CH-1 Exploring Child Development – The World of Children : Exam Guide

Chapter 1 Exploring Child Development 1.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. The field of study in which researchers from many disciplines work to describe and understand physical, cognitive, and social changes in children as they grow is called A) psychology. B) psychoanalysis. C) child development. D) socioemotional development. Answer: C) child development. 2. Theories act as filters for identifying relevant information, observations, and relationships. This means that they A) determine how far children can develop. B) influence the kinds of questions that researchers ask about development. C) help explain biases in thinking and acting. D) shape the beliefs and values of each culture. Answer: B) influence the kinds of questions that researchers ask about development. Theories highlight important aspects of development and draw attention to specific influences. 3. What are the 3 primary facets or components of development? A) physical, cognitive, and socioemotional B) cognitive, socioemotional, and behavior genetics C) socioemotional, behavior genetics, and cultural D) physical, cognitive, and cultural Answer: A) physical, cognitive, and socioemotional 4. Which of the following is an example of physical development? A) communication and language B) attachment to the primary caretaker C) growth of the brain and nervous system D) improvements in long-term memory Answer: C) growth of the brain and nervous system 5. Shortly after birth, Terrell could not even hold his head up, but just a few months later, he can hold his head up and roll over from his back to his stomach. These advances in Terrell's muscle strength and coordination are examples of A) physical development. B) cognitive development. C) socioemotional development. D) child development. Answer: A) physical development. Motor skill acquisition is an aspect of physical development. 6. Changes in how children think, remember, and communicate is called A) physical development. B) cognitive development. C) socioemotional development. D) child development. Answer: B) cognitive development. 7. Francisco does well in school, and in particular, he enjoys math and science classes. Intellectual skills such as memory, problem solving, and logic that are practiced in classes such as these are part of ______ development. A) socioemotional B) cultural C) physical D) cognitive Answer: D) cognitive Cognitive development includes skills such as memory, problem solving, and logic. 8. Socioemotional development is best described as how A) children interact with other people. B) children view themselves. C) one society views children from a rent society. D) society molds the emotions of children. Answer: A) children interact with other people. 9. Amy is going through a “lanky” period of development. This indicates that A) she is thin due to malnutrition. B) she is tall as she exercises a lot. C) she has unusually long limbs. D) her height gain outpaces her gains in weight and muscle mass. Answer: D) her height gain outpaces her gains in weight and muscle mass. 10. An approach that considers development as an interaction of biological, social, and psychological factors is the A) information-processing approach. B) combinational approach. C) biopsychosocial approach. D) behavior genetics. Answer: C) biopsychosocial approach. 11. According to the biopsychosocial approach, development is an interaction of the following factors: A) biological, social, cultural. B) biological, psychological, social. C) biological, psychological, cultural. D) social, cultural, emotional. Answer: B) biological, psychological, social. 12. This model was first developed as a way to better understand illness and wellness. A) information-processing approach B) combinational approach C) biopsychosocial approach D) behavior genetics Answer: C) biopsychosocial approach 13. An approach to study connections between neurons in an intact brain is called: A) connectionalism. B) connectonics.. C) connectedness. D) neuro connectionism. Answer: B) connectonics. 14. Connectomics is an approach that scientists use to visualize A) connections between neurons. B) biological connections between fraternal twins. C) emotional connections between child and caretaker. D) connections between genes. Answer: A) connections between neurons. 15. Using the ______ approach, neuroscientists are now able to identify and track changes in connections among neurons. A) neurological B) biological C) connectivity D) connectomics Answer: D) connectomics 16. Sociobiology is a subarea within A) psychosocial theory. B) the information-processing approach. C) behavioral theories of child development. D) ethology. Answer: D) ethology. 17. The study of the evolutionary development of social interactions among humans and among animals is called A) behavior genetics. B) imprinting. C) sociobiology. D) neuroscience. Answer: C) sociobiology. 18. Matthew was angry and punched Jacob because he wanted the toy truck that Jacob had. This is an example of ________ development. A) physical B) cognitive C) socioemotional D) child Answer: C) socioemotional Aggressive behavior is aspect of socioemotional development. 19. Nature refers to A) interactive forces that impact development. B) environmental forces that impact development. C) cognitive forces that impact development. D) biological forces that impact development. Answer: D) biological forces that impact development. 20. Like his father, Joshua has curly brown hair and brown eyes. These similarities between parent and child can be best explained by the influence of A) culture. B) langage. C) Diet. D) nature. Answer: D) nature. Physical traits like eye color are determined by nature (i.e., biological influences). 21. Among the following, which is LEAST likely to be considered an aspect of "nurture"? A) access to adequate nutrition and medical care B) the influence of parents and other significant adults C) genetic characteristics within a family D) cultural background and history Answer: C) genetic characteristics within a family Genetic influences are an aspect of nature. 22. Janice is studying the effects of diversity on child development. From what families should she draw her sample? A) families with gay and lesbian parents B) single-parent families C) families with adopted children D) all of the above Answer: D) all of the above 23. At school, and with his friends, Jose speaks English. While at home, he speaks Spanish with his parents and sister. Jose’s experiences with two languages illustrate the influence of ________ on child development. A) cognitive development B) diversity and multiculturalism C) genes D) the microsystem Answer: B) diversity and multiculturalism Jose lives in a community that includes people of diverse ethnic and racial groups, cultural backgrounds, languages, etc. 24. Which of the following theorists thought that experience and learning, or nurture, determined what children would become? A) John Watson B) Jean Piaget C) Sigmund Freud D) Urie Bronfenbrenner Answer: A) John Watson 25. Research on how nature and nurture influence the development of IQ suggests that A) nature has a larger impact than nurture. B) nurture has a larger impact than nature. C) both nature and nurture have an impact. D) neither nature nor nurture has an impact. Answer: C) both nature and nurture have an impact. Evidence from adopted twins who are raised together versus apart indicates that both biology and environment have an influence on IQ. 26. Bouchard and McGue (1981) found that the IQs of identical twins are ________ when the twins are raised together than when they are adopted and reared apart. A) more similar B) higher C) lower D) no different Answer: A) more similar Being raised in different environments influences each twin’s IQ in a different way. 27. ________ refers to a new emphasis in psychology on the study of happiness and positive development. A) Information processing approach B) Psychoanalytic theory C) Positive psychology D) Ethology Answer: C) Positive psychology 28. Which of the following examples might be studied by a positive psychologist? A) aggressive behavior in adolescence B) sharing and cooperation in preschool children C) depression in children with chronic illnesses D) effects of brain damage on language development Answer: B) sharing and cooperation in preschool children Sharing and cooperation are positive behaviors that enrich or benefit others. 29. ________children are those who rise above adversity, such as illness, abuse, or poverty during their childhood and develop in positive ways. A) Adaptive B) Healthy C) Successful D) Resilient Answer: D) Resilient 30. Theories do all of the following EXCEPT A) organize a wide variety of varied facts in a coherent fashion. B) allow future behavior to be predicted with some level of certainty. C) encourage further exploration and discovery of new facts. D) ignore historical contributions and focus on contemporary research. Answer: D) ignore historical contributions and focus on contemporary research. Over time, theories are carefully evaluated and revised. New theories are gradually adopted as they are shown to explain a wider range of behaviors. 31. Erica’s parents are concerned about her frequent tantrums. After consulting a parenting handbook, they decide to apply Skinner’s theory of positive reinforcement, by praising and rewarding her for good behavior. In particular, the theory allows them to predict that Erika A) will sleep better at night. B) will develop better language skills C) will have fewer tantrums. D) will improve her reading ability. Answer: A) will sleep better at night. Theories allow prediction of future behavior and events. By applying a theory, Erica’s parents can predict how it will influence her. 32. How do parents, teachers, counselors, and others who work with children benefit from theories? A) Theories provide guidance in real-world situations. B) Theories replace the need for hands-on training or experience. C) Theories provide detailed solutions to specific problems. D) Theories are correct because they have been tested and verified. Answer: A) Theories provide guidance in real-world situations. A theory provides a framework for guiding and shaping the development of children. 33. When a researcher wants to test a theory, she or he needs to create A) another theory. B) a hypotheses. C) behavior genetics. D) psychoanalytic theories. Answer: B) a hypotheses. 34. An important difference between theories and hypotheses is that A) theories do not allow prediction of future behavior and events. B) hypotheses can be tested and directly verified. C) theories are specific, while hypotheses are general. D) theories are only valid during the historical period in which they were created. Answer: B) hypotheses can be tested and directly verified. By definition, theories cannot be directly verified. Rather, they are used to generate specific predictions (hypotheses) that can be tested. 35. Which of the following answers shows the correct order of the emergence of theories regarding child development? A) psychoanalytic theory, cognitive theory, behavioral/social learning theory, neuropsychology B) psychoanalytic theory, behavioral/social learning theory, neuropsychology, cognitive theory C) psychoanalytic theory, behavioral/social learning theory, cognitive theory, neuropsychology D) psychoanalytic theory, neuropsychology, cognitive theory, behavioral/social learning theory Answer: C) psychoanalytic theory, behavioral/social learning theory, cognitive theory, neuropsychology 36. Psychoanalytic theories are theories that focus on A) the structure of personality. B) observable environmental conditions. C) biological explanations of development. D) the interactions among systems and variables. Answer: A) the structure of personality. 37. According to ________, the mind contains three basic components: the id, the ego, and the superego. A) Freud B) Watson C) Piaget D) Erikson Answer: A) Freud 38. Psychoanalytic theory proposes that the ________ is present at birth and is inherited from our evolutionary ancestors. A) ego B) conscious mind C) superego D) id Answer: D) id 39. Sarah knows that stealing her friend's homework is wrong. Sigmund Freud would say that this is due to the influence of Sarah's A) id. B) ego. C) superego. D) religious upbringing. Answer: C) superego. According to Freud, the superego represents the moral branch of personality and contains our ethical principles, ideals, and conscience. 40. Which branch of the personality is described as containing the subconscious, primitive sexual, and aggressive instincts? A) id B) ego C) superego D) none of the above Answer: A) id 41. Critics of Freud have argued that his theory focuses too much on A) the influence of the child’s environment. B) developmental changes that occur during adulthood. C) the unconscious mind and sexual impulses. D) the coordination of sensorimotor schemes. Answer: C) the unconscious mind and sexual impulses. Freud’s theory was influenced by his patients’ difficulties and may not be an adequate explanation for normal development. 42. What is the correct order of the stages of psychosexual development? A) oral, anal, latency, phallic, genital B) oral, anal, genital, latency, phallic C) genital, latency, phallic, anal, oral D) oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital Answer: D) oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital 43. Natasha is a 6-month-old who often plays with her toys by chewing on them and exploring them with her mouth. This type of behavior suggests she is in Freud’s ________stage of psychosexual development. A) oral B) anal C) phallic D) latency Answer: A) oral. During the oral stage, the infant’s mouth is an erogenous zone that is stimulated by sucking, biting, chewing, etc. 44. A fixation is A) an occurrence in which the child acquires the superego of the same-sex parent. B) an area of development that brings delayed gratification. C) a place where development is blocked, and development becomes stuck at that level. D) an occurrence in which the child acquires the superego of the opposite-sex parent. Answer: C) a place where development is blocked, and development becomes stuck at that level. 45. Three-year-old Tamika is transitioning from pull-up diapers to regular underwear. According to Freud, her current stage of psychosexual development is likely to be A) oral. B) anal. C) phallic. D) latency. Answer: B) anal. Bowel control (i.e., delay of gratification) is a major aspect of the anal stage. 46. Nine-year-old Timmy only wants to play with other boys because he thinks that girls are "gross." Which of the psychosexual stages is Timmy probably experiencing? A) anal B) latency C) genital D) phallic Answer: B) latency. During the latency stage, sexual impulses and urges are repressed. 47. Assuming that fixation has not occurred, a teenager should be in which of Freud's five psychosexual stages? A) oral B) latency C) phallic D) genital Answer: D) genital 48. Freud’s most controversial proposal involved a phenomenon called the Oedipus complex, which occurs during the A) oral stage. B) anal stage. C) phallic stage. D) latency stage. Answer: C) phallic stage. 49. According to Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, during the Oedipus complex, young children A) seek oral gratification by sucking, biting, and babbling. B) have unconscious sexual desires for their opposite-sex parent. C) learn to anticipate and control their bowel movements. D) repress sexual urges and prefer same-sex companions. Answer: B) have unconscious sexual desires for their opposite-sex parent. 50. When children copy the morals, ideas, and values of their same-sex parent, this is known as A) identification. B) reification. C) unconditioned response. D) conditioned response. Answer: A) identification. 51. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory is primarily concerned with A) the five stages of psychosexual development. B) behavior controlled by stimulus-response connections. C) the roles of culture and social interaction in cognitive development. D) the development of healthy ego identity. Answer: D) the development of healthy ego identity. Erikson focused on a series of developmental challenges that help promote a positive sense of self. 52. Which of the following theorists hypothesized that his theory involves "conflicts, inner and outer, which the vital personality weathers, re-emerging from each crisis with an increased sense of inner unity, with an increase of good judgment"? A) Sigmund Freud B) Erik Erikson C) John Watson D) Ivan Pavlov Answer: B) Erik Erikson 53. Erik Erikson believed that our identity develops as we A) pass through a series of psychosexual stages. B) pass through a series of eight major crises. C) increase our cognitive development. D) decrease our social interactions. Answer: B) pass through a series of eight major crises. Erikson proposed a theory of development that spans from birth to old age. 54. Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that A) the oral stage begins during prenatal development. B) reinforcement can help a child reach the next stage of development. C) children first form an attachment to their fathers. D) personality development continued long after adolescence. Answer: D) personality development continued long after adolescence. Erikson’s stages include early and middle adulthood, as well as old age. 55. As an infant, Amy has positive interactions with nurturing parents. According to Erikson, Amy would have learned that A) the world is dependable and that people are basically trustworthy. B) her parents are an unconditioned stimulus that is causing her to have an unconditioned response. C) her superego is stronger than her id. D) her parents belong to a larger system that enables them to be supportive and nurturing toward her. Answer: A) the world is dependable and that people are basically trustworthy. Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development is trust versus mistrust. 56. Which example illustrates the challenge facing children during Erikson’s second stage of development? A) learning to trust their primary caretaker B) developing individual skills such as walking, talking, and bowel control C) striving to reach goals and expectations D) discovering that one has a unique set of talents and abilities Answer: B) developing individual skills such as walking, talking, and bowel control. During the stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt, toddlers develop a sense of independence through new skills. 57. Which of the following stages of Erikson's theory occurs after adolescence? A) initiative versus guilt B) Identity versus role confusion C) generativity versus stagnation D) autonomy versus shame and doubt Answer: C) generativity versus stagnation 58. A 10-year-old boy, Benjamin, always compares his grades with his classmates' grades and his athletic ability with his other teammates' abilities. Benjamin is probably facing which psychosocial crisis? A) autonomy versus shame and doubt B) initiative versus guilt C) industry versus inferiority D) integrity versus despair Answer: C) industry versus inferiority During middle childhood, comparisons with others helps to develop a sense of confidence and ability. 59. Christopher has recently graduated from college and is making plans to propose marriage to his girlfriend and start a family together. According to Erikson, the challenge that Christopher faces at this stage of psychosocial development can be described as A) Identity versus rôle confusion. B) intimacy versus isolation. C) generativity versus stagnation. D) integrity versus despair. Answer: B) intimacy versus isolation. During early adulthood, a primary challenge is to form one or more intimate relationships, leading toward marriage and family. 60. Which of the following examples illustrates Erikson’s final stage of psychosocial development, “integrity versus despair”? A) A grandmother reflects on how her children and grandchildren have grown. B) A high-school student worries about being accepted by his peers. C) A 40-year-old father begins to feel that his career does not offer meaningful work. D) A 4-year-old preschool child feels proud after finishing a craft project. Answer: A) A grandmother reflects on how her children and grandchildren have grown. Erikson’s final stage focuses on an integrated sense of self and a positive view of life. 61. John Watson criticized psychoanalysis and argued that psychology needed to focus on A) observable conditions in the environment. B) internal thoughts and emotions. C) genetic traits that lead to personality development. D) culture and social interaction in cognitive development. Answer: A) observable conditions in the environment. 62. John Watson was associated with ________, an American movement to develop a psychology that was objective and scientific. A) behaviorism B) cognitivism C) nativism D) contextualism Answer: A) behaviorism 63. Watson adapted Pavlov’s work on ________ by making a loud noise as 11-month-old Albert touched a white rat. Soon after the noise, Albert would not touch the rat and began to cry whenever he saw it. A) operant conditioning B) positive reinforcement C) psychosocial development D) classical conditioning Answer: D) classical conditioning 64. In Pavlov's experiments, meat powder elicited salivation. Salivation in this case was the A) unconditioned stimulus. B) unconditioned response. C) conditioned stimulus. D) conditioned response. Answer: B) unconditioned response. The unconditioned response is a behavior that occurs automatically in the presence of the unconditioned stimulus. 65. Your dog starts to salivate when you use the can opener to open his can of dog food. After learning the principles of classical conditioning, it becomes obvious to you that the can opener has become an effective A) unconditioned stimulus. B) unconditioned response. C) conditioned stimulus. D) conditioned response. Answer: C) conditioned stimulus. A conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus that takes on the ability to elicit a response after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. 66. Maria’s spring allergies are so intense, even looking at pictures of flowers can make her sneeze. This reaction can be explained by which type of learning theory? A) information processing B) classical conditioning C) ecological systems theory D) social learning theory Answer: B) classical conditioning The sight of flowers is a neutral stimulus, but after seeing and smelling many flowers, Maria responds to the sight of flowers as a conditioned stimulus for sneezing. 67. Any stimulus that when presented increases the likelihood of a behavior is called A) reinforcement. B) punishment. C) social learning. D) classical conditioning. Answer: A) reinforcement. 68. Any stimulus that when presented decreases the likelihood of a behavior is called A) reinforcement. B) punishment. C) social learning. D) classical conditioning. Answer: B) punishment. 69. Which theorist is associated with the process of operant conditioning? A) Erik Erikson B) Jean Piaget C) Sigmund Freud D) B. F. Skinner Answer: D) B. F. Skinner 70. An important distinction between the theories of Watson and Skinner is that while Watson focused on children’s reflexive responses to stimuli, Skinner pointed out that children also A) learn by observation. B) learn through the consequences of their actions. C) differ fundamentally in how they develop across cultures. D) have a set of inherited instincts that guide the learning process. Answer: B) learn through the consequences of their actions. Skinner proposed that spontaneous behaviors (operants) become more or less likely as a function of the consequences that follow them. 71. Patricia, a 14-year-old girl, has not been doing her math homework. Consequently, she failed her math exam. Her parents have decided to place her on restriction, so she is not allowed to talk on the phone after school for two weeks. If placing Patricia on restriction serves to decrease the number of failing math grades that she receives, then the restriction was an effective form of A) classical conditioning. B) social learning. C) rein forcement. D) punishment. Answer: D) punishment. Punishment is a state or experience that follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely. 72. In a recent court case in the state of Florida, a boy killed his younger sister by performing wrestling moves on her that he learned how to do by watching a wrestling match on television. His behavior illustrates A) operant conditioning. B) classical conditioning. C) social learning. D) punishment. Answer: C) social learning. Learning by observation is a typical form of social learning. 73. Social learning theory would say that if a child saw someone receive reinforcement for a behavior, then that child would be ________ to imitate that behavior in the future. A) more likely B) less likely C) unable D) forced Answer: A) more likely Seeing someone receive reinforcement has a similar effect to being reinforced for producing the same behavior. 74. ________ developed a theory of social learning that that highlights the influence of observing and imitating the behaviors of other people. A) Sigmund Freud B) Albert Bandura C) Ivan Pavlov D) B. F. Skinner Answer: B) Albert Bandura 75. Which of the following theories of child development states that children adjust their own understanding as they explore and learn about the world? A) psychoanalytic theory B) psychosocial theory C) social learning theory D) cognitive developmental theory Answer: D) cognitive developmental theory 76. According to Piaget, children represent what they understand about the world in cognitive structures he called A) conditioned responses. B) socially learned theories. C) mental schemes. D) sensorimotor thought. Answer: C) mental schemes. 77. According to Piaget’s cognitive development theory, assimilation A) occurs when an infant incorporates new information into an existing mental scheme. B) occurs when an infant adjusts a mental scheme to allow for new information. C) is another name for a mental scheme. D) all of the above Answer: A) occurs when an infant incorporates new information into an existing mental scheme. 78. Piaget believed that the processes of assimilation and accommodation A) are relevant processes only during infancy. B) occur during all four major stages or phases of development. C) are acquired through observation and imitation of others. D) are shaped by reinforcement and punishment. Answer: B) occur during all four major stages or phases of development. The cognitive structures continue to develop through all four major stages. 79. A kindergartner needs to figure out how to place a square wooden block into a square-shaped hole on a pegboard. If he is not successful and tries to put the square block into the round hole, the child will need to ________ the new information. A) imprint B) assimilate C) accommodate D) structure Answer: C) accommodate When a scheme is not successful, it is modified or accommodated in order to adapt to new information. 80. Identify the correct ordering of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development: A) preoperational, sensorimotor, concrete operational, formal operational B) sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational C) concrete operational, formal operational, sensorimotor, preoperational D) formal operational, concrete operational, sensorimotor, preoperational Answer: B) sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational 81. The theory that focuses on how language and society influence the growth of thought in children is the A) psychosocial theory. B) sociocultural theory. C) psychosexual theory. D) psychoanalytic theory. Answer: B) sociocultural theory. 82. Which of the following theorists developed the sociocultural theory of child development? A) Jean Piaget B) Lev Vygotsky C) Urie Bronfenbrenner D) Albert Bandura Answer: B) Lev Vygotsky 83. As my 4-year-old niece focuses on tying her shoes, I hear her singing to herself, "First, I cross the laces, then I make the bow." This is an example of A) social speech. B) private speech. C) inner speech. D) assimilative speech. Answer: B) private speech. Speaking to oneself while rehearsing a series of actions is a form of private speech. 84. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory proposes that our ________derive from the social speech that we hear in the culture around us. A) unconscious anxieties and fears B) early-childhood memories C) inner thoughts D) conditioned stimuli Answer: C) inner thoughts Private speech gradually becomes silent inner speech, or true mental thinking. 85. A theoretical approach focusing on how children perceive, store, and retrieve information is called A) the information-processing approach. B) ethology. C) neuropsychology. D) ecological systems theory. Answer: A) the information-processing approach. 86. Which of the following questions would be MOST relevant to information-processing researchers? A) Are there any similarities in language development across cultures? B) Do children solve problems more quickly working collaboratively or alone? C) Why does memory strategy usage increase with age? D) Do parenting styles influence aggressive behavior in preschoolers? Answer: C) Why does memory strategy usage increase with age? The use and development of strategies is a central area of information-processing. 87. The information-processing approach is most closely related to ________ theory of cognitive development. A) B. F. Skinner’s B) Albert Bandura’s C) Erik Erikson’s D) Jean Piaget’s Answer: D) Jean Piaget’s The information-processing approach is influenced by Piaget’s cognitive development theory and also studies many of the same questions. 88. Ethology has its roots in A) Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. B) Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. C) Sigmund Freud's theory of psychoanalysis. D) John Watson's theory of operant conditioning. Answer: A) Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. 89. ________ often study animals in their natural environments, carefully observing behavior patterns and instincts that help the animals compete and survive. A) Sociologists B) Ethologists C) Psychologists D) Neuroscientists Answer: B) Ethologists 90. Konrad Lorenz is best known for his work on A) classical conditioning. B) PET scans. C) imprinting. D) the information-processing approach. Answer: C) imprinting. 91. ________ focuses on the complex set of systems and interacting social layers that can affect children’s development. A) Psychoanalytic theory B) Ecological systems theory C) Information processing approach D) Biological theory Answer: B) Ecological systems theory 92. In Bronfenbrenner's theory, the mesosystem represents A) the direct relationships children have with parents, teachers, and friends. B) the connections among elements in the larger social environment, like home and daycare. C) how layers of systems interact with one another over time D) values, customs, and laws of the culture at large. Answer: B) the connections among elements in the larger social environment, like home and daycare. 93. Which theory of child development emphasizes that systems and interrelationships that surround a child affect all aspects of a child's development? A) ecological systems theory B) social learning theory C) cognitive developmental theory D) sociocultural theory Answer: A) ecological systems theory 94. Alex is 6 years old and excited about starting kindergarten. According to ecological systems theory, his ________ has expanded to include not only his parents and siblings but also his new teachers and friends. A) microsystem B) mesosystem C) exosystem D) macrosystem Answer: A) microsystem The microsystem includes the child’s immediate family, as well as friends and teachers. 95. The values, customs, and laws of a culture are best represented by which layer of the ecological systems theory? A) microsystem B) mesosystem C) exosystem D) macrosystem Answer: D) macrosystem 96. The chronosystem represents the effects of A) systems over time. B) values on individuals. C) individuals on a family. D) parents on children. Answer: A) systems over time. 97. Because each layer is part of a complex system in Bronfenbrenner’s theory, A) only one layer can be active at a time. B) some children are not able to reach the outermost layer. C) different cultures have completely different kinds of layers. D) interactions between layers go both ways. Answer: D) interactions between layers go both ways. Each level or layer in ecological systems theory influences, and is influenced by, each other level. 98. Dynamic systems theorists often use ________ to understand complex systems of development. A) path analyses B) correlational methods C) models from mathematics and physics D) naturalistic observation Answer: C) models from mathematics and physics 99. A common feature of neuroscience and ethological theories is that they both emphasize ________ influences on development. A) cultural B) social C) historical D) biological Answer: D) biological Both neuroscience and ethological theories focus on the role of internal or biological influences on development. 100. A researcher notes that aggression in humans is similar in many ways to aggression in animals (e.g., gorillas, lions, etc.), and hypothesizes that an instinct for aggressive behavior may have been acquired through evolution. Which theoretical view does this hypothesis illustrate? A) information-processing B) ethology C) socio culturalism D) classical conditioning Answer: B) ethology Ethology emphasizes the adaptive significance of behaviors and how those behaviors are transmitted from one generation to the next. 101. Extending ethology to humans, researchers have investigated A) bonding between human infants and their mothers. B) blood flow through the brain as a person engages in tasks. C) the way that children perceive, store, and retrieve information. D) the mental schemes that children use to understand the world. Answer: A) bonding between human infants and their mothers. 102. ________investigates the degree to which particular behaviors are inherited as opposed to learned. A) Behavior genetics B) Imprinting C) Sociobiology D) Neuroscience Answer: A) Behavior genetics Behavior genetics investigates the interaction between genes and environment on behavior. 103. One of the questions that dynamics systems theory seeks to answer is how A) the id, ego, and superego are formed. B) problem solving is influenced by memory and attention. C) reinforcement changes the likelihood of behavior. D) all of the elements that affect development give rise to stable behavior. Answer: D) all of the elements that affect development give rise to stable behavior. Dynamic systems theory is concerned with all of the elements affecting development and how interactions between these elements create stable patterns of behavior. 104. A dynamic systems theorist who studies how infants learn to walk is likely to A) focus on biological influences. B) highlight only social influences. C) study a wide variety of both biological and environmental influences. D) isolate the influence of the mesosystem. Answer: C) study a wide variety of both biological and environmental influences. Dynamic systems theorists include both environmental and biological factors in their approach. 105. Sophia has become more aggressive following her parents’ divorce. What developmental theory would attempt to account for her new behavior in terms of the complex interaction of elements from multiple levels both in and around her (e.g., culture and society, parental influences, genetic tendencies, etc.)? A) psychoanalytic theory B) social-learning theory C) ethology D) dynamic systems theory. Answer: D) dynamic systems theory. Dynamic systems theory focuses on how layers of systems interact with one another and change over time. 106. Which of the following theories would best explain the complexity of child development? A) psychoanalytic theory B) dynamic systems theory C) behavioral theory D) psychosocial theory Answer: B) dynamic systems theory. Because dynamic systems theory attempts to consider how all of the elements affecting development interact, it can account for the complexity of child development. 107. The scientific method helps to guide the process of A) collecting data by making systematic observations. B) internal thoughts and emotions. C) genetic traits that lead to personality development. D) culture and social interaction in cognitive development. Answer: A) collecting data by making systematic observations. 108. In contrast to experiments, ________ use techniques including observation or self-reports to provide a detailed picture of specific behaviors, such as how often they occur and under what conditions. A) correlational studies B) cross-sectional methods C) descriptive methods D) psychoanalytic studies Answer: C) descriptive methods Observation and self-report are typical forms of data collected in a study that uses descriptive methods. 109. By using the ________ method, researchers investigate whether an observed behavior or a measured trait is related to another trait or behavior pattern. A) naturalistic observation B) structured observation C) case study D) correlational Answer: D) correlational 110. In which type of correlational method does a researcher measure several variables and then examine the results as sets of multiple correlations showing the relationships of the variables? A) the experimental method B) path analyses C) a case study D) structured observation Answer: B) path analyses. In a path analysis, the researcher measures a number of different variables and then analyzes the data as sets of multiple correlations. 111. The preferred research method for asking questions about cause-and-effect relationships is A) an experiment. B) a correlation. C) path analyses. D) naturalistic observation. Answer: A) an experiment. Because subjects are randomly assigned to conditions in an experiment, any differences in their performance or behavior must be due to their respective experimental condition. 112. A researcher wants to determine the effects of sugar consumption on aggressive behavior in children. In his experiment, he has some subjects consume no sugar (water only), some subjects drink 14 oz. of soda, and some subjects drink 28 oz. of soda. He then waits 30 minutes and asks them questions about how aggressively they would behave in certain situations. In this experiment, the level of sugar consumed would be the A) correlation. B) path analyses. C) independent variable. D) dependent variable. Answer: C) independent variable. The independent variable is the variable that researchers systematically manipulate in an experiment. 113. Before a researcher can study the effects of a new drug on cancer patients, she first assigns individuals to the control group and the experimental group. Each study participant has an equal chance of being assigned to either group. This procedure is known as A) correlation. B) cross-sectional method. C) longitudinal method. D) random assignment. Answer: D) random assignment. Random assignment helps to ensure that, on average, any differences between conditions are due to the independent variable(s), rather than systematic differences between participants. 114. Which of the following illustrates the process of random assignment in an experimental study? A) Participants are assigned to a group depending on whether or not they smoke. B) Participants roll a die, and the number is used to assign them to one of six groups. C) Participants are assigned to the “male” or “female” group depending on their gender. D) Participants are asked which of two groups they prefer. Answer: B) Participants roll a die, and the number is used to assign them to one of six groups. Random assignment requires that neither the participant nor the researcher influences the process of how participants are placed in groups. 115. A researcher who is interested in how children make friendships watches two little girls playing together on the playground at their school. He records each activity that the two girls do together as a pair. What type of research is being conducted? A) structured observation B) naturalistic observation C) observational learning D) correlational method Answer: B) naturalistic observation The researcher is using naturalistic observation because he observes the two girls in a typical environment. 116. Albert Bandura designed a research project where he brought children to a research laboratory and watched their novel aggressive acts toward an inflatable clown doll. What type of research did Bandura conduct? A) naturalistic observation B) structured observation C) case study D) correlation Answer: B) structured observation Bandura’s study uses a form of structured observation, in which children are placed in a predetermined situation but then permitted to respond as they choose. 117. Observer bias occurs when A) a person's knowledge could influence the outcome of research. B) a method does not answer questions the researcher is interested in. C) the researcher creates a suitable situation and observes behavior in it. D) a person creates a detailed description of his or her observations. Answer: A) a person's knowledge could influence the outcome of research. When observers in a study know the goals of the research, their notes and observations may be influenced by that knowledge. 118. In the ________ method, children are asked questions about a topic or process. One of the major drawbacks of this method is participants’ abilities to remember accurately and to verbalize their answers. A) self-report B) structured observation C) experimental D) longitudinal Answer: A) self-report A limitation of the self-report method is whether the participant can remember their experiences and use language accurately to describe them. 119. A risk of interview and questionnaire methods is that children A) will not understand the concept of informed consent. B) cannot remember their recent experiences. C) frequently change their answers. D) will sometimes give the answers they think the interviewer wants to hear. Answer: D) will sometimes give the answers they think the interviewer wants to hear. The interviewer may unintentionally influence or lead the child to give a particular answer. 120. A researcher wants to determine a possible cause for a very rare medical disorder, so he flies around the world and interviews the four children who have the disorder. As he interviews each child and his or her family, the researcher is looking for common things that happened to each of these children that might give him clues as to what caused the disease. What type of research is he conducting? A) naturalistic observation B) structured observation C) case study D) correlation Answer: C) case study. Case studies involve one child or a small number of children, who are intensively studied. 121. In contrast to conventional experiments, case studies A) always include a control group. B) only use standardized tests. C) intensively study one child or a small number of children. D) emphasize genetic over environmental influences on development. Answer: C) intensively study one child or a small number of children. 122. While descriptive methods often help researchers develop hypotheses about what causes or affects a given behavior, they do not A) answer questions about relationships among variables. B) allow researchers to study behaviors in naturalistic settings. C) include techniques for studying infants. D) provide meaningful results with adolescents and adults. Answer: A) answer questions about relationships among variables. Descriptive methods suggest possible factors or influences, but they cannot determine how those factors are causally related. 123. A researcher conducted a study of the relationship between the amount of television an individual watches and how fearful that individual is about becoming a victim of crime. She found that the more television an individual watched the more fearful that individual was about becoming a victim of crime. What type of correlation does this represent? A) positive. B) negative C) causational D) zero Answer: A) positive A positive correlation between two variables means higher scores on one variable tend to be linked to higher scores on the second. 124. Correlation coefficients can range from A) 0 to +100.0. B) -1.0 to +1.0. C) -5.0 to +5.0. D) +1.0 to +10.0. Answer: B) -1.0 to +1.0. 125. The strength of a correlation between two variables is referred to as A) its negative coefficient. B) its positive coefficient. C) its causation. D) its magnitude. Answer: D) its magnitude. 126. A strong negative correlation indicates that A) as the occurrence of one variable increases the occurrence of the second variable also increases. B) as the occurrence of one variable increases the occurrence of the second variable decreases. C) as the occurrence of one variable decreases the occurrence of the second variable decreases. D) the two variables show no relationship to each other. Answer: B) as the occurrence of one variable increases the occurrence of the second variable decreases. A negative correlation between two variables means higher scores on one variable tend to be linked to lower scores on the second. 127. As part of a high school science experiment, Simon measures the height and birth month (numbered from 1 to 12) of 50 of his classmates. However, after computing the correlation coefficient, he finds that the two measures are not correlated. The value he computed is closest to A) 0.9. B) 0.2. C) 0. D) -0.5. Answer: C) 0. A correlation coefficient of 0 means that two variables are not correlated. 128. A strong negative correlation between maternal alcohol consumption and newborn birth weight means that A) alcohol consumption causes prenatal birth weight to decline. B) birth weight is genetically determined. C) maternal drinking has more of an effect on birth weight than smoking cigarettes. D) maternal drinking and newborn birth weight are linked or associated. Answer: D) maternal drinking and newborn birth weight are linked or associated. A correlation between two variables means they are linked or associated. However, the correlation does not specify how or whether one variable directly influences the other. 129. When researchers measure several variables at once, they can use ________ to create a visual diagram that shows how the measured variables relate to each other. A) random assignment B) case studies C) path analyses D) dynamic systems theory Answer: C) path analyses. A path analysis typically includes a diagram that illustrates how several variables are related to each other. 130. Pedersen and colleagues (2007) used path analyses to determine whether measures such as disruptive behavior at ages 6 and 7 are related to how lonely children feel when they are 12 and 13 years old. An advantage of this type of analysis is that A) the causes of loneliness can be isolated and measured. B) the path to loneliness can be traced back to experiences at an earlier age. C) participants are not affected by the researcher’s expectations. D) random assignment eliminates observer bias. Answer: B) the path to loneliness can be traced back to experiences at an earlier age. Because Pedersen et al. (2007) measured children at different points in time, she could use earlier measures to predict later ones. 131. A disadvantage of conducting experiments in child development research is that A) they are sometimes unethical or impractical. B) some children are too young to provide verbal responses. C) the researcher must randomly assign participants to groups. D) they are more biased than descriptive methods. Answer: A) they are sometimes unethical or impractical. Some experiments are, in practice, impossible because they may present a physical or psychological risk to children. 132. A researcher would like to investigate the effect of alcohol consumption on prenatal development but decides that it would be inappropriate to randomly assign mothers to the alcohol condition. In this case, what is the best alternative for studying the relation between these two variables? A) self-report method B) structured observation method C) correlational method D) naturalistic observation method Answer: C) correlational method As an alternative to an experiment, the researcher may gather correlational data by interviewing mothers about their alcohol consumption. 133. Melinda works in the field of __________, where she attempts to improve the lives of children and families by using child development research to affect laws, regulations, and programs. A) linguistics B) social policy C) education D) psychology Answer: B) social policy The field of social policy applies the findings from child development research to help children and families. 134. Which of the following events occurs most often, on a typical day in the United States? A) A child or adolescent commits suicide. B) A child is arrested for a violent crime. C) A baby is born to a teen mother. D) A teen drops out of high school. Answer: D) A teen drops out of high school. 135. ________ is a type of research design that studies development by comparing groups of children of different ages against one another at the same point in time. A) Correlation B) Cross-sectional method C) Longitudinal method D) Random assignment Answer: B) Cross-sectional method 136. An advantage of cross-sectional over longitudinal studies is that they A) allow a more direct test of development. B) permit both descriptive and experimental methods. C) can be completed in a relatively short period time. D) cover a wider range of ages. Answer: C) can be completed in a relatively short period time. 137. Cowan, et al. (1999) conducted an example of the ________ of research. They investigated developmental changes in short-term memory for single-digit numbers. Their participants were groups of first graders, fourth graders, and young adults. A) cross-sectional method B) random assignment method C) longitudinal method D) none of the above Answer: A) cross-sectional method 138. The longitudinal method compares the performance or observations across ages by taking repeated measurements from A) the same people across time. B) different people across time. C) the same people on the same day. D) different people on the same day. Answer: A) the same people across time. 139. One disadvantage of studying the same group of children as they age is that some children may not complete the study. Different children may leave the study at different ages. This effect is called A) random assignment. B) confidentiality. C) unforeseen consequences. D) differential dropout. Answer: D) differential dropout. 140. In the ______________ method for assessing development, differential dropout poses a serious problem. A) cross-sectional B) longitudinal C) self-report D) correlational Answer: B) longitudinal A risk of longitudinal studies is that, over time, different subjects may drop out of the study at different ages. 141. If 10-year-old girls born in the 1950s act differently than 10-year-old girls born in the 1990s, it may be due to A) differential dropout. B) random assignment to condition. C) cohort effects. D) misuse of longitudinal research designs. Answer: C) cohort effects. Comparing children of the same age, across generations, includes the risk that they may differ due to cultural and historical influences. 142. Another name for cross-lag or sequential designs would be A) cohort effects. B) hybrid designs. C) differential dropout. D) longitudinal research. Answer: B) hybrid designs. 143. Hybrid designs combine the advantages of A) cross-sectional and Research in Child Development. B) cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods. C) correlational and longitudinal research methods. D) correlational and Research in Child Development. Answer: B) cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods. 144. The American Psychological Association and the Society for Research in Child Development have developed a list of rules that researchers who work with children must follow. Collectively, these rules are known as A) informed consent. B) ethical guidelines. C) cohort effects. D) nonharmful procedures. Answer: B) ethical guidelines. 145. Mary wanted to research how stress impacted a student's ability to consolidate new memories. She had planned to split participants into two groups. Both groups of students were to study a one-page speech. The control group would be allowed to study unimpeded, but for the experimental group, while they were attempting to memorize the words, she would repeatedly shock them on the hand. She hoped that she would then be able to compare how well students from the two groups memorized the speech. After further reflection, Mary decided that the data that she would collect would not have enough value scientifically to be worth subjecting these participants to high levels of shock. What ethical principle guided Mary's decision NOT to conduct her experiment? A) unforeseen consequences B) nonharmful procedures C) confidentiality D) risks versus benefits Answer: D) risks versus benefits Researchers should conduct studies only when the potential benefits outweigh any known risks. 146. When an experiment results in any negative consequence for a child, which ethical principle states that the researcher must do whatever is necessary to correct the situation? A) risks versus benefits B) nonharmful procedures C) unforeseen consequences D) implications of research Answer: C) unforeseen consequences If a research procedure results in any negative consequence for a child, the researcher must do whatever is necessary to correct the situation. 147. An important standard of research ethics is that researchers must keep all information obtained from participants private. In particular, researchers must never reveal participants’ names or other identifying information. This is referred to as A) confidentiality. B) informed consent. C) nonharmful procedures. D) implications of research. Answer: A) confidentiality. Most research reports give only group averages or scores accumulated across many participants. Reports that give data from individuals must be anonymous. 148. To ensure ____________, all researchers must get advance approval for their projects from an institutional review board (IRB). A) there are enough researchers dedicated to the project B) study will results will likely support the researcher’s hypothesis C) they will receive more than enough funding for their project D) compliance with ethical guidelines Answer: D) compliance with ethical guidelines 149. Researchers must get approval from the IRB to make sure that they are A) complying with ethical guidelines for their research. B) not practicing hiring discrimination on their research staff. C) doing the correct type of research design for their study. D) obtaining positive correlations in their research. Answer: A) complying with ethical guidelines for their research. The purpose of the IRB is to monitor ongoing research activity and to ensure that all ethical guidelines are being followed. 1.2 True/False Questions 1. The three primary components of development are socioemotional, physical, and cognitive. Answer: True 2. Freud proposed six psychosexual stages of development. Answer: False 3. Freud conceptualized the id as lying completely below the level of conscious awareness. Answer: True 4. Through identification, the child acquires the superego of the opposite-sex parent. Answer: False 5. Behavioral and social learning theories were created to develop a more objective and scientific psychology. Answer: True 6. High versus low is one of Erikson's Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development. Answer: False 7. John Watson's experiment with little Albert and the rat demonstrated operant conditioning. Answer: False 8. Social learning is a process where children learn by observing the behaviors of other people. Answer: True 9. Accommodation is the process of adjusting or adapting a scheme so it better fits a new experience. Answer: True 10. The information-processing approach focuses on how children perceive, store, and retrieve information. Answer: True 11. Ethology, a biological theory, has its roots in theories of evolution and the concept of natural selection. Answer: True 12. Konrad Lorenz, a biological theorist, is most known for his work on imprinting. Answer: True 13. Systems theories examine the adaptive significance or survival value of behaviors. Answer: False 14. A microsystem includes the direct relationships and interactions that children have with people in their immediate environment. Answer: True 15. Naturalistic observation is a descriptive method of research. Answer: True 16. A correlation coefficient can range from -1.0 to +1.0 Answer: True 17. Correlation equals causation. Answer: False 18. Due to confidentiality issues, researchers can never know the names of their research participants. Answer: False 19. Social policy is the attempt to improve the lives of children and families by using child development research to affect laws, regulations, and programs. Answer: True 1.3 Short Answer Questions 1. ________ is the field of study in which researchers from many disciplines work to describe and understand the important changes that take place as children grow through childhood. Answer: Child development 2. ________ development refers to changes in how children think, remember, and communicate. Answer: Cognitive 3. A conceptual framework that describes how facts are organized and allow us to predict behavior is called a ________. Answer: theory 4. The ________ theories are a group of child development theories that focus on the structure of personality and on how the conscious and unconscious portions of the self-influence behavior and development. Answer: psychoanalytic 5. When an originally neutral stimulus can elicit a learned response, the neutral stimulus is now called ________. Answer: conditioned stimulus 6. ________ is the process where children learn by observing and imitating the behaviors of other people. Answer: Social learning 7. ________ was the psychologist who theorized that children actively adjust their own understandings as they learn about the world. Answer: Jean Piaget 8. ________ theories use dynamic models from physics and mathematics to understand complex systems of human development. Answer: Dynamic systems 9. A ________ is a computed number that indicates the direction and strength of an association between two or more variables. Answer: correlation coefficient 10. Sets of multiple correlations that show how several variables relate to each other are called ________. Answer: path analyses 11. The acronym IRB stands for ________ and is a group of trained professionals who review research proposals. Answer: institutional review board 1.4 Essay Questions 1. Understanding child development is important for everyone who wants to work with or help children. Compose an essay in which you list the disciplines or jobs that can benefit from research in the field of child development and why. Also, describe how understanding child development can benefit you personally, even if you have no intention of going into a field of study that is related to child development. Answer: Students' responses to this question will vary but should include an understanding of the fact that numerous jobs, including teachers, counselors, social workers, psychologists, nurses, and other professionals, are all impacted by research in child development in different ways. Students should also express some level of understanding that learning about child development will help them understand their own progression into adulthood and current phase of life. The Importance of Understanding Child Development Understanding child development is crucial for various professions and disciplines, as it equips individuals with the knowledge necessary to support and foster children's growth effectively. Here are some key fields that benefit from research in child development and the reasons why: 1. Education Teachers, school administrators, and curriculum developers rely on child development research to create age-appropriate learning experiences. Understanding cognitive and emotional stages helps in tailoring teaching methods to meet the developmental needs of children, ensuring that students can grasp concepts and develop skills effectively. 2. Healthcare Pediatricians, nurses, child psychologists, and occupational therapists use child development knowledge to diagnose and treat developmental disorders. Early detection and intervention can significantly improve long-term outcomes for children with developmental challenges. 3. Social Work Social workers who specialize in child and family services need a deep understanding of child development to assess the well-being of children in various environments. This knowledge helps them to create effective intervention plans and to advocate for children’s rights and needs. 4. Parenting and Family Support Services Professionals in this field, such as family counselors and parenting coaches, use child development principles to advise and support parents. By understanding the stages of development, they can offer guidance that promotes healthy family dynamics and positive parenting practices. 5. Law and Policy Making Lawyers, judges, and policymakers who work in family law or juvenile justice benefit from understanding child development to make informed decisions regarding custody, adoption, and juvenile rehabilitation. Developmental knowledge helps in creating laws and policies that protect and support children's growth. 6. Childcare and Early Childhood Education Childcare providers and early childhood educators use child development theories to create safe, nurturing, and stimulating environments. This understanding helps in fostering children's physical, emotional, and cognitive development during their crucial early years. Personal Benefits of Understanding Child Development Even if you do not intend to pursue a career directly related to child development, understanding this field can offer significant personal benefits: Parenting Skills: Knowledge of child development can make you a more effective parent by helping you understand your child’s behavior, anticipate developmental milestones, and respond appropriately to their needs. Improved Relationships: Understanding developmental stages can enhance your relationships with children in your life, such as nieces, nephews, or the children of friends, by improving communication and empathy. Community Involvement: If you engage in community activities involving children, such as volunteering at a youth center or coaching a sports team, understanding child development can help you support and guide children more effectively. Personal Growth: Studying child development can also offer insights into your own growth and learning processes, fostering a deeper understanding of how you have evolved over time and how you continue to develop as an adult. In conclusion, knowledge of child development is invaluable across various professions and in personal life. It not only enhances professional practices but also enriches personal interactions and self-awareness, contributing to the overall well-being of children and communities. 2. Define the terms nature and nurture. Do you think that the field of behavior genetics has significantly contributed to the nature-nurture argument? Why or why not? Answer: Nature is the biological forces (e.g., genetics) that govern development. Nurture is the environmental conditions and supports that impact development. Student answers will vary about their opinion, but student responses will include some discussion about behavior genetics, which is the field of study that compares the influence of genetics (nature) to the influence of learning and the environment (nurture), and examines how these forces interact to influence development. Nature and Nurture: Definitions and Contributions of Behavior Genetics Nature refers to the genetic and biological factors that influence human development and behavior. It encompasses inherited traits and genetic predispositions that shape who we are from the moment of conception. Nurture involves the environmental influences and experiences that impact our development and behavior. This includes upbringing, education, social interactions, and cultural factors that shape our growth and personality over time. Contributions of Behavior Genetics to the Nature-Nurture Debate The field of behavior genetics has significantly contributed to the nature-nurture argument by providing empirical evidence on how both genetic and environmental factors interact to influence human behavior and development. Key contributions include: 1. Twin and Adoption Studies: These studies compare similarities between twins raised together versus those raised apart, and between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents. Findings have shown that both genetic and environmental factors play crucial roles in shaping behavior, highlighting the importance of both nature and nurture. 2. Heritability Estimates: Behavior genetics research has produced estimates of heritability for various traits and behaviors, indicating the proportion of variation in a population that can be attributed to genetic factors. This has helped quantify the relative contributions of nature and nurture. 3. Gene-Environment Interactions: The field has advanced understanding of how genetic predispositions can be influenced by environmental conditions, illustrating that the effects of nature and nurture are not independent but interconnected. 4. Epigenetics: Research in behavior genetics has shown that environmental factors can affect gene expression through epigenetic mechanisms, further demonstrating the complex interplay between genes and the environment. In conclusion, behavior genetics has played a crucial role in advancing the nature-nurture debate by providing robust evidence that both genetic and environmental factors are integral to human development and behavior, and by elucidating the dynamic interactions between them. 3. Technological advances in recent decades have allowed for more direct observation of the brain and nervous system than was ever possible before. This has led to the emergence of neuropsychology, a growing field that has had a number of influential effects on the study of child development. First, define what the field of neuropsychology studies. Then, explain the three new technologies that have helped us observe brain function in individuals: the CT scan, the PET scan, and the fMRI. Answer: Neuropsychology is an area of study that focuses on the brain and nervous system. Computerized tomography (CT) scans can give computer-enhanced, three-dimensional x-ray images of the brain. With positron emission tomography (PET) scans, clinicians inject radioactive markers in a person's bloodstream and then trace them through the brain as the person engages in certain cognitive tasks. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a technology that can detect changes in the rate of metabolism in smaller areas of the brain. 4. Theories form the basis of understanding the history of the discipline of child psychology. Define the term theory and discuss at least two of the functions that these frameworks serve. Answer: A theory is an explanation of how facts fit together, allowing us to understand and predict behavior. Students' responses will vary depending upon which functions they choose to discuss. Definition and Functions of Theory in Child Psychology Theory: A theory is a systematic set of principles and explanations that aims to describe, predict, and understand phenomena. In child psychology, theories provide structured frameworks for interpreting the complex processes involved in children's development and behavior. Functions of Theories in Child Psychology 1. Explanation and Understanding: Theories help explain why and how children develop in certain ways. For instance, Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory elucidates the stages children go through as they develop reasoning and problem-solving skills. These explanations enable psychologists and educators to understand the underlying mechanisms of developmental changes. 2. Prediction and Guidance: Theories offer predictions about future behavior and development, which can be essential for identifying typical versus atypical development. For example, Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory predicts the challenges children will face at different stages of their social and emotional development. This predictive power helps professionals to design interventions and educational strategies tailored to the developmental needs of children. In summary, theories in child psychology are vital for explaining developmental processes and predicting future behaviors, guiding both research and practical applications in the field. 5. Consider again John Watson's famous quote: "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select." Discuss how this quote is relevant to his work with 11-month-old Albert. Answer: Students' responses should indicate their understanding that John Watson was a major early proponent of the importance of experience and learning (i.e., nurture) to children's development. Then, students should briefly describe Watson's classic study with 11-month-old Albert and indicate that Watson's research emphasized the importance of conditioning and environmental control to children's development. John Watson's quote reflects his belief in the power of environmental influences (nurture) over genetic factors (nature) in shaping human behavior. This viewpoint is directly relevant to his famous experiment with 11-month-old Albert, where Watson aimed to demonstrate that emotional responses could be conditioned through environmental manipulation. Relevance to Watson's Work with Little Albert 1. Environmental Shaping: Watson's quote underscores his conviction that behavior can be molded by controlling the environment. In the Little Albert experiment, Watson and his colleague, Rosalie Rayner, conditioned Albert to fear a white rat by pairing the rat with a loud, frightening noise. This demonstrated that fear responses could be learned through environmental conditioning. 2. Behaviorism: The experiment was a practical application of Watson's behaviorist principles, which emphasized the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior. By conditioning Albert to develop a phobia, Watson illustrated that emotional reactions could be trained and were not necessarily innate. In summary, Watson's quote and his experiment with Little Albert both emphasize the behaviorist view that human behavior is largely determined by environmental factors, supporting his argument that individuals can be trained to become any type of specialist through proper conditioning. 6. Six-year-old Samantha is having serious physical and verbal altercations with her new step-mother, Pam. Choose two theories of child development and briefly discuss similarities and differences in how each theory would begin to explain these interactions. Answer: Students' responses to this question will vary depending upon which theories they choose to discuss. Theories of Child Development: Explaining Samantha's Behavior 1. Attachment Theory Similarities: Attachment theory would focus on the emotional bond between Samantha and her caregivers. It would examine how her relationship with her biological mother and the introduction of a new stepmother, Pam, might affect her sense of security and behavior. Differences: Attachment theory would likely attribute Samantha's altercations to a disruption in her secure attachment. The stress of adjusting to a new caregiver could be causing her anxiety and insecurity, leading to aggressive behavior as a way of expressing her distress and seeking attention. 2. Social Learning Theory Similarities: Social learning theory would consider the environment and interactions Samantha has with Pam, focusing on learned behaviors. Differences: Social learning theory would emphasize the role of observation and imitation. It might suggest that Samantha is modeling her behavior after seeing similar conflicts elsewhere, perhaps in other family interactions or media. It would also consider reinforcement and punishment patterns in her environment that might be influencing her aggressive behavior. Comparison Similarities: Both theories acknowledge the influence of family dynamics and relationships on Samantha's behavior. Both would consider the introduction of a new family member (Pam) as a significant change impacting Samantha's behavior. Differences: Attachment Theory focuses on the emotional security and bonding aspects, viewing Samantha's aggression as a response to disrupted attachment. Social Learning Theory focuses on learned behaviors from the environment, seeing Samantha's aggression as behavior she has observed and imitated, possibly reinforced by the outcomes of her actions. In summary, attachment theory would analyze the emotional impact of the new stepmother on Samantha's sense of security, while social learning theory would investigate the behaviors Samantha has observed and the reinforcement mechanisms in her environment. 7. While doing research, it is up to the experimenter to determine the best research method to fully explore his or her chosen topic. In order to do so, a researcher must know what the advantages and disadvantages are in each type of study. Define the correlational method and the experimental method and then discuss at least one advantage and one disadvantage of each method of research. Answer: The correlational method measures the degree to which two or more variables are related or associated. The experimental method is where researchers systematically manipulate an independent variable to determine if it causes a difference in a dependent variable. One advantage of correlation is that it can measure associations among variables, even for variables that we cannot ethically manipulate. The main disadvantage of correlational research is that correlations alone cannot prove a causation. A major advantage of the experimental method is that experiments, if conducted properly, can demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships. A disadvantage is that it is sometimes unethical or impractical to conduct experiments on certain variables. 8. Ethical principles are very important in research. Choose at least three ethical principles and explain what implication each principle has on doing research with children. Answer: Students' responses to this question will vary depending upon which theories they choose to discuss. Ethical Principles in Research with Children 1. Informed Consent Implications: Researchers must obtain informed consent from parents or legal guardians, and assent from the children when possible. This ensures that the participants are fully aware of the nature of the research, its purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Informed consent respects the autonomy of the participants and their families and ensures that participation is voluntary. 2. Beneficence and Non-maleficence Implications: Researchers are obligated to maximize benefits and minimize any potential harm to child participants. This means designing studies that protect children's physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. Researchers must carefully consider the impact of their procedures on children and ensure that the benefits of the research outweigh any risks. 3. Confidentiality and Privacy Implications: Researchers must safeguard the privacy of child participants by ensuring that personal information is kept confidential. Data should be anonymized or de-identified where possible, and access to sensitive information should be restricted. Protecting children's confidentiality is crucial to maintaining trust and respecting their dignity. In summary, obtaining informed consent, ensuring beneficence and non-maleficence, and maintaining confidentiality are critical ethical principles that guide responsible and respectful research involving children. These principles help protect the rights and well-being of child participants throughout the research process. 1.5 MyDevelopmentLab Questions 1. Is it correct to assume that if two variables are correlated, there must be a direct link or cause from one to the other? Answer: Two variables or measures may be highly correlated but not directly related to each other. In particular, it is possible that some third, unobserved variable is the cause that influences the two variables that have been measured. For example, while coming from a broken home and committing crime are correlated, it may be that poverty is the cause of both crimes and broken homes. 2. How is shaping used to establish a complex behavior? Answer: During shaping, an organism’s behavior is reinforced over a series of attempts as it gradually approaches a desired response. Initially, reinforcement is provided for either (a) a simple form of the response or (b) the final step in a sequence of behaviors. Over time, reinforcement is only provided for more specific (or complete sequences) of behaviors. For example, a dolphin is trained to leap out of the water and touch a target by first receiving a reward for touching a target that is on the surface of the water. As the target is gradually lifted, the dolphin eventually learns to jump out of the water and touch the target. 3. While many “classical” studies in psychology were conducted with white male college students, there is an increasing appreciation for psychology as a field that investigates a wide range of diverse backgrounds and experiences. In the three photos provided, what kinds of variables might provide an important and informative area of study? Answer: Diversity and multiculturalism include numerous topics. In the photos provided, three relevant areas are physical disability, sexual orientation, and ethnic/cultural background. In studying diverse backgrounds and experiences, important variables to consider include: 1. Cultural Background: Examining the influence of cultural norms, values, and practices on behavior and cognition. 2. Socioeconomic Status: Investigating how financial stability and access to resources impact psychological development and well-being. 3. Gender and Sexual Identity: Exploring differences in experiences and mental health across gender and sexual identities. 4. Age and Developmental Stage: Considering how psychological processes vary across different life stages. 5. Race and Ethnicity: Understanding the impact of racial and ethnic identity and experiences of discrimination on mental health and behavior. Test Bank for The World of Children Joan Littlefield Cook, Greg Cook 9780205953738