what they are trying to accomplish. As sole chief executive and the nation’s top elected leader, presidents can always expect that their policy and leadership efforts will receive attention. However, other institutions, particularly Congress, have the authority to make presidential leadership effective. No president has come close to winning approval of all the programs he has placed before Congress, and presidents’ records of success have varied considerably. The factors in a president’s success include whether national conditions that require strong leadership from the White House are present and whether the president’s party has a majority in Congress. Presidential success stems from the backing of the American people. Recent presidents have made extensive use of the media to build public support for their programs, yet they have had difficulty maintaining that support throughout their terms of office. A major reason is that the public expects far more from its presidents than they can deliver, and presidents get too much credit when things go well and too much blame when things go poorly. Major Concepts Whig theory A theory that prevailed in the nineteenth century and held that the presidency was a limited or restrained office whose occupant was confined to expressly granted constitutional authority. stewardship theory A theory that argues for a strong, assertive presidential role, with presidential authority limited only at points specifically prohibited by law. open party caucuses Meetings at which a party’s candidates for nomination are voted on and that are open to all the party’s rank-and-file voters who want to attend. invisible primary The critical period before the first presidential primaries and caucuses when the candidates compete for the public support, media attention, and financial contributions that can spell the difference between winning and losing once the voting begins. momentum (in campaigns) A strong showing by a candidate in early presidential nominating contests, which leads to a buildup of public support for the candidate. unit rule The rule that grants all of a state’s electoral votes to the candidate who receives most of the popular votes in the state. White House Office (WHO) A subunit of the Executive Office of the President, the White House Office is the core of the presidential staff system in that it includes the president’s closest and most trusted personal advisers. cabinet A group consisting of the heads of the (cabinet) executive departments, who are appointed by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate. The cabinet was once the main advisory body to the president but no longer plays this role. honeymoon period The president’s first months in office, a time when Congress, the press, and the public are more inclined than usual to support presidential initiatives. presidential approval ratings A measure of the degree to which the public approves or disapproves of the president’s performance in office. Lecture Outline This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid. I. Foundations of the Modern Presidency The framers did not anticipate the development of presidential selection via popular election. Yet with the expansion of presidential power, particularly in the twentieth century, presidential elections have become tiresome ordeals because the prize is highly coveted, as presidents can wield a great deal of power and influence in American politics. •The framers wanted an independent president, but one with restricted powers. •Article II has relatively vague statements about presidential powers. •The framers did not anticipate expansion of presidential power. •The framers did not foresee the leadership implications of the presidency. The president can claim to represent the nation due to the twin features of national election and singular authority, which foster a strong presidency. •According to the Whig theory of the presidency, the president was limited to expressly-granted constitutional authority. •Those subscribing to stewardship theory call for a strong, assertive presidential role, a presidential view that is prevalent today. •A strong president is needed to respond to national and foreign crises and the increased policy responsibilities of the executive. A large and active government is also conducive to a strong presidency. •The president is the foreign policy leader for the United States, a nation with an important political, military, and economic role in the international arena. •With the expansion in the role of the state in areas of economic regulation and social welfare, the president as chief executive and legislative leader has necessarily gained power. II. Choosing the President The presidential selection process has involved the Electoral College, the party convention system, and the primary and open caucus systems. The presidential selection system has changed from an elite-dominated process to one that is based on popular support. The race for the presidential nomination is a lengthy one that is influenced by a few key factors. •Because voters pick the party’s nominees, the race for president is open to just about any prominent politician with the energy, resources, and desire to run. •A strong showing in the early primary and caucus contests creates momentum, which creates further public support in subsequent primaries; lack of momentum leads to a loss of public support, news coverage, and financial backing. •A candidate must have strength to prevail in a long nomination race, and factors such as fundraising ability, poll standing, and debate performance play an important role. •Money is a critical factor. The winner of the nominating races is most often the candidate that has raised the most funds. The national party convention is used to nominate and showcase the party’s presidential candidate. •The convention is a major event, bringing together the delegates elected in the state caucuses and primaries, who then approve a party platform and formally nominate the party’s presidential and vice presidential candidates. •The vice presidential nominee is chosen at the convention according to the wishes of the presidential nominee. Winning the general election requires a coalition built on partisanship, issues, and image. •The general election winner is certain to be the nominee of either the Republican or Democratic party. •Most of the campaigning and advertising is done in “toss-up” states where neither party has a clear overwhelming majority. •The most important factor in the election strategy is the Electoral College system. The importance of electoral votes is magnified by the unit rule. Candidates must consider both the competitiveness of each state and the number of Electoral College votes that each state will bring. Money and the media have important roles in general elections. •Candidates today base their campaigns around the media, particularly the Internet and television. •Television advertising and televised debates are both important and permanent fixtures of presidential campaigns. The winners of presidential elections through the 2008 election were all white males. •The holding of high public office is nearly an informal prerequisite for gaining the presidency. •Nearly all presidents to date have served previously as vice presidents, members of Congress, state governors, or top federal executives; but it is clear that there is no single template for being a successful president. III. Staffing the Presidency The duties of the modern president far exceed the capacities of any one person; a large executive staff is mandatory. The president’s appointment power is significant. Appointees are important sources of information and extend the president’s influence into the bureaucracy. •The vice presidency has no constitutional authority of its own. However, recent presidents have given vice presidents important responsibilities. •The Executive Office of the President (EOP) is the president’s personal bureaucracy, which includes the National Security Council, White House Office, National Economic Council, and Office of Management and Budget. •Of the EOP’s units, the White House Office (WHO) serves the president most directly. It includes the Communications Office, the Office of the Press Secretary, and the Office of Legislative Affairs. •The president’s cabinet members are important players within their specific areas. The cabinet as a collective decision-making body is a thing of the past. •The president also appoints and is assisted by the heads and top executives of federal agencies. A president’s responsibilities make it impossible for him or her to direct and keep track of the actions that appointees carry out in his or her name. Furthermore, the president may not be able to control numerous, independently oriented subordinates. Lower-level career appointees may be captured by their own agency and thus be resistant to presidential overtures. Presidents have greater responsibilities than their predecessors and thus more power, but they must rely on staffers who may or may not act in the best interests of the president. IV. Factors in Presidential Leadership A variety of factors influence presidential leadership. •A president’s natural leadership qualities can vary greatly compared to others who have held the office. •The external circumstances faced by a president have an important influence on his or her ability to lead; in times of crisis, presidents can wield enormous influence, while the capacity to lead diminishes during normal circumstances. •Every presidential term can be divided into stages corresponding to the level of authority available to the president, determining her or his ability to influence events. Thus, the honeymoon period for most presidents is a time when quick and decisive actions may occur; conversely, presidents are not as effective later in their terms of office. •Presidents tend to have somewhat more power and influence in foreign affairs than in domestic affairs—Wildavsky’s “two presidencies” thesis. The factors that determine success or failure in one area are common to both policy areas. In foreign affairs, presidents are assisted by their access to information from the various executive intelligence agencies. Acquiring congressional support is essential for becoming and remaining a successful president. •Not all presidents possess the political skill required to successfully manage relations with Congress. •While presidents can exercise the veto to influence Congress, its use may signal executive weakness or undermine relations with Congress. •Presidents must utilize the power to persuade in a system of divided powers. •Presidents are more successful if they treat members of Congress as a constituency, responding to their interests and needs. •The degree of partisan support for a president within Congress can have an impact upon presidential performance. •The removal of the president from office via impeachment in the House and conviction in the Senate is the ultimate tool of Congress, but is one that hasn’t been attempted since President Clinton’s second term. •There have been periodic collisions between the presidency and Congress. The War Powers Act is the most significant congressional attempt to restrain the president. Public support has a major effect on the president’s ability to attain policy goals. •The public tends to attribute economic downturns to the presidency, thus lowering overall public confidence in the institution. •Presidential approval ratings usually decrease over time. The personal character of the president has some effect on this measure. •International crises nearly always increase the president’s approval rating in the short term due to a public tendency to rally around the flag. Modern presidents must use television. Television creates advantages and disadvantages for the president. •A major advantage of the modern president is his/her guaranteed access to television, such as going public, bypassing Congress, and appealing directly to the American people. V. The Illusion of Presidential Government •Presidents must put their spin on the news to counter negative reporting that is disadvantageous to the president. •Frequent television appearances and claims of success add to the public’s belief that the president is in charge of the national government. This perception is the illusion of presidential government. •The irony is that the presidential office grows weaker as the number of problems increase. Complementary Lecture Topics Below are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general, these topics assume that students have read the chapter beforehand. •Some presidential scholars claim that it is the public, and not the Constitution, that is the source of presidential authority. Evaluate the merits of this argument. •The process of choosing presidential nominees has changed significantly over the past few decades. Among other things, the old elite of party leaders—governors, mayors, members of Congress, and party chairpersons—has given way to a new elite of journalists and hired campaign consultants. Is the new system more democratic? What are the implications of this shift? •Which personal and political aspects of a candidate are rewarded by the current system of electing presidents? Are the attributes of a strong candidate the same as those of a strong president? Why or why not? What changes in the presidential selection process might encourage the selection of better candidates? •The president needs a large staff to carry out the responsibilities of the office, but the very size of his/her staff threatens the president’s control of the office. What are some possible solutions to this dilemma and can it ever be fully resolved? •Theodore Roosevelt wished he could be “the president and Congress too,” and enact as well as propose legislation. Roosevelt’s wish corresponds to the position, for example, of British prime ministers, who are both chief executive and legislative head of their governments. What are the policymaking advantages and disadvantages of each system? Would an increase in presidential authority by means such as a line-item veto improve the American system? •Richard Neustadt concludes that the essence of presidential power is the power to persuade. He suggests that as the formal powers of the presidency are relatively weak, the president depends on a variety of Washington constituencies (Congress in particular) for support. Evaluate the merit of the Neustadt thesis and its implications for presidential power. Class Discussion Topics 1. What personal and political aspects of a candidate are rewarded by the current system of electing presidents? Are the attributes of a strong candidate the same as those of a strong president? Why or why not? Answer: Personal Aspects: • Charisma and Image: Candidates who possess strong personal charisma and a compelling public image are often rewarded. Media appeal and the ability to connect with voters on an emotional level can be crucial for success. • Media Savvy: Effective use of media and communication skills are vital. Candidates who are adept at navigating media landscapes and utilizing social media often gain a significant advantage. Political Aspects: • Party Affiliation and Endorsements: Success is often linked to securing party endorsements and aligning with party platforms. Establishing strong connections within the party and gaining support from influential party leaders can be decisive. • Fundraising Abilities: The ability to raise substantial campaign funds is critical. Candidates with robust fundraising networks can finance extensive campaign operations and outreach efforts. Attributes of a Strong Candidate vs. a Strong President: • Candidate Attributes: A strong candidate may excel in public speaking, debate performances, and media engagements. They often present themselves as visionaries and effective leaders. • Presidential Attributes: While some attributes overlap, a strong president requires effective governance skills, the ability to make complex decisions, and a capacity for strategic long-term planning. Leadership during crises, policy expertise, and the ability to work with Congress and other institutions are essential for a successful presidency. Conclusion: • The attributes rewarded by the current election system may not always align perfectly with the qualities needed for effective presidential leadership. While charisma and media prowess can help a candidate win an election, successful governance requires a broader range of skills and experience. 2. What information does the public need to properly assess the qualifications of potential presidential candidates? Does the current system that gives a larger role to journalists and hired campaign consultants make the selection process more elitist and less democratic? Answer: Information Needed for Proper Assessment: • Policy Positions: Detailed understanding of a candidate's policy positions on key issues, including economic, foreign policy, and social issues. • Experience and Qualifications: Information about a candidate’s previous political and professional experience, including their accomplishments and leadership roles. • Personal Character and Integrity: Insight into a candidate’s personal character, values, and ethical behavior, as well as their ability to handle the pressures of the presidency. Role of Journalists and Campaign Consultants: • Journalists: Provide critical information and analysis about candidates. Their role includes fact-checking, reporting on campaign activities, and scrutinizing candidates’ statements and records. • Campaign Consultants: Help shape a candidate’s public image, develop campaign strategies, and manage media relations. They play a significant role in crafting messages and targeting voters. Implications for Democracy: • Elitism and Democracy: The current system, with its reliance on journalists and consultants, can create a more elitist environment if it emphasizes media-savvy and professional campaign management over substantive policy discussions. This may limit the role of average voters in shaping the selection process and increase the influence of elite decision-makers. Conclusion: • Ensuring that the public has access to comprehensive, unbiased information is crucial for a democratic selection process. The roles of journalists and consultants need to balance between providing valuable insights and ensuring that the process remains accessible and democratic. 3. Public support is the essential prerequisite for successful presidential leadership. However, the American public’s lack of intense interest in politics makes it difficult to arouse voters’ attention or educate them on issues. Does this imply that presidents are essentially forced to be followers more than leaders of the people? What implications does this have for the classical roles presidents have taken in the past? Answer: Challenges of Public Engagement: • Limited Voter Interest: The general public’s limited interest in politics can make it difficult for presidents to engage voters and educate them on important issues. • Media Fragmentation: With fragmented media sources and varying levels of news consumption, achieving widespread public attention can be challenging. Implications for Presidential Leadership: • Followership vs. Leadership: Presidents may need to adapt to the preferences and sentiments of the public, which can sometimes limit their ability to lead independently. They may focus on issues that capture public interest rather than pursuing long-term, potentially unpopular reforms. • Classical Roles: Historically, presidents have taken on roles as visionaries and reformers. However, modern constraints may shift the focus toward reactive leadership and catering to current public concerns. Conclusion: • While public support is essential, the challenge of engaging an apathetic or disengaged electorate may influence presidential leadership styles. Balancing public responsiveness with visionary leadership is a key challenge for modern presidents. 4. How important to performing the on-going tasks of the modern presidency are questions of personal character? Should a distinction be made between the private and public behavior of a president? Answer: Role of Personal Character: • Governance: Personal character traits such as integrity, honesty, and resilience are crucial for effective governance. They influence a president’s ability to build trust, make ethical decisions, and handle crises. • Public Perception: Personal behavior can impact public perception and trust in the presidency. Scandals or unethical behavior may undermine a president’s effectiveness and legitimacy. Private vs. Public Behavior: • Private Behavior: While private behavior may be less relevant to governance, significant personal misconduct can have implications for public trust and the ability to lead effectively. • Public Behavior: Public behavior is directly related to the president’s role and responsibilities. It affects how the president is perceived by the public and other officials, and it can influence political support and effectiveness. Conclusion: • Personal character plays a significant role in both the perception and performance of a president. While a distinction can be made between private and public behavior, significant personal issues can impact the presidency's functioning and public confidence. Maintaining high ethical standards and personal integrity is essential for effective presidential leadership. Instructor Manual for We The People: An Introduction to American Government Thomas L. Patterson 9781259912405