CH-10-12 Racial and Ethnic Inequality – Sociology in Modules : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 10 to 12 Chapter 10 Racial and Ethnic Inequality ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What are the five basic properties of a minority group? Answer: A minority group is characterized by the following five basic properties: 1. Unequal Treatment: Members face systemic discrimination and receive less favorable treatment compared to the dominant group. 2. Distinctive Identity: The group maintains unique physical, cultural, or linguistic traits that distinguish them from the majority. 3. Ascribed Status: Membership in the minority group is usually assigned at birth and is not easily changed, based on characteristics such as race or ethnicity. 4. Group Solidarity: Members often develop a strong sense of identity and solidarity due to shared experiences of marginalization and discrimination. 5. Subordinate Status: The group occupies a lower status in the social hierarchy, which affects their access to resources, opportunities, and power compared to the dominant group. 2. What was the “one-drop rule” and how was it related to the social construction of race? Answer: The “one-drop rule” was a social and legal principle in the United States that classified individuals with any known African ancestry as Black, regardless of their physical appearance. This rule was integral to the social construction of race, as it reinforced racial boundaries and justified racial segregation and discrimination by maintaining rigid racial categories. It illustrates how race is not based on objective biological differences but on socially constructed and arbitrary definitions that serve to enforce social hierarchies and racial inequalities. 3. What is meant by the social construction of race? Answer: The social construction of race refers to the idea that race is not a biological reality but a concept created and defined by social processes and power dynamics. It means that racial categories and their associated meanings are shaped by historical, cultural, and social contexts rather than inherent differences. This construction influences how individuals are perceived and treated in society, leading to the establishment of racial hierarchies and inequalities based on socially constructed definitions and stereotypes. 4. Distinguish between race and ethnicity. Answer: Race refers to categories of people based on perceived physical differences, such as skin color, facial features, or hair texture. It is often used to classify individuals into broad, socially constructed groups that are assigned varying levels of social status and privilege. Ethnicity, on the other hand, pertains to cultural traits and heritage, such as language, religion, traditions, and customs. It reflects a shared cultural identity and often includes a sense of historical or ancestral connection. While race is more about physical characteristics and often imposed externally, ethnicity involves self-identification and cultural practices that provide a sense of belonging and identity. 5. Distinguish among prejudice, ethnocentrism, and racism. Answer: Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or beliefs towards individuals based on their membership in a particular group. It involves preconceived notions and biases without direct evidence or personal experience. Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to others, leading to the evaluation of other cultures based on the standards of one's own culture. It often results in viewing other cultures as inferior or less civilized. Racism encompasses both prejudice and systemic discrimination based on race. It involves institutional and structural practices that disadvantage people based on racial categories, reinforcing social hierarchies and inequities. Racism can manifest in individual attitudes, societal norms, and institutional policies that perpetuate racial inequalities. 6. Define color-blind racism and explain why many believe it is a form of covert racism. Answer: Color-blind racism is the belief that race and racial issues should be ignored, with the idea that treating everyone the same regardless of race will eliminate racism. This approach denies the existence of systemic inequalities and racial discrimination by claiming that focusing on race is itself problematic. Many believe color-blind racism is a form of covert racism because it obscures and perpetuates existing racial inequalities by ignoring the structural and historical contexts that contribute to racial disparities. By not acknowledging race, color-blind racism prevents meaningful discussions and solutions to address racial injustice, thus maintaining the status quo and perpetuating subtle forms of discrimination. 7. What are hate crimes, and to what extent are they a problem in the U.S.? Answer: Hate crimes are criminal acts motivated by bias or prejudice against a person's race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, or other protected characteristics. These crimes include violence, vandalism, and threats aimed at individuals or groups based on their identity. Hate crimes are a significant issue in the U.S., reflecting underlying tensions and biases in society. The FBI and other organizations report periodic increases in hate crimes, particularly targeting marginalized groups such as racial and ethnic minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, and religious communities. These crimes not only harm victims but also instill fear and disrupt communities, making them a pressing concern for social justice and law enforcement. 8. What is the glass ceiling? How prevalent is it in the United States today? Answer: The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that prevents women and minorities from advancing to top executive positions in organizations, despite having the qualifications and capabilities. This barrier is not explicitly formalized but is a result of systemic biases, discrimination, and institutional practices that limit career progression. In the United States, the glass ceiling remains prevalent, with women and minorities still underrepresented in executive roles and high-level positions across various industries. Although there have been improvements and increasing awareness, disparities persist, reflecting ongoing challenges in achieving gender and racial equality in leadership and decision-making roles. 9. What are some of the unspoken privileges of White people, as described by Peggy McIntosh? Answer: Peggy McIntosh describes unspoken privileges of White people in her concept of "White privilege" as societal advantages that White individuals experience without having to earn them. Examples include the ability to move through life without fear of racial profiling, having cultural norms reflect one's racial identity, and not being burdened by the need to constantly prove oneself in professional settings due to race. These privileges are often invisible to those who possess them but are significant for understanding racial inequalities and the advantages afforded to White people in various social contexts. 10. Distinguish between (individual) discrimination and institutional discrimination and give an example of each concept. Answer: Individual discrimination refers to biased actions or behaviors by individuals that negatively impact others based on their race, gender, or other characteristics. For example, if an employer refuses to hire a qualified candidate solely based on their race, this represents individual discrimination. Institutional discrimination, on the other hand, involves systematic and entrenched policies and practices within institutions that disadvantage certain groups. An example is a company's hiring practices that disproportionately favor candidates from certain racial backgrounds due to biased criteria or a lack of diversity initiatives, which perpetuates broader patterns of inequality and exclusion within the workplace. 11. What is affirmative action and what have been the reactions to affirmative action programs in the United States? Answer: Affirmative action refers to policies and practices designed to improve opportunities for historically marginalized groups, particularly in education and employment. These measures aim to address past discrimination by promoting diversity and providing equal chances for individuals from underrepresented groups. Reactions to affirmative action in the United States are highly polarized. Supporters argue that it is essential for correcting systemic inequalities and creating a more equitable society by providing opportunities for those who have been historically disadvantaged. Opponents, however, claim that affirmative action can lead to reverse discrimination, undermine meritocracy, and perpetuate racial division. Legal challenges and public debates have shaped the implementation and scope of these programs, reflecting ongoing conflicts over race and equality. 12. What is the functionalist perspective on race? Answer: The functionalist perspective on race emphasizes how racial and ethnic groups contribute to the stability and functioning of society. According to functionalists, race and ethnicity can create social cohesion by fostering group identity and solidarity. They argue that diversity can enhance social integration and stability by ensuring that various groups play distinct roles in the social system. However, functionalism can be critiqued for downplaying the conflicts and inequalities that arise from racial and ethnic differences, and for assuming that societal functions are inherently positive and harmonious. 13. How do conflict theorists view race? Answer: Conflict theorists view race as a source of social conflict and a means for powerful groups to maintain their dominance over marginalized groups. They argue that racial inequalities are a result of systemic power imbalances, where dominant groups exploit and oppress minority groups to preserve their economic and social advantages. According to this perspective, race is a key factor in perpetuating social stratification and economic disparity, as dominant groups use racial divisions to justify unequal distribution of resources and opportunities. 14. Explain what is meant by the exploitation theory of racial subordination. Answer: The exploitation theory of racial subordination posits that racial inequalities and discrimination are rooted in the economic exploitation of minority groups. This theory, influenced by Marxist thought, argues that racial subordination serves the interests of the dominant group by maintaining a labor force that can be exploited for economic gain. Minority groups are often positioned in lower-wage, less secure jobs, and their economic disadvantage reinforces their subordinate status, enabling those in power to extract greater profits and maintain their privileged status. 15. Describe the controversies surrounding the practice of racial profiling. Answer: Racial profiling involves law enforcement targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on their race or ethnicity rather than evidence or behavior. The controversy surrounding racial profiling centers on its potential to perpetuate racial stereotypes and systemic discrimination. Critics argue that it disproportionately affects minority communities, leading to unwarranted stops, searches, and arrests, and contributes to a cycle of mistrust between these communities and law enforcement. Proponents argue it is a necessary tool for crime prevention, though the practice is widely criticized for undermining civil rights and exacerbating racial inequalities. 16. What are the principles of the contact hypothesis? Answer: The contact hypothesis posits that intergroup contact under certain conditions can reduce prejudice and improve relations between different racial or ethnic groups. The key principles include: 1. Equal Status: Interaction should occur in situations where all groups have equal status. 2. Common Goals: Participants should work towards common objectives that require cooperation. 3. Intergroup Cooperation: The setting should encourage cooperative rather than competitive interactions. 4. Support from Authorities: Institutional support and endorsement of the contact process are necessary. 5. Personal Interaction: Contact should involve personal interactions, not just superficial exchanges. These conditions help break down stereotypes and build mutual understanding, reducing intergroup tension. 17. Identify and briefly describe the four typical patterns of intergroup relations presented in the textbook. Answer: The four typical patterns of intergroup relations are: 1. Assimilation: Minority groups gradually adopt the cultural norms of the dominant group, often resulting in a loss of their own cultural identity. An example is the integration of immigrants into mainstream society. 2. Pluralism: Groups maintain their distinct cultural identities while coexisting peacefully with others. This pattern promotes mutual respect and diversity within a shared society. 3. Segregation: Groups live separately and lead distinct lives, often due to institutional or social barriers. This can be de facto (resulting from social conditions) or de jure (legally enforced). 4. Conflict: Groups experience ongoing tension or hostility, which can lead to social strife or violence. This pattern often arises from competition for resources or power. 18. Examine the relationship between African Americans and White Americans from a conflict perspective. Answer: From a conflict perspective, the relationship between African Americans and White Americans is characterized by systemic power imbalances and competition for resources. Conflict theorists argue that racial tensions and inequalities are rooted in economic and social disparities, where White Americans, historically in positions of power, have exploited African Americans for labor and resources. This perspective emphasizes that racial discrimination and segregation are mechanisms used by dominant groups to maintain their privilege and economic advantages, perpetuating social and economic inequalities between the races. 19. Indicate whether “Black power” indicates an assimilationist or a pluralist attitude. Answer: "Black Power" is indicative of a pluralist attitude. It emphasizes the importance of African Americans asserting their identity, culture, and political power while advocating for racial pride and self-determination. Unlike assimilationist approaches that seek integration into the dominant culture, Black Power supports the idea of maintaining distinct cultural identities and fighting for equal rights and justice within a pluralistic framework. It promotes the idea of diverse groups having equal standing and influence in society rather than conforming to the norms of the dominant group. 20. Describe the “model minority” stereotype and analyze its accuracy. Answer: The "model minority" stereotype describes a racial or ethnic group, particularly Asian Americans, as achieving high levels of success in education, employment, and socioeconomic status through hard work and adherence to traditional values. This stereotype suggests that the group is free from significant issues and serves as a positive example to other minorities. However, this stereotype is inaccurate and problematic as it overlooks significant diversity within the group and ignores systemic issues such as discrimination and socioeconomic disparities. It can also create unrealistic expectations and pressure for individuals within the group, while contributing to the marginalization of those who do not fit the stereotype, thus reinforcing racial and ethnic hierarchies. 21. Describe the special injustice that Japanese Americans experienced during the last century. Answer: During World War II, Japanese Americans faced significant injustice through the internment camps established by the U.S. government. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans, most of whom were U.S. citizens, were forcibly relocated and incarcerated in internment camps under Executive Order 9066. This action was driven by racial prejudice and wartime hysteria rather than any evidence of disloyalty. The internment resulted in severe personal and economic losses for many families and has been widely recognized as a grave civil rights violation, culminating in the U.S. government’s formal apology and reparations in the 1980s. 22. What are some of the distinctive characteristics of the Korean-American population? Answer: The Korean-American population is marked by several distinctive characteristics: 1. High Levels of Education: Korean Americans generally place a strong emphasis on education, resulting in higher educational attainment compared to other immigrant groups. 2. Economic Activities: Many Korean Americans are involved in small business ownership, such as grocery stores, dry cleaners, and beauty salons. 3. Family Structure: Korean Americans often maintain traditional family values, with a strong emphasis on respect for elders and family cohesion. 4. Religious Affiliation: There is a significant presence of Korean-American Christian churches, reflecting the population's high levels of religious affiliation. 5. Cultural Preservation: Korean Americans actively preserve their cultural heritage through community organizations, language schools, and cultural festivals. 23. What are some of the distinctive characteristics of the Arab-American population? Answer: The Arab-American population exhibits several distinctive characteristics: 1. Diverse Origins: Arab Americans come from a range of countries, including Lebanon, Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, leading to varied cultural practices and religious affiliations. 2. Religious Diversity: While many are Muslim, there are also significant Christian and Druze populations among Arab Americans. 3. Economic Contributions: Arab Americans are often involved in a variety of professions, including business, medicine, and engineering. 4. Cultural Practices: The population maintains cultural traditions such as Arabic language use, cuisine, and family-centered values. 5. Political Engagement: Arab Americans are increasingly engaged in U.S. politics, advocating for civil rights and combating stereotypes. 24. What are the differences among the various groups that comprise the Latino population in the United States? Answer: The Latino population in the U.S. is diverse, encompassing several distinct groups: 1. Mexican Americans: Represent the largest segment, with a significant focus on family and community, often with close ties to Mexico. 2. Puerto Ricans: U.S. citizens by birth, with a unique cultural identity that blends elements of indigenous, African, and Spanish heritage, and experiences distinct from those on the mainland. 3. Cuban Americans: Many arrived during the Cuban revolution, with a significant focus on anti-communist sentiment and a strong presence in the political and economic arenas of Florida. 4. Central and South Americans: Include diverse groups from countries like El Salvador, Guatemala, Colombia, and Peru, each bringing distinct cultural practices and migration experiences. 5. Different Socioeconomic Statuses: The Latino population displays a wide range of socioeconomic statuses, from highly educated professionals to working-class individuals facing economic challenges. 25. How are transnationals evidence of changes in immigration to the U.S.? Answer: Transnationals illustrate significant changes in immigration patterns by highlighting the increased mobility and connection between immigrants and their countries of origin. These individuals maintain strong ties to their homeland through remittances, travel, and communication while also integrating into U.S. society. This dual connection reflects a shift from traditional, one-way immigration to a more fluid and interconnected experience, where immigrants navigate multiple identities and maintain substantial economic and cultural links with their countries of origin. 26. How have U.S. immigration policies changed since the 1960s? Answer: Since the 1960s, U.S. immigration policies have undergone several key changes: 1. 1965 Immigration Act: Abolished the racially discriminatory quotas of the 1920s, shifting to a system based on family reunification and skilled labor. 2. 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act: Provided amnesty to certain undocumented immigrants and introduced penalties for employers hiring unauthorized workers. 3. 1990 Immigration Act: Increased the number of legal immigrants allowed into the U.S., emphasizing employment-based and diversity visas. 4. 2000s Legislation: Introduced measures such as the Real ID Act and increased border security post-9/11, alongside debates over comprehensive immigration reform. 5. Recent Policies: Have seen fluctuations with changes in administration, including attempts to limit immigration and reform pathways to citizenship, reflecting ongoing debates over immigration control and enforcement. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Describe what is meant by the social construction of race. How can this concept be applied to Americans from multiple racial backgrounds? Answer: The social construction of race refers to the idea that racial categories are created and maintained through social processes and beliefs, rather than being biologically inherent. This concept implies that racial identities and their associated meanings are shaped by societal norms and historical contexts. For Americans from multiple racial backgrounds, this means that racial identities can be fluid and complex, influenced by personal experiences and societal perceptions, rather than fixed or determined by biology alone. 2. Discuss whether or not someone can “become” a member of another race through means such as plastic surgery (i.e., to change the slant of eyelids, lighten skin color, alter the appearance of hair, etc.). Use this as a platform to discuss the social construction of race. Answer: Someone cannot truly “become” a member of another race through cosmetic changes because race is a social construct deeply rooted in historical and cultural contexts, not just physical appearance. While plastic surgery can alter external features, it does not change the social and historical meanings attached to racial identities. The social construction of race emphasizes that racial categories are defined by complex social processes, including cultural heritage and personal experiences, which cannot be fully altered by physical modifications alone. 3. Discuss the various ethnocentric practices historically used by the United States that may have contributed to the development of prejudicial attitudes toward other cultures or groups of people. Answer: Historically, ethnocentric practices in the U.S. included policies like the Chinese Exclusion Act, which discriminated against Chinese immigrants, and the internment of Japanese Americans during WWII. These practices reinforced the belief in the superiority of dominant cultural norms while marginalizing and dehumanizing other groups. Such historical prejudices have contributed to enduring negative stereotypes and discriminatory attitudes toward various cultural and ethnic groups. 4. Discuss how racism can be viewed as both functional and dysfunctional for a society. Be sure to include the three major sociological views in your discussion. Answer: From a functionalist perspective, racism might be seen as functional by maintaining social order through established hierarchies and social roles, though this is a controversial and critical view. Conflict theorists view racism as dysfunctional, creating inequality and conflict between groups, and serving the interests of those in power by oppressing marginalized groups. Symbolic interactionists focus on how racism perpetuates itself through social interactions and stereotypes, contributing to ongoing discrimination and inequality. Overall, while some may argue for temporary functional aspects, racism is largely seen as dysfunctional due to its harmful effects on social cohesion and equity. 5. Define the term model minority and discuss which minority group is perceived as living up to that image. Why do you think other minorities have not been as fortunate in obtaining a “model” status? Answer: The model minority stereotype describes a minority group that is perceived as achieving high levels of success, often in education and employment, while facing fewer societal challenges compared to other minorities. Asian Americans are commonly cited as the "model minority" due to their high educational attainment and economic success. Other minorities may not receive the same status due to systemic barriers, socioeconomic challenges, and differing historical experiences that impact their opportunities and societal perceptions. 6. Describe how affirmative action programs are perceived by some to have both helped and hindered the mission and goals of certain minority groups. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: Affirmative action is perceived as having helped by increasing opportunities for historically marginalized groups, such as improving access to education and employment for African Americans and women. However, it is also seen as hindering by creating perceptions of reverse discrimination and potentially stigmatizing beneficiaries as needing special treatment. For example, some argue that affirmative action in college admissions can lead to questions about the merit of admitted students, while others believe it provides necessary support to overcome systemic inequities. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Cross-Cultural Race and Ethnicity: Begin your study of this topic with the review essay by Peter d’Erico, Contemporary Sociology 25 (March 1996): 159–161. 2. White Racism: A good bibliographic essay on “White racism” was prepared by Joe R. Feagin and Aaron C. Porter, Choice: Current Review of Academic Books 33 (February 1996): 903–914. 3. Comparing the Production of Race, Gender, and Class Inequalities: How should we compare the mechanisms through which inequalities of race, gender, and class are produced? Evelyn Nakano Glenn. Unequal Freedom: How Race and Gender Shaped American Citizenship and Labor. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. 4. Institutional Discrimination in Developing Countries: For information on the lack of advancement for natives in high-technology careers, see Ivar Jonsson, “Development, Learning-Processes and Institutionalized Racism,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 22 (January 1999): 113–135. 5. Segregation, Cross-Cultural: What are the patterns of segregation in the rest of the world? A good place to begin is Eric Fong, “A Comparative Perspective on Race Residential Segregation: American and Canadian Experiences,” The Sociological Quarterly 37 (Spring 1996): 199–226. 6. Arabs in Israel: What are the everyday relations among young women in Israel as it relates to the larger Israeli-Arab conflict? This in-depth interview study of Jewish girls in Israel is an effective starting point. See Niza Yanay, “National Hatred, Female Subjectivity, and the Boundaries of Cultural Discourse,” Symbolic Interaction 19 (Spring 1996): 21–36. 7. The Experience of Non-White Ethnics in Europe: How do social patterns for European ethnic minorities differ from those in the U.S.? This edited volume gives students a good basis for making this comparison. Sophie Body-Gendrot and Marco Martinello, eds. Minorities in European Cities: The Dynamics of Social Integration and Social Exclusion at the Neighborhood Level. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000. 8. Slavery in the United States: Two books published at about the same time produced very different views of slavery. See Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman. Time on the Cross. Boston: Little Brown, 1974; and Herbert G. Gutman. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom. New York: Pantheon, 1976. Relying on these resources and others, examine various unresolved issues about slavery. Herbert Gutman later published a critique of Time on the Cross; see Gutman. Slavery and the Numbers Game. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1975. 9. Internet as a Source of Information on African Americans: The Internet is an excellent source of information on African Americans. Try the following sites: The Drum, drum.ncat.edu/; and Black Voices.com, http://blackvoices.com. 10. Cuban Americans: This Hispanic group offers an interesting case study of a recent immigrant group. To begin research, consult Kevin A. Hill and Dario Moreno, “Second-Generation Cubans,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Studies, 18 (May 1996): 175–193. 11. Contact Hypothesis: A recent empirical study of the contact hypothesis allows for further exploration of this topic. See Barrett A. Lee, Chad R. Farrell, and Bruce G. Link, “Revisiting the Contact Hypothesis: The Case of Public Exposure to Homelessness,” American Sociological Review, 69 (February 2004): 40-63. VIDEO RESOURCES A Class Divided (1985, PBS Frontline, 47 minutes). In this classic documentary, third grade teacher Jane Elliott implements an aggressive classroom exercise intended to teach her students a real-life lesson about prejudice and discrimination. The full-length video features coverage of the original classroom exercise, interviews with her students years later, and implementation of the same exercise with members of a prison staff working in Iowa. After Silence: Civil Rights and the Japanese-American Experience (2003, Bullfrog Films, 30m). This film asks how the Japanese-American experience during World War II could shed insight on the situation of Arab Americans today. How can we as a society safeguard their civil rights? America’s Multicultural Heritage (Educational Video Network, 1995, 30m). Emphasizing that many different cultures have made positive contributions to the United States, this program explores the mingling of cultural traditions that characterize the United States. The Angry Eye (2001, Enterprise Media, 52 minutes). This is a dynamic and provocative documentary, showcasing Jane Elliott's world famous Blue-Eyed/Brown-Eyed exercise in discrimination. The tables are turned on white American College students as they are forced to experience the same kind of racist treatment African Americans and other minorities have been receiving for years. Arab Americans (Insight Media, 2001, 30m). This film explores and breaks down common negative stereotypes about Arab Americans. As a tool, it uses filmed student discussions. Becoming American: The Chinese Experience (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2003, 88m). What does it mean to become American? What is lost and what is gained in the process? In interviews with historians, descendants, and recent immigrants, this powerful three-part Bill Moyers series explores these questions through the dramatic experience of the Chinese in America. Between the Crack: Vietnamese Americans (1994, 32m). This documentary follows the production of a play by four young Vietnamese Americans living in Philadelphia. They dramatize experiences from their difficult journeys to America and from their struggles to find acceptance in their new communities. Black Skins, White Masks (1996, 50m). An exploration of the life and teachings of Frantz Fanon, a theorist and writer who was an active participant in the civil rights movement in the United States. Author of Black Skins, White Masks and The Wretched of the Earth, Fanon spoke of the difficulty of being Black but the need to adjust to a world defined by Whites. Chicano! History of the Mexican-American Civil Rights Movement (NLCC Educational Media, 1996, 4 x 60m). Presents a documentary history of the efforts to secure civil rights for Mexican Americans in the 1960s and 1970s. Domino: Interrracial People and the Search for Identity (1994, McGraw-Hill, 45m). This program explores the stories of six interracial people and their quest to forge their own identities. Interracial people are often asked, “Which race do you consider yourself?” The program explores the kinds of issues that are triggered by this question: issues of identity, cultural isolation, and the search for community. Through intensely personal stories, each person profiled in the program recounts how their identity is affected by the experience of their parents’ history, family politics, and the hierarchies of race, gender roles, and class. Ultimately, these six individuals demonstrate how living intimately with two cultures can be a source of strength and enrichment. Horizons and Homelands: Integrating Cultural Roots (McGraw-Hill, 1993, 24m). This program chronicles the lives of two families: a Native-American family that has recently moved from a reservation to the city and a family from Laos that recently immigrated to the same city. Through their honesty and candor, the families explain not only what is distinctive about their own cultures, but also how they are working to integrate these differences with their new lives in an urban environment far removed from their homelands. Incident at Oglala (Artisan Entertainment, 1992). Produced and narrated by Robert Redford. Presents the case of activist Leonard Peltier, who allegedly killed two FBI agents. Invisible Whiteness of Being (Microtraining and Multicultural Development Videos; 2004; 53 minutes). In this engaging video, Professor Derald Wing Sue addresses the question—“what does it mean to be White” and the many ways in which White Americans take their whiteness for granted. Korean Americans in Chicago (PBS, 1992, 60m). This program considers the cultural values that Korean immigrants brought to this country and how these traditional values often conflict with the ideas of the young American-born Koreans. A New People: The American Mosaic (1994, 3 x 15m). Illustrated by archival photographs and historic reenactments, this series explores the diverse roots of American society. It examines pre-Columbian Native-American cultures, the influx of Europeans and Africans to the United States, and slavery. It investigates the urban, multicultural society of contemporary America, shaped by immigrants from Eastern Europe, Asia, and Latin America. A Question of Race (Insight Media, 2001, 51m). This Discovery video demonstrates the controversy over social construction of race and the inability of science to accurately identify a biological gene of race. It also discusses the reality of racial prejudice. Race and Local TV News (McGraw-Hill, 1996, 21m). Does crime coverage on local news programs perpetuate racial stereotypes of Blacks as predators and Whites as victims? This ABC News Nightline program examines that question and possible solutions to the problem. Ted Koppel visits ABC news affiliates in Philadelphia and Austin, Texas, and talks with reporters about what criteria they apply to crime coverage and what guidelines for news stories, if any, are in place to prevent the perpetuation of racial stereotyping. Skin Deep (1995, 53m). Follows a diverse group of students as they explore their prejudices and try desperately to understand each other’s racial attitudes. Suspino: A Cry for Roma (2003, Bullfrog Films, 72m or 50m). This film looks at the increased mistreatment of European Roma, or gypsies, since the overthrow of East European communism. Romania and Italy are the two key case countries. Two Towns of Jasper (PBS, 2002, 83 minutes). This documentary considers the disturbing case of the dragging death of James Byrd, Jr., in Jasper Texas in 1998. Black and white residents of Jasper are interviewed. Two film crews, one black and one white, set out to document the aftermath of the murder by following the subsequent trials of the local men charged with the crime. The result is an explicit and troubling portrait of race in America, one that asks how and why a crime like this could have occurred. Understanding Different Cultural Values and Styles (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 37m). This program refutes the melting pot theory, explaining that employees do not—and should not be expected to—set aside their particular cultural values when they come to work. The most successful organizations and managers are those who understand diversity and seek to profit from it; this program presents the views of African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, and Native Americans who share their work experiences and demonstrate that what they want from others is no more than an open mind and a fair chance. Where Do We Go From Here? (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 58m). This illuminating program blends potent archival footage and photos with group discussion to sensitively explore race relations in the United States. The program also grapples with the issues of anger, identity, prejudice, discrimination, education, and reconciliation. Wrapped in Pride: The Story of Kente in America (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2003, 27m). The Kente cloth has become a familiar pattern in American culture. This video narrated by Ann Duquesnay traces the cultural and political significance of this distinctive cloth. ADDITIONAL READINGS Alba, Richard, and Victor Nee. 2003. Remaking the American Mainstream: Assimilation and Contemporary Immigration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. This is the most recent exploration of immigrant America, in which the authors reassess our understanding of assimilation. Barnes, Annie S. 2000. Everyday Racism: A Book for All Americans. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks. Drawing on her students’ experiences, a professor of sociology and anthropology recounts some middle-class African Americans’ encounters with racism. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2009. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Equality in America. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. The first edition of this best-selling book showed that alongside the subtle forms of discrimination typical of the post-Civil Rights era, a powerful ideology of "color-blind racism" emerged. In the latest edition, Bonilla-Silva extends this challenge with a new chapter on the presidential election. Feagin, Joe R. 2009. The White Racial Frame: Centuries of Racial Framing and Counter-Framing. New York: Routledge. Race scholar Joe Feagin explains systematic and institutional racism through the concept of the white racial frame. Feagin, Joe, Hernan Vera, and Pinar Batur. 2000. White Racism: The Basics. New York: Routledge. Using a case study approach, University of Florida sociologists offer a powerful and disturbing look at the prevalence and severity of racism in the contemporary United States. LeBlanc, Adrian Nicole. 2003. Random Family: Love, Drugs, Trouble, and Coming of Age in the Bronx. New York: Scribner. This is a poignant account of one poor family’s troubled history in the 1980s and 1990s. Malcomson, Scott L. 2000. One Drop of Blood: The American Misadventure of Race. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. A historical account of how race was and is defined in the United States. Nelson, Alondra, and Thuy Linh N. Tu, with Alicia Headlam Hines, eds. 2001. Technicolor: Race, Technology and Everyday Life. New York: New York University Press. An analytical look at the intersection of technology and race, including stereotyped conceptions about the relationship between ethnicity and computer literacy. Ristaino, Marcia Reynders. 2002. Port of Last Resort: The Diaspora Communities of Shanghai. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Ristaino explores a little known, but exceptionally interesting disapora story: Jews and Russians who sought political refuge in China during the first half of the twentieth century. Smith, Tony. 2000. Foreign Attachments: The Power of Ethnic Groups in the Making of American Foreign Policy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. A political scientist considers how ethnic lobbies influence the development of foreign policy. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of race and ethnicity are American Journal (founded in 1971), The Black Scholar (1969), Contemporary Jewry (1978), Ethnic and Racial Studies (1978), Ethnicities (2001), Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Studies (1979), Journal of Refugee Studies (1988), Multicultural Review (1992), and Race and Society (1997). Chapter 11 Stratification by Gender ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. What is meant by the “social construction of gender”? Answer: The social construction of gender refers to the idea that gender roles and identities are not biologically determined but created and shaped by societal norms and cultural expectations. This concept suggests that what it means to be male or female is defined by the society in which one lives, rather than innate or universal traits. For instance, traits considered "masculine" or "feminine" vary widely across cultures and historical periods, demonstrating that gender roles are culturally specific and subject to change rather than fixed by nature. 2. Why is homophobia a relevant topic for discussion in a section on traditional gender-role socialization in the United States? Answer: Homophobia is relevant because it reinforces traditional gender-role socialization by upholding rigid norms about what constitutes "appropriate" gender behavior. In the U.S., traditional gender roles are often strict, with clear expectations for how males and females should behave. Homophobia supports these norms by marginalizing those who deviate from heterosexual and binary gender expectations, thereby maintaining the status quo and discouraging non-conforming behaviors that challenge traditional gender roles. 3. How do the media contribute to gender-role socialization? Answer: The media contribute significantly to gender-role socialization by perpetuating and reinforcing societal expectations of gender through various channels such as television, movies, advertisements, and social media. For instance, media often depict men as strong, independent, and career-focused, while women are shown as nurturing, dependent, and focused on appearance. These portrayals help shape and reinforce stereotypes, influencing how individuals understand and perform their gender roles, often from a very young age. 4. Summarize the findings of anthropologist Margaret Mead regarding cultural conditioning and gender roles. Answer: Anthropologist Margaret Mead conducted pioneering research in the early 20th century, studying gender roles among different cultures in Papua New Guinea. She found that gender roles were not universal but culturally variable. For instance, in the societies she studied, traits and behaviors considered masculine or feminine in Western cultures were often reversed, demonstrating that gender roles are a product of cultural conditioning rather than biological determinism. Her work highlighted the flexibility and cultural specificity of gender roles. 5. What is the functionalist view of stratification by gender? Answer: The functionalist view of gender stratification argues that gender roles and stratification contribute to the stability and efficiency of society. According to functionalists, traditional gender roles allocate responsibilities that complement each other, such as men providing economic support and women focusing on caregiving and household management. This division of labor is seen as functional for maintaining societal order and stability by ensuring that key roles are filled and that social expectations are met. However, this perspective can be critiqued for reinforcing existing inequalities and ignoring the changing dynamics of gender roles. 6. What distinctions are made by Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales in terms of the roles played by men and women in the United States? Answer: Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales distinguished between instrumental and expressive roles in their functionalist analysis. Parsons argued that men typically occupy instrumental roles, focusing on providing for the family and achieving success outside the home, while women take on expressive roles, emphasizing emotional support and caregiving within the home. Bales supported this view, adding that these roles complement each other and contribute to the stability of the family unit. Their framework suggests that traditional gender roles are functional for maintaining societal equilibrium, though it has been critiqued for reinforcing gender stereotypes and overlooking individual variations and changes in gender dynamics. 7. How do conflict theorists view stratification by gender? Answer: Conflict theorists view gender stratification as a reflection of broader social inequalities and power struggles. They argue that gender roles are created and maintained by those in power—typically men—to uphold their dominance and privilege. According to this perspective, the unequal distribution of resources and power between genders results from systemic structures designed to benefit men and perpetuate women's subordination. This view emphasizes how gender inequality is intertwined with other forms of social stratification, such as class and race, and how it is used to maintain the status quo and reinforce power imbalances. 8. What is the feminist view of stratification by gender? Answer: The feminist view of gender stratification focuses on the ways in which societal structures and cultural norms perpetuate women's subordination and inequality. Feminists argue that gender stratification is rooted in patriarchal systems that privilege men and marginalize women. This perspective highlights the need for social change to address systemic sexism and achieve gender equality. Feminists advocate for reforms in various spheres, including the workplace, education, and legal systems, to dismantle discriminatory practices and ensure equal opportunities for all genders. 9. Compare and contrast the feminist and conflict views of stratification by gender. Answer: Both feminist and conflict views agree that gender stratification results from power imbalances and systemic inequality. Feminists specifically focus on how patriarchy and cultural norms reinforce women's subordination and advocate for changes to achieve gender equality. Conflict theorists broaden this analysis to include how gender inequality intersects with other forms of social stratification, such as class. While feminists emphasize cultural and structural changes to dismantle patriarchy, conflict theorists may address broader economic and political systems that perpetuate inequality, viewing gender as one aspect of a larger struggle for social justice. 10. What does the interactionist approach in sociology show concerning gender differences? Answer: The interactionist approach in sociology examines how gender differences are constructed and reinforced through everyday interactions and social practices. This perspective focuses on the micro-level of social life, analyzing how individuals perform and interpret gender roles through socialization processes, language, and symbolic interactions. Interactionists explore how gender identities are negotiated and maintained in daily interactions and how societal expectations influence behavior. This approach highlights the fluidity and variability of gender roles and how they are constantly shaped and reshaped through social interactions. 11. Compare and contrast the functionalist, conflict, feminist, and interactionist views of stratification by gender. Answer: The functionalist view sees gender stratification as a means of maintaining social order and stability, with traditional roles contributing to societal efficiency. Conflict theory emphasizes how gender stratification reflects and perpetuates power imbalances, with men benefiting at the expense of women. Feminist theory focuses on the patriarchal structures that systematically disadvantage women and advocate for equality and reform. Interactionist theory explores how gender roles are constructed and maintained through social interactions and personal experiences. While functionalists view gender roles as necessary for social stability, conflict theorists, feminists, and interactionists focus on the inequalities and dynamic nature of gender relations. 12. Using the example of male and female physicians, discuss how gender might make a difference in how people approach their work. Answer: Gender can influence how physicians approach their work through differences in social expectations and experiences. For instance, female physicians may face challenges such as implicit biases and assumptions about their competence, which can impact their professional interactions and career advancement. They might also experience pressure to balance work with traditional caregiving roles. Male physicians, conversely, might not face the same level of scrutiny or pressure regarding work-life balance, potentially leading to different professional experiences and approaches to patient care. These gendered experiences can shape their professional identities and influence their interactions with colleagues and patients. 13. Analyze the scarf and veil used by Moroccan and Middle Eastern women from the interactionist, functionalist, and conflict perspectives. Answer: From an interactionist perspective, the scarf and veil are seen as symbols that convey personal and cultural identity. Interactionists explore how these garments are used in daily interactions to express religious and cultural values, as well as how they influence and are influenced by social dynamics and personal choices. The functionalist perspective views the scarf and veil as functional in maintaining social order and cohesion within specific cultural and religious communities. These practices are seen as contributing to social stability by reinforcing shared values and norms related to modesty and gender roles. The conflict perspective argues that the scarf and veil can represent the imposition of patriarchal control over women’s bodies and choices. Conflict theorists suggest that these garments might be used to reinforce gender hierarchies and limit women’s freedom, reflecting broader struggles for power and control within societies. 14. How does institutional discrimination operate in the United States with respect to women? Answer: Institutional discrimination against women in the United States operates through systemic biases embedded in organizational practices, policies, and societal structures. Examples include wage gaps where women earn less than men for similar work, underrepresentation of women in leadership roles, and biases in hiring and promotion processes. Additionally, institutional discrimination can be seen in disparities in access to healthcare and education, where women, particularly those from marginalized communities, may face barriers that impede their opportunities and advancement. 15. Discuss the prevalence of gender discrimination throughout the world. Answer: Gender discrimination is prevalent globally and manifests in various forms across different societies. It includes disparities in income and employment opportunities, educational access, and political representation. In many regions, women face significant barriers to achieving economic and social equality due to entrenched patriarchal norms, legal inequalities, and cultural practices. Gender discrimination also impacts health outcomes, access to reproductive rights, and safety, with women often experiencing higher rates of violence and discrimination based on gender. 16. What conclusions can we make about women’s equality worldwide? Answer: Women’s equality worldwide remains a work in progress, with significant variations in progress across different countries and regions. While some countries have made strides in closing gender gaps in education, employment, and politics, others still grapple with deep-rooted gender inequalities and cultural practices that limit women's rights and opportunities. Overall, progress toward gender equality is uneven, and continued efforts are needed to address systemic barriers, promote legal reforms, and challenge cultural norms that perpetuate gender discrimination. 17. What forms can sexism take in the workplace? Answer: Sexism in the workplace can manifest in several ways, including gender pay gaps, where women are paid less than men for the same work; occupational segregation, where certain jobs are gendered and women are underrepresented in leadership roles; biased hiring and promotion practices, where women face barriers to advancement; and harassment, including sexual harassment or discriminatory remarks. Sexism can also be evident in unequal access to training and professional development opportunities, affecting women's career growth and overall job satisfaction. 18. What sex-typing takes place in occupations in the United States? Answer: Sex-typing in occupations refers to the assignment of certain jobs as more appropriate for one gender over another. In the United States, traditional sex-typing often relegates women to roles in nursing, teaching, and administrative support, which are typically lower-paid, while men are more likely to hold positions in engineering, finance, and leadership roles, which are higher-paid. This segregation contributes to gender disparities in wages and career advancement opportunities, reinforcing gender norms and limiting individuals’ career choices based on their sex. 19. What is meant by the term glass ceiling? Answer: The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that prevents women and minority groups from advancing to higher-level positions in the workplace, despite having the qualifications and experience needed. This barrier is not due to overt discrimination but rather to subtle and systemic factors such as biases in hiring and promotion practices, lack of mentorship, and organizational cultures that favor traditionally male-dominated leadership styles. The term highlights the disparity between the visible success of women and minorities in lower-level positions and their underrepresentation in executive and senior roles. 20. What does research show about the division of labor between men and women in housework and childcare? Answer: Research consistently shows that women perform a disproportionate amount of housework and childcare compared to men, even when both partners work full-time. Women often take on the majority of domestic responsibilities, including cooking, cleaning, and caring for children, while men’s involvement tends to be more limited. This unequal division contributes to ongoing gender disparities in the workplace, as women’s extra domestic labor can limit their availability for career advancement and professional opportunities, reinforcing traditional gender roles and impacting women’s economic equality. 21. How does the concept of the “second shift” apply to the social construction of gender? Answer: The “second shift” concept, coined by Arlie Hochschild, describes the additional workload that women undertake at home after completing their paid work. Despite working full-time jobs, women are often responsible for the majority of household tasks and childcare, creating a dual burden. This concept illustrates how gender roles are socially constructed, with societal expectations assigning primary caregiving and domestic duties to women. The second shift highlights the persistence of traditional gender norms and their impact on women’s work-life balance and career progression. 22. What is the significance of Roe v. Wade and the Hyde Amendment to the abortion issue? Answer: Roe v. Wade (1973) is a landmark Supreme Court decision that established a woman's legal right to an abortion under the constitutional right to privacy. This decision significantly influenced abortion laws and access in the U.S., setting a precedent for reproductive rights. The Hyde Amendment (1976) restricts federal funds from being used for abortions except in cases of rape, incest, or when the mother’s life is in danger. It highlights the ongoing debate over abortion funding and access, particularly for low-income women who may be disproportionately affected by restrictions on federal funding. 23. How do sociologists view the abortion debate in the United States? Answer: Sociologists view the abortion debate as a complex issue influenced by cultural, social, and political factors. They examine how attitudes toward abortion are shaped by religious beliefs, political ideologies, and social norms. Sociologists also explore the implications of abortion access on women’s health, socioeconomic status, and life opportunities. The debate is seen as a reflection of broader conflicts over gender roles, individual autonomy, and state intervention, with varying perspectives on how best to balance reproductive rights with ethical and moral considerations. 24. Discuss the continuing battle between the pro-choice and pro-life groups in the abortion controversy. Answer: The pro-choice movement advocates for women’s right to make decisions about their own reproductive health, emphasizing the importance of autonomy and access to safe, legal abortions. In contrast, pro-life groups oppose abortion, often based on moral or religious grounds, arguing that the fetus has a right to life that outweighs a woman’s right to choose. This ongoing battle involves legal, political, and social dimensions, with frequent legislative efforts to restrict or expand abortion access. The controversy reflects deeper societal debates about ethics, rights, and the role of government in personal health decisions. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss why contemporary women are more enslaved by their physical appearance than women of earlier times. Give some examples to support your answer. Answer: Contemporary women face intense pressure to conform to idealized beauty standards perpetuated by media and advertising. This pressure is magnified by social media platforms that highlight and normalize certain body types, leading to increased focus on appearance and personal grooming. For example, the rise of beauty filters and cosmetic surgery reflects a modern obsession with physical perfection that was less pronounced in earlier times. 2. Describe why females in the United States are traditionally more receptive to giving up their maiden name for marriage than males would likely be. Answer: Traditionally, women in the U.S. have been more receptive to changing their surname upon marriage due to historical and cultural norms emphasizing female subordination and identity as part of the husband's family. The practice is rooted in patriarchal traditions that view the woman's identity as secondary to the man's, whereas men typically retain their surnames, reinforcing their dominant societal status. 3. Discuss why women, who are often the majority of voters in the United States, continually vote for males instead of females for key political offices. Answer: Despite being the majority of voters, women often vote for male candidates due to entrenched gender biases and a lack of female representation in high-profile political roles. Historical patterns and stereotypes about leadership abilities, combined with fewer women running for office and less media coverage of female candidates, contribute to this phenomenon. Additionally, party loyalty and perceived electability of male candidates can influence voting patterns. 4. Describe how corporations might exploit female workers to maximize their profits. Be sure to give some examples to support your answer. Answer: Corporations might exploit female workers by paying them lower wages compared to male counterparts for similar work, capitalizing on gender-based discrimination. Examples include women being overrepresented in low-paying service or administrative roles and underrepresented in high-paying executive positions. Additionally, corporations may benefit from female labor while offering fewer opportunities for advancement and professional development. 5. Identify certain occupations that are gender-specific. In which occupations are women more disadvantaged than men and in which are men more advantaged compared to women? Answer: Occupations such as nursing and teaching are traditionally female-dominated and often come with lower pay and less prestige compared to male-dominated fields like engineering or executive roles, where men tend to have higher wages and greater advancement opportunities. Conversely, women in fields like nursing face pay disparities and fewer leadership roles, while men in fields like construction or IT often benefit from higher pay and better career progression. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Cosmetic Surgery and Gender: See Diana Dull and Candace West, “Accounting for Cosmetic Surgery: The Accomplishment of Gender,” Social Problems 38 (February 1991): 54–70. 2. Social Construction of Gender in Sports: See Kristin L. Anderson, “Snowboarding: The Construction of Gender in an Emerging Sport,” Journal of Sport & Social Issues 23 (February 1999): 55–79. 3. Women and Sports: See Nancy Theberge, “The Construction of Gender in Sports: Women, Coaching, and the Naturalization of Difference,” Social Problems 40 (August 1993): 301–313. 4. Non-Traditional Gender Roles: Have students do research on men in non-traditional gender roles. The following book is a great start. Betty J. Kramer and Edward H. Thompson, Jr., eds. Men as Caregivers: Theory, Research, and Service Implications. New York: Springer Publishing, 2002. 5. Gender Dominance in Jobs Cross-Culturally: See Maria Charles, “Cross-National Variation in Occupational Sex Segregation,” American Sociological Review 57 (August 1992): 485–502. 6. The Glass Escalator: To go beyond the 'Men's Gender Roles' section, see Christine L. Williams, “The Glass Escalator: Hidden Advantages for Men in the ‘Female’ Professions,” Social Problems 39 (August 1992): 253–267. 7. Women and Management: See Cathryn Johnson, “Gender, Legitimate Authority, and Leader-Subordinate Conversations,” American Sociological Review 59 (February 1994): 122–135. 8. Policy Action: Ask students to research a practical policy plan for dealing with gender inequalities. Mary C. King. Squaring Up: Policy Strategies to Raise Women’s Incomes in the United States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001. 9. Characteristics of Women Obtaining Abortions: See Katherine Trent and Eve Powell-Griner, “Differences in Race, Marital Status, and Education among Women Obtaining Abortions,” Social Forces 69 (June 1991): 1121–1142. 10. Childcare and Men: See David J. Maume and Karen R. Mullin, “Men’s Participation in Child Care and Women’s Work Attachment,” Social Problems 40 (November 1993): 533–546. 11. Gender Differences among Hispanics: What is the nature of any differences between men and women within the Hispanic community? See Lisa J. Montoya, “Latino Gender Differences in Public Opinion: Results from the Latino National Political Survey,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Studies 18 (May 1996): 255–276. 12. Gender Differences in Emotions: Read this article to become more familiar with some interesting gender research in the sociology of emotions field. Robin W. Simon and Leda Nath, “Gender and Emotion in the United States,” American Journal of Sociology 109 (5): 1137–1176. 13. Household Tasks in Later Life: See Russell A. Ward, “Marital Happiness and Household Equity in Later Life,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 55 (May 1993): 427–438. VIDEO RESOURCES Being Gay: Coming Out in the 21st Century (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2003, 25m). This program presents the accounts and stories of gay people who have recently taken the step of coming out. Interviewees and experts discuss the benefits of this important transition by examining the six stages of coming to terms with one’s sexual identity. Beyond the Veil: Are Iranian Women Rebelling? (1997, McGraw-Hill, 22m). In this program, a female reporter dons the hijab—“modest dress”—and goes undercover to find out how Iranian women feel about the government-enforced dress code and about their diminished role in Iranian society. We watch teenage girls flaunt accepted behavioral codes, while morality police roam the streets of Teheran in search of offenders. Proponents of the hijab, including Islamic scholars, a woman doctor, and a female student, discuss the practice within the context of Islamic religious tradition and the social benefits derived from it. Professional women and others discuss the broader issue of Islam’s right to subjugate women by shaping who they are and how they think. Boys Will Be Men (Insight Media, 2001, 57 minutes). This film explores the process of growing up male in the United States. Chasing Amy (1997, 105m). A commercial film that is outrageous, provocative, and certain to elicit a lively discussion of gender, sexual orientation, and sexual politics. A Darker Side of Fair (Insight Media, 2004, 25m). Looks at the association of light skin with beauty in India. Addresses the ways in which Indian women with darker skin are stigmatized because of it. The Differences between Men and Women (McGraw-Hill, 1993, 23m). The debate still rages: are the social and psychological differences between men and women conditioned by biology or by familial and social environment? This program presents the opinion of scientists who reach beyond the obvious physical differences between the sexes to others that are not as visible. We are also introduced to recent research that claims that female and male brains are far from identical. Finally, we attempt to determine whether nature or culture makes the sexes so different. Full Cover Girl: How Fundamentalism and Democracy Are Eroding Women’s Rights in Iraq (Insight Media, 2008, 52 minutes). Filmed on location in Baghdad, this program examines the deteriorating state of women’s rights in Iraq. Gender and Communication: She Talks, He Talks (Insight Media, 1994, 22m). Examining the communication gap between men and women, this program explores the different ways in which men and women converse, and considers factors that may have created those differences. The Gender Tango (McGraw-Hill, 1996, 47m). In this program, we look at the different ways in which women define themselves and are defined by others. Meet a young beauty queen who has been on the contest circuit since she was 22 months old. Follow Maria, who sells cosmetics “hut-to-hut” in the Amazon, and ironically earns more than her male contemporaries. Discover Dorothy, who masqueraded for years as a man in order to gain acceptance as a musician in the male-dominated jazz world. In two different aboriginal societies, we see how women are treated as evil and dangerous in one, and as valued, powerful members of the tribe in another. In My Country: An International Perspective on Gender (1993, 2v, 91m total). Divided into segments by topic, this documentary covers such topics as division of household labor, types of discipline for boys and girls, how marriage decisions are made, control of money, society’s view of rape, care for the elderly, and attitudes toward homosexuals. Price of Honor (Filmakers Library, 2003, 46m). This film documents the story of an ethnically Kurdish woman in Sweden, whose violation of gender norms instigated her family to have her murdered. Racial and Sexual Stereotyping (McGraw-Hill, 1993, 28m). Why do racial and cultural stereotypes persist? This specially adapted Phil Donahue program focuses on how the same old prejudices are handed down from generation to generation and how teens deal with them on a daily basis. The program airs assumptions of African Americans about Hispanics, straight kids who believe homosexuality to be morally wrong, and a lesbian who fears the reactions of other girls. The program concludes with a demonstration of teens seeking to work out their differences. Sex, Murder, and Videogames (Insight Media, 2003, 15m). Looks at the depiction of women in games and other forms of media—as sex objects and as victims of violence. Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America (AAUW, 1992, 19m). This program interviews educators and business leaders to illuminate the devastating effects of gender bias in schools. It investigates the loss of self-esteem among girls and shows how they are often tracked away from math and science curricula. Soldiers Raping Soldiers (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2004, 22m). In this ABC News program, two career servicewomen, each allegedly sexually assaulted by a fellow soldier, participate in a dialogue about rape among soldiers. The Underground World of Commercial Sex (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2008, 84 minutes). In this ABC News program, Diane Sawyer makes contact with prostitutes—impoverished street hookers, high-end escorts, legal working women in the trade—and the johns who pay them to learn firsthand how this underground world, hidden in plain sight, functions. Whisper: The Women (Terra Nova Films, 1988, 11m). Sensitive portraits of seven senior women who share their stories and reflections. This documentary invites viewers to rethink their ideas about growing older. Focusing on the hands and faces as well as the words of these culturally diverse women, Wiener provides an eloquent testament to their wisdom and beauty. Why Can’t a Woman Earn as Much as a Man (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2009, 60 minutes). This video explores the possible bases for a persistent wage gap between women and men. ADDITIONAL READINGS Babcock, Linda, and Sara Laschever. 2003. Women Don’t Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Explores gender differences in negotiation. Not surprisingly, the authors find men to be much more aggressive in asking for what they want. Backett-Milburn, Kathryn, and Linda McKie, eds. 2001. Constructing Gendered Bodies. New York: Palgrave. A consideration of the ways in which society defines gender, from the occupations and recreational pursuits open to men and women to the different ways in which they approach love, marriage, and disability. Best, Amy L. 2000. Prom Night: Youth, Schools and Popular Culture. New York: Routledge. A sociologist looks at a significant rite of passage for many adolescents in the United States. Blair-Loy, Mary. 2003. Competing Devotions: Career and Family among Women Executives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. This is an interesting, contemporary analysis of the work-family bind among a particular subset of working women. Browne, Irene, ed. 2001. Latinas and African American Women at Work: Race, Gender, and Economic Inequality. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Thirteen essays on the situation of Black and Hispanic women in the labor force, including their occupations, experiences with segregation and workplace discrimination, and response to social policy. Hornbacher, Marya. 1999. Wasted: A Memoir of Anorexia and Bulimia. New York: HarperCollins. The author explains her reasons for becoming anorexic in a way that will resonate with sociologists. Kimmel, Michael, and Michael A. Messner. 2007. Men’s Lives, 7th ed. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. An overview of masculinity, from its development throughout the life course to its place in social relationships, the media, and social movements. Wolf, Naomi. 1997. Promiscuities: The Secret Struggle for Womanhood. New York: Ballantine Press. This book exposes the truths behind the conflicting messages directed at young women during and after the sexual revolution. Drawing on examples from the ancient and recent past, along with recollections of her own youth, Wolf shows how our "liberated" culture still fears and distorts female passion. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of gender stratification are Gender and Society (founded in 1987), Journal of African American Men (1995), Journal of Men’s Studies (1992), Journeymen (1991), Men and Masculinities (1999), Sex Roles (1975), Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society (1975), Women: A Cultural Review (1990), Women’s Review of Books (1983), Women’s Studies (1972), and Women’s Studies International Forum (1978). Chapter 12 Stratification by Age ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Explain why we need to look at the life course as a continuum. Answer: Viewing the life course as a continuum is essential because it acknowledges that aging is a dynamic and ongoing process rather than a series of discrete stages. This perspective helps us understand that each phase of life is interconnected, with earlier experiences influencing later stages. It highlights that transitions such as retirement or aging are not isolated events but part of a continuous trajectory that involves ongoing adaptation, changes in social roles, and evolving personal identities throughout life. 2. How does aging vary as a social phenomenon from society to society? Answer: Aging varies significantly across societies due to differing cultural values, economic structures, and social norms. For instance, in collectivist cultures, older adults are often revered and expected to live with extended family, whereas in individualistic societies, there may be greater emphasis on independence, leading to increased use of retirement homes. Additionally, economic factors influence the quality of eldercare and social support available, resulting in different experiences of aging and retirement across societies. 3. In what ways are older people a minority group in the United States? Answer: Older people are considered a minority group in the U.S. due to their lower social status and specific challenges, such as age discrimination and limited representation in leadership roles. They often face systemic inequalities, such as inadequate access to healthcare and age-related benefits, and are frequently marginalized in policy discussions. Stereotypes and biases about aging can contribute to their social exclusion and affect their overall quality of life. 4. What is meant by the disengagement theory of aging? Answer: The disengagement theory posits that aging involves a gradual, mutual withdrawal between older adults and society. This theory suggests that as people age, they naturally disengage from social roles and responsibilities, leading to a decrease in social interactions and engagement. The theory argues that this disengagement is beneficial for both individuals and society, allowing for a smoother transition of roles to younger generations and reducing the social strain on older individuals. 5. What is meant by the activity theory of aging? Answer: The activity theory asserts that staying active and engaged in social, physical, and mental activities contributes to a more fulfilling and healthy aging process. According to this theory, older adults who maintain their involvement in various activities, such as work, volunteering, or hobbies, experience higher levels of life satisfaction and better overall well-being. The theory contrasts with disengagement theory by emphasizing the importance of continued engagement in later life. 6. What is the interactionist approach to aging? Illustrate this approach using networking in Chicago during the 1995 heat wave. Answer: The interactionist approach to aging focuses on how individuals actively shape and respond to their aging experiences through social interactions and relationships. This perspective emphasizes the role of personal agency in adapting to aging challenges. During the 1995 Chicago heat wave, older adults faced heightened risks due to isolation and lack of support networks. The interactionist approach highlights how social networks, such as neighborhood connections and community organizations, played a crucial role in providing assistance and mitigating the impact of the heat wave. Social interactions and community engagement were essential in addressing the vulnerabilities of older adults and facilitating their access to resources and support during the crisis. 7. Compare and contrast the disengagement and activity theories of aging. Answer: Disengagement Theory posits that aging involves a natural and mutual withdrawal from societal roles and responsibilities. It suggests that as people age, they gradually disengage from social interactions and activities, which is seen as beneficial for both individuals and society. This theory emphasizes a smooth transition of roles to younger generations and suggests that decreased engagement is a natural part of aging. Activity Theory, on the other hand, argues that maintaining an active lifestyle and engagement in social, physical, and mental activities leads to more positive aging experiences. It posits that staying involved helps older adults achieve higher levels of life satisfaction and overall well-being. Unlike disengagement theory, it views continued participation and activity as crucial for a fulfilling old age. 8. How do conflict theorists criticize disengagement and activity theories? Answer: Conflict theorists criticize both disengagement and activity theories for overlooking the social inequalities and power dynamics that influence aging. They argue that disengagement theory fails to consider how socioeconomic factors and age-related discrimination may force older adults into isolation, rather than a voluntary withdrawal. Activity theory, meanwhile, is criticized for ignoring how structural barriers—such as limited resources, discrimination, and inadequate social services—can hinder older adults' ability to remain active. Both theories are seen as neglecting the broader social and economic factors that affect aging. 9. What is the “sandwich generation”? Answer: The "sandwich generation" refers to middle-aged adults who are simultaneously caring for their aging parents while also supporting their own children. This dual responsibility creates significant stress and financial strain as individuals juggle the demands of providing care for elderly parents and meeting the needs of their children. The term highlights the challenges faced by those caught between two generations, balancing caregiving duties and personal responsibilities. 10. Summarize Daniel Levinson’s explanation of the adult life course. Answer: Daniel Levinson’s theory of the adult life course outlines a series of developmental stages that adults go through as they age. He proposes that adulthood is characterized by a sequence of transitions, including early adulthood (focusing on career and relationships), middle adulthood (reflecting on life achievements and making adjustments), and late adulthood (dealing with retirement and end-of-life issues). Levinson's model emphasizes that each stage involves significant life changes and challenges, and individuals must navigate these transitions to achieve personal growth and adaptation. 11. What are the phases in the retirement experience identified by Robert Atchley? Answer: Robert Atchley identified several phases in the retirement experience: 1. Pre-Retirement: Planning and preparing for retirement, including financial and emotional readiness. 2. Retirement: The initial phase where retirees adjust to their new lifestyle and identity post-employment. 3. Disenchantment: A period of disillusionment as retirees may struggle with a lack of structure or purpose. 4. Reorientation: Adjusting and finding new roles, activities, and purposes to replace work-related identity. 5. Stability: Achieving a stable routine and satisfaction with retirement life. 6. Termination of Retirement: In cases of re-entering the workforce or facing significant health challenges. 12. How does retirement vary by gender and race? Answer: Retirement experiences differ by gender and race due to varying socioeconomic conditions and access to resources. Women often face lower retirement savings due to lower lifetime earnings and career interruptions, leading to greater financial insecurity in retirement. Racial minorities may experience disparities in retirement benefits due to historical employment inequalities and differences in access to pensions and savings plans. Additionally, the impact of these factors can be compounded by the specific cultural and economic challenges faced by different racial and ethnic groups, affecting their retirement experiences and well-being. 13. What stages did Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identify in the social experience of dying? Answer: Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identified five stages in the social experience of dying: 1. Denial: The initial reaction is shock or disbelief, where individuals may refuse to accept the reality of their terminal condition. 2. Anger: Individuals may express frustration and resentment towards themselves, others, or the situation. 3. Bargaining: There may be attempts to negotiate for more time or make deals with a higher power, hoping to delay the inevitable. 4. Depression: A period of sadness and mourning as the individual begins to confront the reality of their impending death. 5. Acceptance: The final stage involves coming to terms with the reality of death and finding a sense of peace or calm. 14. What is the functionalist view of the tasks of dying? Answer: From a functionalist perspective, the tasks of dying are seen as essential for maintaining social stability and order. Functionalists argue that the process of dying allows individuals to prepare for death and facilitates the grieving process for survivors. It helps societies manage and make sense of death by establishing rituals, norms, and support systems that integrate the dying and bereavement into social life. The functionalist view emphasizes the role of these processes in preserving social cohesion and continuity. 15. What is meant by the phrase “graying of America”? Answer: The "graying of America" refers to the increasing proportion of elderly individuals within the U.S. population due to aging baby boomers and increased life expectancy. This demographic shift highlights the growing number of older adults compared to younger age groups, leading to significant social, economic, and policy implications. It emphasizes the need for adapting social services, healthcare, and retirement systems to accommodate an aging population. 16. What is meant by “ageism”? Answer: Ageism refers to prejudice, discrimination, or stereotyping based on an individual's age. It involves negative attitudes and assumptions about older adults or younger people, often resulting in unfair treatment or exclusion. Ageism can manifest in various ways, such as biased hiring practices, unequal access to opportunities, and social marginalization, impacting individuals' quality of life and societal participation. 17. What is a NORC, and how are NORCs formed? Answer: A NORC (Naturally Occurring Retirement Community) is a residential area where a significant proportion of the population is elderly, and where the community has evolved over time to cater to the needs of older adults. NORCs form organically as individuals age in place within a neighborhood or apartment complex, leading to a concentration of elderly residents. These communities often develop informal support systems and services tailored to the needs of older adults, such as social activities and health resources. 18. In what ways are the elderly stereotyped? Answer: The elderly are often stereotyped in several ways: 1. Incapacity: Viewed as frail or incapable of contributing meaningfully to society. 2. Ineffectiveness: Assumed to be technologically inept or out of touch with modern trends. 3. Dependency: Perceived as dependent on others for care and support. 4. Resistance to Change: Thought to be rigid and resistant to new ideas or lifestyles. 5. Burden: Seen as a financial or social burden to families and society. 19. How does the standard of living among today’s older people compare with that of earlier generations? Answer: The standard of living among today’s older people has generally improved compared to earlier generations. Advances in healthcare, increased pension coverage, and Social Security benefits have contributed to better financial security and health among the elderly. Modern retirees often have access to a wider range of services, better housing, and improved healthcare. However, disparities still exist, and some older adults face financial challenges due to insufficient savings, inadequate pensions, or high medical costs, which can impact their overall quality of life. 20. Discuss the categories of elderly who are most likely to be poor. Answer: Elderly individuals most likely to be poor include: 1. Women: Especially those who are widowed or divorced, often face lower lifetime earnings and savings. 2. Minorities: Racial and ethnic minorities tend to have less wealth and income, exacerbated by historical inequalities. 3. Single and Divorced: Individuals without a partner or stable family support may struggle more financially. 4. Those with Low Education: Lower educational attainment can lead to lower lifetime earnings and insufficient retirement savings. 5. Disabled Seniors: Those with chronic health issues or disabilities often face higher medical expenses and may be unable to work. 21. What advantages or disadvantages do older people face in the labor market? Answer: Advantages: 1. Experience: Older workers bring valuable skills and extensive experience to the job. 2. Reliability: They often have a strong work ethic and lower absenteeism. Disadvantages: 1. Age Discrimination: Older workers may face bias and stereotypes about their capabilities or adaptability. 2. Technological Gaps: They might struggle with new technologies or changes in job requirements. 3. Higher Salaries: Older employees may be more expensive to employ due to higher salary expectations. 22. What is meant by the “collective consciousness” of the elderly? Answer: The "collective consciousness" of the elderly refers to the shared set of beliefs, values, and experiences that shape their worldview and social identity. This collective identity often includes common experiences related to aging, retirement, and changes in social roles. It can influence how older adults perceive their place in society and how they interact with others, shaping their social solidarity and sense of belonging within the elderly community. 23. What are the goals of the AARP and SAGE? Answer: • AARP (American Association of Retired Persons) aims to advocate for the needs and rights of older adults. Its goals include improving social security, Medicare, and retirement security, as well as providing information and resources for aging individuals. AARP also focuses on promoting positive aging and addressing issues such as healthcare, financial security, and community involvement. • SAGE (Services and Advocacy for GLBT Elders) is dedicated to improving the lives of older LGBTQ+ individuals. Its goals include advocating for LGBTQ+ seniors' rights, providing supportive services and resources, and promoting social and community engagement to ensure that older LGBTQ+ people live with dignity and equality. 24. Distinguish among euthanasia, physician assisted-suicide, senilicide, active euthanasia, and passive euthanasia. Answer: • Euthanasia: The act of intentionally ending a person's life to relieve them from suffering, typically performed by a physician. • Physician-Assisted Suicide: A physician provides a patient with the means to end their own life, often through prescription medication. • Senilicide: The killing of elderly people, often due to social or economic pressures; it is less commonly discussed but refers to intentional harm based on age. • Active Euthanasia: Directly causing the death of a person through actions such as administering a lethal drug. • Passive Euthanasia: Allowing a person to die by withholding or withdrawing medical treatment necessary to maintain life. 25. What are the concerns that conflict theorists have with physician-assisted suicides? Answer: Conflict theorists express concerns about physician-assisted suicides related to inequalities in healthcare access and social pressures. They argue that vulnerable populations, such as those with limited financial resources or inadequate access to quality healthcare, might be disproportionately influenced to choose assisted suicide. Additionally, there are concerns about potential exploitation or coercion, where economic or social pressures could lead individuals to opt for assisted suicide rather than receiving necessary support and treatment. 26. Discuss the provisions of Oregon’s assisted suicide law and its impact. Answer: Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act (enacted in 1994 and implemented in 1997) allows terminally ill adults to obtain a prescription for lethal medication if they meet specific criteria: 1. Terminal Illness: The individual must have a prognosis of six months or less to live. 2. Mental Competence: They must be mentally competent to make medical decisions. 3. Voluntary Request: The request for assistance must be voluntary and informed. 4. Two Requests: The individual must make two oral requests and one written request to their physician. The law has led to a decrease in the number of terminally ill patients choosing to end their lives, indicating it may have served as an option for those who are in severe distress rather than a common choice. It has also sparked national debate on assisted suicide and the ethical implications of such laws. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss why earlier societies may revere the elderly to a greater degree than in contemporary societies. Give some examples to support your answer. Answer: Earlier societies often revered the elderly due to their extensive life experience and wisdom, which were crucial for survival and cultural continuity. For example, in many indigenous cultures, elders were respected as leaders and keepers of traditions, providing guidance on important decisions. In contrast, contemporary societies often emphasize youth and productivity, which can diminish the perceived value of the elderly. 2. Describe why adjustment to retirement may or may not be easier for a person in a more modern society, compared to a person in an earlier society. Answer: In modern societies, retirement may be easier due to better financial planning tools and social security systems that provide economic support. However, modern individuals might face identity loss and social isolation due to a lack of structured roles post-retirement. In earlier societies, although financial support was less structured, individuals often maintained a clear role within close-knit communities, which could ease the transition. 3. Discuss why elderly people are often more likely to vote than younger people. Answer: Elderly people are often more likely to vote due to a stronger sense of civic duty and established voting habits. They may also have more time and stability to engage in the voting process compared to younger individuals, who might be preoccupied with work or education. 4. Describe how corporations might exploit elderly workers to maximize their profits. Be sure to give some examples to support your answer. Answer: Corporations might exploit elderly workers by paying lower wages, taking advantage of their experience without offering advancement opportunities, or pressuring them to work longer hours. For example, some companies might retain older employees as low-cost labor while avoiding higher wages and benefits associated with younger, more skilled workers. 5. Identify certain occupations that elderly persons have typically performed that are becoming less and less common. Do you think any loss of knowledge and skill is necessary or justified? Answer: Occupations such as manual labor, certain types of skilled trades, and agricultural work are increasingly less common among elderly individuals. The loss of these roles might lead to a reduction in traditional skills and knowledge. While technological advancements and shifting economic structures drive these changes, the loss of such knowledge can be seen as a trade-off for progress and efficiency. STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Conflict between Generations: See Leann M. Tiggers, “The Class Basis of Generational Conflict in the 1980s: Analysis and Critique of the Ageist Agenda,” Journal of Aging Studies 5 (Spring 1991): 1–10. 2. Household Tasks in Later Life: See Russell A. Ward, “Marital Happiness and Household Equity in Later Life,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 55 (May 1993): 427–438. 3. Philippines and Aging: See Lindy Williams and Lita J. Domingo, “The Social Status of Elderly Women and Men within the Filipino Family,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 55 (May 1993): 415–426. 4. Exploring Activity Theory Further: Gerontologist Mary Kouri notes that restless “young elders” today are rejecting the traditional retirement lifestyle of full-time leisure and are showing the way to re-engagement.” See Mary K. Kouri, “From Retirement to Re-Engagement,” The Futurist 18 (June 1984): 35–39, 41–42. 5. Acting Your Age: Refer to Bernice L. Neugarten and Dail A. Neugarten, “The Changing Meanings of Age,” Psychology Today (May 1987): 29–30, 32–33. 6. Interview with Older Adult: Students should conduct an interview with someone who is at least 65 years old and engage them in a conversation about their life. Prepare an essay based upon the interview, focusing on the most important aspects of their life and life course. This would include major events or transitions in their lives, the age when they were experienced, the period in which they were experienced and the impact of those experiences on themselves and others. 7. Content Analysis of Age-Related Stereotypes: Students should consider various media sources from popular culture, such as magazines or commercials, noting recurrent images and themes related to older individuals. How do these themes compare to those surrounding the young or middle-aged? Compare the number of health-related advertisements targeting the aged versus the middle-aged or young. A similar assignment might involve exploring age-related themes in popular movies. How are older men and women depicted in film? What issues are assumed to be their most common concerns? Is romance or sexual intimacy shown among older persons? What do movie titles convey about the elderly (i.e., Grumpy Old Men)? 8. Social & Economic Outlook of an Aging Society: Explore and discuss this website with students: http://www.agingstats.gov/Agingstatsdotnet/Main_Site/Data/2008_Documents/Economics.aspx. 9. Aging, Health Care, and Society: Explore and discuss the trends found here: http://www.agingstats.gov/Agingstatsdotnet/Main_Site/Data/2008_Documents/Health_Care.aspx. 10. Aging and the Life Course in Movies: Choose a movie related to aging and the life course and prepare a critical review. See list (at the end of this chapter review) for relevant movies. Students should describe the portrayal of older adults and experiences of these and other characters as associated with aging and the life course. Look for points of relevance to topics presented throughout the course. VIDEO RESOURCES Age (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video gives an overview of the sociological perspective on aging. It also addresses the fact that we have a growing percentage of older people in the population. Age Issues: From Young to Old (Insight Media, 2001, 60 minutes). This program explores the roles and significance of aging and age-related transitions for individuals living in the United States. Appalachian Genesis (Appalshop Media, 1973, 29 minutes). In this film, Appalachian youth speak out about the coal industry, the educational system, job opportunities, health care availability, politics and poverty. It presents a vivid picture of the social activism and upheaval that began in the 1960s and the War on Poverty. The film retains validity today as young people in growing numbers of communities across the country find themselves in similar situations. Beauty Before Age (New Day Films, 1997, 22 minutes). This unique documentary examines the pressure to remain attractive among older persons in the gay community. Generation Next: Speak Up. Be Heard (Insight Media, 2007, 60 minutes). This program explores the challenges facing 16- to 25-year-olds in the United States, also known as “Generation Nexters.” Green Winter (Wellspring Media, 1989, 25m). This inspiring autobiographical program, produced by filmmaker Elda Hartley when she was in her mid-70s, offers a new perspective on the later years of life. The Unknown Generation X (McGraw-Hill, 29m). “Generation X” is called a myth by some, a reality by others. Whatever the case may be, the generation of young adults born between 1965 and 1980 faces challenges that no other generation has had to deal with. Unemployment, underemployment, a huge national debt, a depleting Social Security system, negative stereotyping, and endless bombardment from advertisers are just a few of the issues confronting this generation. The program examines some of the stereotypes and issues that society has created for “Generation X.” Whisper: The Women (Terra Nova Films, 1988, 11m). Sensitive portraits of seven senior women who share their stories and reflections. This documentary invites viewers to rethink their ideas about growing older. Focusing on the hands and faces as well as the words of these culturally diverse women, Wiener provides an eloquent testament to their wisdom and beauty. ADDITIONAL READINGS AARP. 2001. Beyond 50—A Report to the Nation on Economic Security. Washington, D.C.: AARP. A detailed report on the social circumstances and trends affecting the 76 million Americans age 50 and over. (This report can be accessed electronically at www.aarp.org .) Best, Amy L. 2000. Prom Night: Youth, Schools and Popular Culture. New York: Routledge. A sociologist looks at a significant rite of passage for many adolescents in the United States. Dass, Ram. 2001. Still Here: Embracing Aging, Changing, and Dying. New York: Riverhead Books. Dychtwald, Ken. 1999. Age Power: How the 21st Century Will Be Ruled by the New Old. New York: Putnam. A gerontologist projects social patterns and aging into the future. Gubrium, Jaber F. 1997. Living and Dying at Murray Manor. 2nd ed., Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Gubrium, Jaber F., and James A. Holstein, eds. Ways of Aging. Maldon, MA: Blackwell Publishing. An edited volume that emphasizes heterogeneity in the ways that people adjust to old age. Howe, Neil, and Bill Strauss. 1993. 13th Gen: Abort, Retry, Ignore, Fail? New York: Vintage. A heavily illustrated view of the lifestyles and beliefs of the thirteenth generation in the United States (people born between 1961 and 1981). Klinenberg, Eric. 2002. Heat Wave: A Social Autopsy of Disaster in Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Read in more detail about the social factors that produced differences in death rates among the elderly during the 1995 Chicago heat wave. Moody, Harry R.. (2009). Aging: Concepts and Controversies (6th Edition). Pine Forge Press: Thousand Oaks, CA. Posner, Richard. 1995. Aging and Old Age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A former law professor and the chief judge of a federal appeals court, Posner analyzes old age in the United States, the voting patterns of the elderly, ageism, physician-assisted suicide, and social service programs intended to assist older people. Squishinsky, Joel S. 2000. Breaking the Watch: The Meanings of Retirement in America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. A gerontologist considers how workers in the United States approach the end of full-time employment. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of aging and age stratification are Ageing and Society (founded in 1981), Ageing International (1994), Contemporary Gerontology (1994), Death Studies (1976), Generations (1976), The Gerontologist (1961), Journal of Aging and Ethnicity (1996), Journal of Applied Gerontology (1982), Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology (1986), Journal of Gerontology (1946), Research on Aging (1979), and Youth and Society (1968). Solution Manual for Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026812, 9780071318419