CH-1-6 Introduction to the Study of Careers – Career Management : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 1 to 6 Chapter 1 Introduction to the study of careers Chapter 1 – Assignment Interview a friend, family member, or coworker to review the key events in his or her career. Remember to examine objective and subjective factors. Sketch a diagram of the person’s career as in Exhibit 1.1. Purpose/Perspective: This assignment allows the students to get a perspective on the movement of a career over the course of a person’s lifetime. It should give them an appreciation of the objective and subjective factors that combine to define a person’s career and life, as well as the external environmental factors that might influence a career. This assignment can be used to spur in-class discussion of the positive events (like landing a new job or a promotion) and the negative events (like a job loss) that can occur over a lifetime as well as the individual responses to these events. Chapter 1 Case: Richard the Information Systems Executive Purpose This case describes an individual who faced a fairly common but critical career choice. Namely, to leave the relative comfort and certainty of an employer with whom he had been for 14 years, in order to embark on a new, more uncertain career path with another employer. Richard’s age at the time of the career decision (38) and the fact that he has a spouse and young child add to the complexity of the case. The case is an ideal supplement to Chapter 1 since it not only shows that career management requires active decision making on the part of the individual, but also reflects the uncertainty that individuals face in making career decisions. Perspective At the age of 38 Richard is at an important juncture in his life. He is nearing the end of his “early career” and is looking for more out of his career and his life as he enters his middle career years. He chooses to leave the safety and security of one career/company where he has a relational psychological contract with his employer for the relative insecurity of a new career with a different company. In this sense, Richard adopts a “boundaryless” perspective in his career management. Once with the new company Richard makes his mark, but is quickly victimized by the vagaries of the global environment. Although he lands on his feet with a third employer, he clearly is not as certain as he once was over his job security. He recognizes that the boundaryless approach to career management comes with risks. Case Questions 1. What do Richard’s experiences indicate about the process of career management? The students should recognize at least two points: that career management requires active decision making on the part of the individual and that career decisions involve risks. They should also note that career decisions are not made in a vacuum, but involve the input from one’s family and others in the social network. 2. What environmental factors have affected Richard’s career? The students should be able to cite the global economy and the push by many companies for lower cost/greater efficiency, including the offshoring of jobs. 3. When Richard decided to leave his initial employer, what career trade-offs, either consciously or subconsciously, did he make? In a general sense, the students should be able to cite the trade-off between the safety and security of the initial employer versus the uncertainty of the new employers. More specifically, they should recognize the underlying trade-offs: a slow and steady progress in salary, title, and prestige versus the opportunity for greater advancement, responsibility, and rewards. They should also recognize that career decisions have an impact on others, most notably one’s family. Do you believe that Richard has done a good job of managing his career? Why or why not? This is an open-ended question where the students can give competing answers. On one hand, they could say that he has done a good job since he was able to advance in salary and title and is able to provide better income for his family. On the other hand, they could say he has done a poor job since he left a safe and secure position to pursue a less certain path. Ultimately, the students should comment on whether his adoption of a “boundaryless” perspective in his career management was right for him. The instructor can also remind the students that they should not assume that Richard’s first employer represented “absolute” safety and security—in today’s uncertain business environment there is no such thing as “absolute” safety and security in a job or a career. 4. If Richard sought your help, what advice would give him in terms of the future management of his career? Again, this is an open-ended question. Given that Richard had been burned once and was now in a position with uncertain job security, it would be appropriate for him to be ready if he were to once again face a lay-off. The students could suggest that he be proactive in his career management by preparing an up-to-date resume and “networking” with others who might be able to provide job leads if he were to find himself unemployed again. The students could also suggest that he keep an open dialogue with his wife so that she knows the situation with his current employer, not only so that she can be prepared if he does lose his job but also to provide encouragement and moral support. Chapter 1 – Discussion Questions 1. What is the impact of recent changes in the business environment on individuals’ careers? Consider the consequences of intense competition, changes in organizational structure and the nature of work, internationalization, technology, work–family issues, and cultural diversity on career management. As found in Chapter 1 and as listed in the question, there are a number of environmental factors that impact individual career management. Overall, these environmental factors give greater emphasis to the need for people to proactively manage their careers. In this sense, individuals should be more self-reliant in this process. The students could also highlight the change in the psychological contract between employers and employees (from relational to transactional) as having an effect on career management. They could also point to the need to take a boundaryless/protean approach or attitude to career management (in contrast to the traditional approach where one’s organization takes and active role in helping individuals manage their careers). 2. Does the characterization of the contemporary workforce described in this chapter (high expectations, autonomy, weakening sex-role stereotypes, and concern for total lifestyle) fit your picture of yourself, your friends, or your family members? Could there be age, social class, cultural, or gender differences in how people view work and life? This question leaves it up to the individual student to assess whether the characterizations “fit” the person or their close acquaintances. Nonetheless, the students should also recognize that there can be differences in perceptions of these characterizations based on social or demographic factors. For example, younger versus older workers would likely differ in how they see themselves within the contemporary workforce 3. Why should people be concerned about managing their careers? What can happen if people do not actively plan and manage their careers? This question is certainly related to the first one. Specifically, the ever changing nature of the global work environment makes it necessary to be vigilant in career management. The constant risks and uncertainties that individuals face in their careers dictate that the individual be “ever ready” to respond these challenges. In addition, organizations have become less likely to assist their employees in the career management process (note the shift toward the transactional psychological contract). Thus, it is incumbent on the individual to actively manage his or her career. If the individual does not actively manage his or her career, then they leave themselves open to the whims of the organization and the job market without having proper preparedness. 4. What is the incentive for an organization to help its employees manage their careers? How can the organization stand to gain from this venture? Are there any risks? By helping individual employees manage their careers organizations stand to gain in several ways. First, it assists in the selection of human resources since it helps employers ensure that employees will be placed in jobs that “fit” them in terms of their personal qualities (P-E fit). When P-E fit is attained, workers are more satisfied, more productive, and show a higher level of commitment to the organization. In addition, career management assistance allows for improved development and utilization of human resources by helping to ensure that employees are ready for new challenges and are prepared to take on greater responsibilities (succession planning). Career management assistance also improves the management of cultural diversity since companies need to develop fair assessment techniques regarding candidates for promotions or other job assignments. Finally, helping employees manage their careers is a sign that the organization is being “socially responsible.” The risks to companies that help their employees manage their careers center around the possibility of personal disappointment and dissatisfaction if the company cannot provide enough hierarchical and/or lateral opportunities for its workers. In this sense, by providing this assistance, the company overly inflates the expectations of workers that opportunities will be available to them. If business strategies or market conditions change, then the organization might not be able to offer employees new opportunities. Thus, they risk alienating their employees. They also risk greater turnover if the employees use the information gained from the career management assistance process as a “springboard” to seek out more personally fulfilling positions with other organizations. Chapter 1 – Essay Questions 1. Briefly describe the environmental, organizational, and individual changes that have taken place over the past 25 years that have affected the nature of work and careers. The students should be able to list and describe the following factors, all of which are addressed in the first part of chapter 1: organizational cost cutting and the loss of job security, the changing structure of organizations, the changing nature of work, international competition, technology and the churning of jobs, changes in workforce diversity and demographics, and greater attention to the balance and integration between work and family life. 2. How have these changes altered the “traditional” relationship (or psychological contract) between employers and employees? As discussed in chapter 1 on page 6 and elsewhere in the book, the students should be able to describe the change in the psychological contract from one that was primarily ‘relational” to one that is now primarily “transactional.” 3. Why is an understanding of career management important for individuals and for organizations? As stated in the chapter, an understanding of career management is essential for individuals and for organizations. For individuals, effective career management is particularly important in light of the turbulent economic, technological, and cultural environments discussed earlier in the chapter. In rapidly changing and uncertain times, career success and satisfaction will most likely be achieved by individuals who understand themselves, know how to detect changes in the environment, create opportunities for themselves, and learn from their mistakes—all elements of effective career management. In an era of downsizing, outsourcing, and changing corporate structures, individuals who have insights into themselves and their options should be more able to overcome obstacles to their career growth. For organizations, the ability to manage its human resources effectively depends on how well it understands its employees’ career needs and helps them engage in effective career management. Having a strong career management program within the overall management of human resources can aid in the selection, development, and utilization of human resources. Chapter 2 Career contexts and stages Chapter 2 – Assignments 1. Interview a friend, acquaintance, coworker, or relative who is in a different career stage than you are. What career related tasks and activities is this person currently undertaking? What are the issues and concerns that are uppermost in his or her mind? In what ways are these issues and concerns consistent or inconsistent with the approach to life development and career development proposed in this chapter? Purpose/Perspective: Related to the material on career stages in latter part of Chapter 2, this exercise allows the students to compare and contrast the important concerns and issues that take place at different career stages. In addition, it allows the students to confirm or disconfirm the “standard” issues that would be expected in each career stage versus what the students actually find through the interview process. Small group and full class discussion can then ensue based on these findings. 2. Chart the career histories of a male and a female friend, acquaintance, coworker, or relative. Are the two career histories parallel and similar to each other? Are they similar to Levinson’s model? Do employment gaps exist in either career history? If so, ask if these employment gaps have had any effect on the individual’s career. Purpose/Perspective: This assignment is somewhat similar to the prior one, but this assignment allows for a comparison of career histories based on gender and in relation to Levinson’s model. It also allows for a discussion of what happens when employment gaps occur over a person’s career. This assignment works best either in an undergraduate setting where there is a solid number of older adults already established in their careers or with graduate students who are already established in the work world. Chapter 2 Case: Kevin at the Crossroads Purpose This case is intended to embody the material in the Chapter 2 concerning the boundaryless and protean career concepts as well as the different meanings of career success. Kevin is a highly accomplished executive with a multi-national engineering company. After many years with the company, Kevin is bored in his job, hates the overseas travel, envies his wife’s career in teaching, and daydreams about doing something different with his life and his career. As with the Richard case at the end of Chapter 1, Kevin longs for more. But Kevin is different because he wants more time for his family and more fulfillment in his life. In this sense, he is looking for more “subjective” success as opposed to the “objective” success that he has already achieved. One of the primary questions is whether Kevin could be classified as “boundaryless” in his career management even though he has not actually moved into a different career direction. Perspective This case should get the students thinking about the meaning of the boundaryless and protean career perspectives and what it means to be successful in one’s career. Kevin wants more out of life, but feels trapped by his objective career success. He knows he wants to do something different and more meaningful with his career, but the loss in salary and future wealth and the potential negative reaction from his wife causes psychological conflict. This conflict is compounded by the offer of a major promotion and an expatriate assignment to another country. Although Kevin is in a “traditional” career, his willingness to consider the possibility of moving in a different direction could indicate a boundaryless/protean attitude on his part. Case Questions 1. Based on the definition and the description of the boundaryless perspective of careers as provided in this chapter, do you think Kevin has adopted this approach to his career? Why or why? The students should be able to articulate the common attributes that define the boundaryless perspective. Given that Kevin has not yet shown an absolute willingness to pursue inter-organizational mobility (or a mobility pattern that departs from his current traditional career), it would be difficult to label him as boundaryless in his perspective. However, the students could note that Kevin has become protean in his career management since he does display an orientation or approach to his career that indicates a willingness to move in a new direction. 2. Do you think Kevin sees himself as successful in his career? Why or why not? This question allows the students to engage in a discussion of the differences between objective and subjective career success. Clearly, Kevin is successful in an objective sense given the tangible accomplishments in his career. However, given the message in the case, it is likely that he would not see himself as successful because he is measuring his own success in subjective terms. The reason he envies his wife’s career is that he views her as subjectively successful since she is able to devote more of her time to her family and leisure pursuits. Kevin wants more balance and he daydreams about trying to achieve it. 3. What social factors are influencing Kevin’s career choices? The students should recognize the effect of Kevin’s family on his decision making. One of his major concerns is that he would face a negative reaction, especially from his wife, if he were to pursue a career in teaching. More broadly, the “normal” expectations of society would be that a successful executive like Kevin does not just toss aside a career where he has a good chance to someday be the CEO of a multi-national engineering organization. How big a role should social factors play in the career decisions of an individual? Should they play a role? The students could answer this question in at least two ways. First they could say that career management is a fundamentally individualistic pursuit and as such a person like Kevin must stay true to his values, interests, and desired lifestyle. While he should take other people’s opinions into account, ultimately he is responsible for his career and life. On the other side, the students could say that he should never make a career decision that in any way jeopardizes the financial well-being and happiness of his wife and children. 4. Do you think Kevin’s age and the fact that he is at mid-career are having an effect on his “daydreaming” and the questioning of his future career direction? Why or why not? This question highlights the impact of career stage on career decision making. With Kevin in his late 30s, he is moving out of his early career and transitioning into mid-career. Borrowing from the work of Levinson and his colleagues, the students should recognize that many individuals facing mid-life will question the direction of their lives and careers and re-evaluate their future. Thus, they should conclude that Kevin is doing what would be expected given his age. 5. If Kevin sought your help, what advice would you give him in terms of the management of his career? The students could give several different answers here. First, they would likely recommend that Kevin discusses his feelings with his wife even before he broaches the offer of the promotion. Kevin can not consider all of his alternatives until he knows his wife’s opinion on the prospect of him leaving the engineering company. Depending on his wife’s reaction, he would then need to weigh the pros and cons of each of his career options and get her feedback. He would also need to conduct substantially more research on the job of being a teacher in terms of requirements and challenges. The students might also recommend that he get professional career help from a counselor who could advise him on his options. If you had to make a prediction, what career choices do you think Kevin will make? This is an open-ended question. On one hand, the students could predict that he throws caution to the wind and leaves the engineering firm for a career as a teacher. On the other hand they could predict that the obstacles are so great that he could not seriously consider moving out of his current career path. Both answers have merit, but the students would need to speculate as to why they see one choice over the other. Chapter 2 – Discussion Questions 1. Using Levinson’s model as a framework, in what stage of adult life development do you see yourself? What concerns are uppermost in your mind at this time? Are these concerns consistent with Levinson’s model? This question gives the students the opportunity to reflect on their career and life stage. Using Levinson’s framework, the students can “test” whether their life/career fits the framework of stable periods that are interrupted by stressful transitional periods. In a group or full class discussion, the students can compare answers and decide whether there is general consistency with Levinson’s framework. 2. Some people experience a crisis during their early or middle forties. What factors are responsible for a midlife crisis? Does everybody experience a midlife crisis? Why or why not? The students can give their opinions on the factors that underlie a possible mid-life crisis and whether the crisis is universally experienced by individuals in mid-life. If older adult students are in the class, their descriptions of their experiences could provide important insight. Younger students could also describe the experiences of their parents that they have witnessed. 3. Do you think everybody follows the same developmental path through adulthood? Is Levinson’s model applicable to women as well as men? To single people as well as married people? To working class adults as well as upper middle class adults? Why do you feel that way? These questions allow the students to give their opinions on whether the concept of career/life stages, in general, or Levinson’s model, in particular, are still relevant in today’s ever changing work environment. The students can also give their opinions as to whether the career/life stage theory of development is consistent across such sociological variables as gender, marital status, or socio-economic class. Again, students can cite their own experiences in making the case for or against these common experiences and groupings. Chapter 2 – Essay Questions 1. Briefly describe the boundaryless and protean concepts of career management. The chapter gives clear definitions/descriptions of these two concepts. For the boundaryless career, the students should be able to identify the three different perspectives or themes that denote this concept: it involves mobility patterns that depart from a traditional career, it requires the use of competencies or strategies that are different from those used in a traditional career, and it involves the need for individuals to maintain a high degree of self-responsibility for their career choices and to follow personally-meaningful values in making career decisions. For the protean career, the students should note the two primary dimensions: it is proactively self-directed where the individual feels responsible for managing his or her career and it is values-driven in that individuals make career decisions to meet their personally meaningful values and goals, resulting in feelings of psychological success. 2. Briefly describe the different ways for individuals to look at career success. The chapter gives clear definitions on the different categories of career success, including the objective form and the subjective form. 3. Discuss the key underlying principles associated with a stage-based view of life and career development. As stated in the chapter, the underlying principles of the stage-based view is that the experiences, needs, values, and situations of all individuals change over time as they age, which makes it appropriate to view a career as a series of relatively unique stages or phases. In this sense, individuals face a variety of career tasks and developmental issues at different life stages. Further, changes in the nature of career motivation are likely to occur over the course of an employee’s life. An understanding of the tasks and developmental implications of different career stages can help individuals manage their careers more effectively and can help organizations manage and develop their human resources. Chapter 3 A model of career Management Chapter 3 – Assignment Interview a friend (perhaps a classmate or a coworker) about his or her career management activities. Has your friend engaged in career exploration? What is his or her level of awareness of self and environment? Has your friend set a career goal? Developed a career strategy? Why or why not? What should he or she be doing next? Purpose/Perspective: This assignment provides the students the opportunity to get a first-hand understanding of the career management model as presented in Chapter 3. By interviewing classmates, the students can compare and contrast the varying types and levels of career management activities. In addition, this assignment should allow for a generation and sharing of ideas on different approaches to the career management tasks, especially self- and environmental exploration. One note of caution, the instructor should be careful not to let certain students who have perhaps not done much in the way of career management activities to feel as if they are “failing” in the process. Instead, the instructor should present this as a positive exercise that simply allows for the generation and sharing of “good ideas” for applying the career management model, especially exploration. Chapter 3 Case: Michele Terry the Aspiring Banking Executive Purpose In line with the career management model presented in chapter 3, this case highlights the need for periodic appraisal as a person moves through his or her career. Michele, after much disappointment and frustration over not having achieved her long-term operational career goal, chooses to re-appraise her career and set new goals and establish appropriate strategies in pursuit of those goals. Perspective Early in her career Michele established an operational career goal of becoming an executive vice president with the bank. But the attainment of this goal never occurs, mainly because Michele fails to undertake the career strategies that would have made the attainment of the goal possible. Faced with stark reminders that she will never come close to achieving her goal, she eventually realizes that she is also on a career plateau with little or no prospect for further advancement. Michele responds positively to these realities by undertaking the process of career re-appraisal. She re-looks at what she really wants to accomplish in her career and makes a new assessment of her interests, values, and strengths. She also seeks input from people she trusts. Armed with this new information, she sets new career goals for herself and undertakes career strategies in pursuit of those goals. Case Questions 1. Identify the specific career exploration activities that Michele undertook to gather information about herself (her values, needs, abilities, interests, and desired lifestyle) and her environment (different jobs, employers, industries, their families)? As Michele goes through the process of career appraisal, she undertakes self-exploration. She assesses her values and interests and concludes that what she really wants from her career is to influence the broad direction of the bank and to champion programs that would help the community. In terms of environmental exploration, when she is still pursuing the goal of becoming an executive vice president, Michele looks externally for another position that would allow upward advancement. However, after she goes through the process of career appraisal, Michele appears to have concluded that she wants to stay with the bank for the rest of her career. Accordingly, she does not really engage in environmental exploration at that point. What could she have done to acquire more information? Michele could have broadened her sources of self-information. She could have perhaps taken interest or personality tests that could have provided useful feedback. She also could have done a better job of using the internal resources of the bank by seeing if they had any programs to support her exploration process or by talking to human resource professionals who could have given her feedback and guidance. 2. Does Michele currently have conceptual and operational career goals? If so, what are they? The students should recognize that Michele has conceptual goals, namely to help the community through the bank’s programs and to help junior colleagues advance in their careers. In terms of an operational goal, the case does not indicate that Michele has targeted a specific position toward which she is striving. However, one could infer that the work she is doing on the task force, and the higher profile it is giving her, might afford her the chance to move into another position at some future point. This might lead her to set a new operational goal should other opportunities become apparent. If not, explain why you believe that Michele does not currently have career goals. The students should recognize that she does have conceptual goals, but not a clear cut operational goal. 3. What specific career strategies did Michele implement? The case indicates several career strategies for Michele. These include broadening the scope of her current position by looking for ways to influence the bank’s approach to community reinvestment, the enrollment in training seminars on community reinvestment, the lobbying of her boss to chair a task force on new market development, and serving as a mentor to several younger managers. Were they effective? Why or why not? These career strategies were effective. Michele receives an outstanding performance evaluation and she is viewed as a solid contributor to the bank. 4. To what extent has Michele received useful feedback regarding her career? Michele uses the performance appraisal process to gauge her prospects for advancement. She also uses feedback from within and outside the bank to begin to set new career goals and strategies for herself. Input from her husband helps her as well. Should Federal Bank been more proactive in helping Michele manage her career? Like most organizations, it appears that Federal Bank takes a laissez-faire approach to assisting its employees in career management. There is no indication that they are proactive in helping their employees in conducting self-exploration and in setting career goals and strategies. In answering this question, the students could respond that in a world with primarily transactional psychological contracts between employers and employees and where individuals are “boundaryless” in their career management, it is not the responsibility of the organization to help an individual manage his or her career, but is rather the sole province of the individual. What could the Bank have done to help her? Assuming that the students believe that the bank should have been more proactive in their assistance, the students could suggest that the bank could have offered greater career management assistance earlier in Michele’s career. Since the “handwriting had been on the wall” that she was not advancing beyond her current position, the bank could have taken a more proactive stance in advising her to broaden her thinking on where she could make a contribution to the organization and even facilitated the self-exploration process. 5. If you were advising Michele, what recommendations would you give her to help her effectively manage her career going forward? The students could suggest several different recommendations in responding to this question. One obvious answer is that she should “stay-the-course” since has found a niche in the organization and she is subjectively satisfied with her career and life. They could also recommend that she continue to periodically re-assess her career and her future direction. It would be possible that with further self-exploration she could find new interests (and outlets for those interests) either in her current position or in some other job/organization. Chapter 3 – Discussion Questions 1. Why is career exploration such a critical component of career management? How, if at all, can people develop insights into themselves and their environment in the absence of deliberate attempts to seek information? What career exploration activities have you undertaken in the past year? In the past three years? How successful have they been? The obvious answer on the importance of exploration is that it facilitates the achievement of person-environment and person-organization fit (P-E and P-J fit). Research has demonstrated conclusively that fit leads to positive outcomes for the individual. In addition, self- and environmental exploration sets the stage for the establishment of conceptual and operational career goals. Without deliberate and systematic exploration it would be difficult for the individual to gather information and develop an awareness of self and the environment. In this case, the gathering of information and insight is left to chance or to other people within the social network who would be willing to offer insight to the individual. The final two questions allow the students to describe their career exploration activities over the recent past and to discuss how successful they have been in the process. Small group and full-class discussion can then take place where the students describe their activities. 2. Should career management be primarily a rational, systematic process? What are the advantages and disadvantages of adopting a highly rational approach to career management? The theme of this chapter and the entire book is that career management should be conducted in a rational and systematic fashion so as to help ensure the individual maximizes his or her chances to attain a satisfying and rewarding career and life. This approach also helps the individual cope with the normal personal and environmental changes that take place throughout the life cycle and it assists them to stay “at-the-ready” should disruptions occur over the course of the career. A primary criticism (or supposed disadvantage) of this rational/systematic approach is that it can breed rigidity in career management due to an unwavering attachment to particular career goals or strategies. Our belief is that this criticism, while understandable, is not valid. Individuals need to recognize that career management is, by its very nature, a "messy" endeavor and that unanticipated events in one’s personal and professional lives can cause major career disruptions that wipe out career plans. Because of these possible disruptions individuals, must be careful to not become “robots” when managing their careers. In addition, "gut" feelings can and should, at times, take precedence over systematic techniques and procedures. 3. Why is it important to monitor and appraise your career? Why should career appraisal be conducted periodically? How frequently should you conduct a career appraisal? How do individuals and environments change in ways that can influence a person’s career? What role does family play in career appraisal? Career appraisal represents the periodic assessment of one’s overall career and the level of progression within the career. This process is important because it is healthy to occasionally check to see whether career goals are still relevant and consistent with values and interests and whether career strategies are working or not working in the attainment of the career goals. If career appraisal does not occur on a regular basis, then the individual might continue down a wrong career path or pursue goals and strategies that are not relevant and/or not working. Clearly, environmental changes and uncertainties can prompt the undertaking of career appraisal. Individuals, as they age, develop new values, interests, and talents which can change the ways they view their careers and the goals they have established. Life situations such as marriage, divorce, and children can all change career priorities. These new developments and life-style alterations can and should prompt the career appraisal process. Likewise, environmental factors can necessitate career appraisal. For example, job loss (or the threat of job loss) for a person and/or his or her spouse can mandate that the career appraisal process take place. Other environmental changes, such as job shifts, promotions, or transfers, can all influence the need for career appraisal. If would be difficult, if not impossible, to conduct career appraisal without the input of one’s family. First, changes in one’s family, such as the birth of a child or children leaving the home, might influence the need to conduct career appraisal. Second, the family’s needs and expectations should be a major component in the assessment process because career decisions are not made in a vacuum. Third, other family members can provide insight that the individual can use as they go through the appraisal process. Chapter 3 – Essay Questions 1. How can a “normative” model be useful in helping individuals manage their careers? The model of career management considered in this book is normative in nature; that is, it describes how people should manage their careers. Not everybody manages a career in this fashion, but the activities represented in the model are believed to lead to desirable outcomes for the individual. In sum, the career management cycle is a problem solving, decision-making process. Information is gathered so individuals can become more aware of themselves and the world around them. Goals are established, plans or strategies are developed and implemented, and feedback is obtained to provide more information for ongoing career management. This model is based on the assumption that people will be more fulfilled and more productive when their work and life experiences are compatible with their own desires and aspirations. People are more satisfied with their career choices and jobs when their work experiences are consistent with their values, interests, personality, abilities, and life-style preferences. 2. Why should career management be an ongoing process? The chapter explicitly discusses why career management should be an ongoing process. There is a specific section in the chapter on page 56 entitled: Career Management as an Ongoing Process. 3. Briefly describe the indicators of effective career management. The chapter has an entire section on the indicators of effectiveness. These include: a deep knowledge of oneself and an accurate picture of the environment, the development of realistic conceptual and operational goals that are compatible with one's values, interests, abilities, and desired life-style, the development and implementation of appropriate career strategies, and the presence of a continual feedback process that permits adaptation in the face of changing circumstances. Students should be able to discuss these indicators in answering this question. Chapter 4 Applications of the career Management Model: A Guide to Career Exploration Chapter 4 – Assignments 1. Take a few moments to reflect on the things you like to do, the things you believe are important, your preferences, your competencies, and your weaknesses. On a separate sheet of paper, prepare a list of what you see as your interests, values, talents, and weaknesses. You can use the information provided in Table 4.1 to help guide you in the preparation of the list. Ask a friend, family member, or colleague to review your list and give you feedback on whether or not they see it as an accurate reflection of you. Ask them to explain any differences they see. How do you think the list you prepared and the feedback you received could help you in your career management process? Purpose/Perspective: This assignment gives the students the chance to develop lists of key personal qualities that result from the self-exploration process. The list is self-generated and would normally not involve the output from standardized instruments. By sharing the list with another trusted person, the individual student can get immediate feedback as to whether the self-generated listing of personal qualities is on target or not. The feedback can then be used to adjust, if necessary, the listings of the personal qualities. In addition, the students can use the final listings as input in the creation of “themes” and in the development of conceptual and operational career goals. 2. Take a few minutes to carefully review each of the descriptions of the eight career anchors, developed by Edgar Schein, that were presented earlier in this chapter. Once you have read each description, think about which one best fits you and your orientation toward work. Identify why you think this career anchor best describes you. Which career anchor describes you the least and why? How might you be able to use this information on career anchors in your self-exploration process and in theme development? Purpose/Perspective: Edgar Schein’s career anchors typology is a well-established methodology for classifying individuals based on common attributes. This assignment gives the student the chance to informally isolate the anchor that best describes himself or herself. This information can be compared with other personal qualities (as developed in the prior assignment) and can provide useful input into the development of themes and in the setting of career goals. Chapter 4 Case—Joe Francis the Sales Executive Purpose As a contrast to the Michele Terry case that appears at the end of Chapter 3, this case highlights the pitfalls that can arise when someone does not practice active career management. Joe is a sales executive who has been objectively successful in his career without having actively managed his career. He moves into a management position and soon finds himself dissatisfied and feeling trapped. Perspective As the case indicates, after being a successful salesperson, Joe is moved into a management position without having sought the promotion or in any way looking at it as a match with his interests or personality. He just lets the move happen without any real effort to check if it is the right for him. He knows that he always preferred “sales to pencil pushing and administration,” but he found it hard to turn down the promotion because of the hefty salary increase and executive perks. Since he makes a career move that did not fit him as a person he becomes bored and unhappy, but he also feels unable to do anything about it because of the expectations of his family who have become accustomed to the lifestyle that is afforded by his executive-level compensation. Case Questions 1. What specific career exploration activities has Joe undertaken to gather information about himself (his values, needs, abilities, interests, and desired lifestyle) and his environment (different jobs, employers, industries, their families)? The students should recognize that Joe has done little in the way of self- or environmental exploration. He knows that he prefers sales to management, but that is the extent to which he explores his interests, personality, or talents. He does not do appear to do any environmental exploration. What should he have done to acquire more information? Joe could have done much more to explore himself and the environment, both at the time he is offered the promotion and at the present time. At the time of promotion, Joe should have assessed his interests, values, and strengths to ascertain whether a move into management truly was the correct “fit” for him. He could have also done internal environmental exploration to see if there were other opportunities within his company that would take advantage of his interests and talents. For example, some organizations have dual promotional ladders that allow those employees who are not interested in a management track to pursue advancement strictly within their chosen specialty. Once Joe is in the executive position, his boredom and dissatisfaction should have prompted him to conduct self- and environmental exploration (that is, to use the career management model) to set the stage for establishing new career goals and strategies. 2. How much insight does Joe currently have about himself and his environment? The students should easily recognize that Joe has little or no awareness/insight into himself and his environment. He knows that he hates management and the pencil pushing, but beyond that, he has very little insight. 3. Is Joe successful in his career? This question gives the students the opportunity to distinguish between objective and subjective career success. On one hand, Joe is objectively successful because he has achieved tangible indicators of material success (executive title and salary). On the other hand, Joe is not subjectively successful. He is bored, unhappy, and feels trapped in his current position. Do you think if Joe conducted more extensive career exploration, it would lead to more positive career outcomes for him? As indicated above, Joe needs to conduct exploration as a way to break out of his “trap” and move forward with managing his career. Without conducting exploration, it is hard to imagine Joe experiencing positive career outcomes or becoming pleased with life. 4. If Joe sought your help, what advice would you give to help him manage his career effectively? The students should recognize that Joe needs to use the career management model—specifically to gain a better understanding of himself and the environment. He needs this awareness in order to set goals and strategies. To facilitate this process Joe might need the help of a professional career counselor. If you had to make a prediction, where do you think Joe will be in his career five years into the future? The prediction on Joe is a function of whether he uses the career management model and begins the process of exploration. If he does, then the students could predict that he moves in another career direction that is more in line with his interests and talents. On the contrary, if he stays in his current position, he continues with his dissatisfaction and his boredom which might eventually become manifest in negative performance outcomes. If that occurs, the students might very well predict that Joe could be out of a job in five years. Chapter 4 – Discussion Questions 1. What are the differences among values, interests, personality, and abilities? How does understanding these factors help us manage our careers effectively? The definitions and differences between and among these four factors are presented in the chapter. It is important to recognize, however, that these factors are related to one another and that it would be difficult to assess one without taking into account the others. For successful career management to take place, it is critical that the individual have a thorough understanding of these four factors. Specifically, values, interests, personality, and abilities dictate the types of occupations and organizations that might “fit” the individual and also indicate the ones that would not fit. Second, these four factors can put limits on the types of jobs and organizations that the individual might consider. For example, an individual who shows little interest in, or talent with, numbers and mathematics, likely would not consider a career in accounting. 2. How important is work in your total life? What makes you feel that way? Has the importance of work in your life changed in recent years? Do you think it will remain the same in the future? In what ways could your desire for a specific type of lifestyle affect your career decisions? This question gets at the issue of the role of work and how meaningful it is in one’s life. The answer to this question likely will dictate the life-style preferences that the individual articulates. Thus, if work does not play a substantial role in a person’s total life sphere, he or she will most likely pursue occupations that provide time for family, leisure, and other non-work pursuits. On the other hand, if work plays a central or dominant role in a person’s life, then he or she would probably limit the amount of time devoted to non-work activities. Of course, the students should recognize that the relative importance of work in one’s life can change as one ages. Thus the importance of work when a person is 55 years old could be substantially different from the importance of work at the age of 25. This difference would be manifest in the career goals and strategies the person pursues at different ages/career stages. 3. Is career exploration worth the effort? Since the world can change so rapidly, isn’t the information collected through career exploration going to be irrelevant and/or outdated? While this is an argument that is often cited as a reason to avoid career exploration, it ignores the real purpose of exploration. Specifically, self-exploration reveals personal qualities that serve as the basis for setting conceptual and operational career goals—over shorter periods of time, these personal qualities would normally stay relatively stable and would not become outdated. While exploration of the work environment could produce conclusions that might become “outdated” in the short run, the process and the outcomes are still important and meaningful. Indeed, just as with self-exploration, work environment exploration is necessary in the setting of career goals regardless of how rapidly the work environment is changing. 4. Reexamine the six obstacles to effective career exploration. Which of them have you experienced in the past? How can you overcome these obstacles in the future? The six obstacles are listed in the chapter. The students should be prepared to isolate the ones that they have experienced or are experiencing. In addition, the chapter provides prescriptions for overcoming these obstacles. Chapter 4 – Essay Questions 1. Why is self-exploration such an important component in the career management process? The purpose of career exploration is to help the individual develop a greater awareness of self and the environment so that realistic goals can be established and appropriate strategies developed. Exploration activities are a critical response increased uncertainty and reduced job security since they help individuals be adaptable and flexible in their approaches to career management. Knowing yourself, understanding the work environment, and being adaptable and flexible in responding to environmental changes are essential aspects of managing the "boundaryless" career. 2. What approaches or sources of information might one use in conducting self-exploration? The chapter spells out the various formal and informal approaches to gaining self-knowledge and the sources of self-information. The specific categories of personal qualities that should be investigated include values, interests, personality, abilities/talents, and life-style preferences. The students should be able to identify the specific personal qualities to be assessed, the formal approaches to gaining this knowledge, and the informal activities that can provide self-information. 3. How can organizations help their employees in the self-exploration process? Organizations can facilitate the self-exploration process in a number of formal and informal ways. Some of the formal techniques include the provision of a career assessment center, career exploration activities, the performance appraisal process, and the use of regular feedback and coaching. Less formal techniques could include the encouragement of mentor relationships and the use of internal employee networks and other supportive alliances within the organization. Chapter 5 Applications of the Career Management Model: Goals, Strategies, and Appraisal Chapter 5 – Assignment Think about where you will be in your career and your life five years into the future. Create a list of the jobs that you think you will have, the additional skills you might develop, and the further education you will pursue. Using this list, prepare a résumé for yourself that reflects where you believe you will be in five years. Once you have prepared the résumé, share it with someone in your family and with a close friend. Ask them for their insight as to whether the résumé is an accurate portrayal of where they think you will be in five years. If their opinion is different from yours, can you determine why? How might this information factor into your present and future career decision making? Purpose/Perspective: This assignment was adapted from an exercise originally developed by D. R. Laker and R. Laker entitled “The five-year résumé: A career planning exercise,” which appeared in 2007 in the Journal of Management Education, volume 31, on pages 128 to 141. The intent of this assignment is to get the students to think about their career goals by having them project out into the future. By preparing a résumé, the students will have a hardcopy summary of where they think they will be and the experiences they expect to have over an ensuing 5 year period. By having other trusted individuals look at the résumé, they can also get valuable feedback as to whether the résumé is an accurate portrayal of the individual’s future. The exercise also could also prompt the students to think about the strategies that would be necessary to actually attain the jobs that are listed in the five-year résumé. This exercise could be especially helpful for those students experiencing career indecision since it would allow them to do some “wishful thinking” as to where their futures might lead them. In addition, students who are experiencing career indecision (and who might resist this exercise) can be encouraged to think broadly about their futures. This, in turn, could get them thinking about their personal qualities and what occupations/careers fit those qualities. Chapter 5 Case: Kimberly the Graduating College Student Purpose This case presents a fairly typical dilemma faced by graduating college students. Kimberly is experiencing developmental career indecision; she is unsure about what choices she should make as she is about to graduate and she is in a quandary as to where to go for help. This confusion is compounded by the pressure she is feeling from her parents to land a career-oriented job with a well-known “corporate” employer. While she has tentative ideas about what she wants (and doesn’t want) from a career, she is uncertain about how to go through the process of self- and environmental exploration. Perspective Kimberly recognizes she needs help to deal with her career indecision. Since she is about to graduate from college she feels added pressure to come to a decision about her future. Like many students in college, Kimberly “doesn’t even know what she doesn’t know.” Because of this fact, she first needs to decide where to go for help and to find someone to whom she can go to for advice. Undergraduate students analyzing this case should be able to empathize with Kimberly’s situation. Case Questions 1. Do you think that Kimberly is experiencing career indecision? Why or why not? The students should readily see that Kimberly is experiencing career indecision. Based on the definitions and descriptions of the four subtypes of career indecision and career decidedness, what category do you think best describes her? The students should recognize that Kimberly should be classified as developmentally undecided in that she needs to gain more information/awareness about herself and the work environment in order to set career goals and become “decided” on a career. 2. Do you think Kimberly has any career goals at this point? If you think she does, what are her goals? The students should recognize that Kimberly has some tentative ideas about what she would want out of a job in a conceptual sense, but she has not formally articulated any specific operational career goals. The students should be able to state the conceptual ideas that she has, including the fact that she didn’t want a job where she had to deal with numbers, that she wants to find a job close to where she grew up, and that she didn’t want to end up in a “cube world” job because she is not the type person who could “sit still” for long periods of time. 3. Do you think Kimberly has begun formulating any career strategies? If you think she has, what are her strategies? Again, Kimberly has some tentative ideas on career strategies, but without an operational career goal, it would be difficult to ascertain whether they would be right for her. For example, she thought that she might want to get an MBA sometime in the next few years and that she would want to work for a company that paid for graduate coursework. But this career strategy can only be evaluated in light of an existing operational career goal. 4. Do you think Kimberly has done enough self- or environmental exploration to make informed career decisions? Given her state of developmental career indecision, it should be clear that Kimberly needs to gain additional personal insight about her interests, values, personality, and talents. What other information about herself or the work environment should she be seeking at this point in her college career? In some respects, Kimberly needs to start from scratch and thoroughly go through her values, interests, personality, talents, and life-style preferences. It appears that in the back of her mind she really wants to take the job of the restaurant manager, but is afraid that she will disappoint her parents. By going through a process of self-reflection Kimberly would be able to confirm that the job of restaurant manager is a good fit with her personal characteristics. She could also use this information and insight to explore the work environment as a way to check for other occupations that might fit her profile. To whom (or where) could she go to get help and advice on her career options? This is a critical question and the students could make different suggestions. First, she needs to have a frank talk with her parents to discuss their views toward the job of restaurant manager. If they are supportive, then Kimberly could at least view that job as viable. If they are not, then she would likely need to expand her search of the external work environment. Second, she should make an appointment with the career center at her school and use this as an opportunity to explain her dilemma—she might be pleasantly surprised to find that they are willing to help her in the exploration process. Third, she might also visit with her academic advisor or professors who she trusts to get their input and advice. 5. If Kimberly sought your help, what advice would you give her in terms of the management of her career? The students should recognize that Kimberly needs someone to talk to about her confusion and her career indecision. So the first piece of advice is for her to find someone who she trusts so that she can explain her situation and hopefully get good advice in return. Secondly, she needs to use the career management model and the learning exercises found in this book as ways to gain insight into herself and the world of work. By using the model and learning exercises in this way, she could then set meaningful and fitting career goals. It might very well happen that the restaurant manager’s job is the right “fit” for her, but without going through the process, she won’t know that for sure. Chapter 5 – Discussion Questions 1. Why is it not advisable to focus primarily (or strictly) on the operational/instrumental qualities of a career goal? This question gets at an important issue regarding career goal setting. Often, graduating college students and working adults focus primarily (or exclusively) on the operational/instrumental aspects of their career and give a lower emphasis to the conceptual/expressive qualities of career goals and actual occupations. When too much focus is placed on attaining concrete positions within specific companies and when positions are looked at as nothing more than a stepping stone to the next level, then the individual might miss out (or ignore) the intrinsic satisfaction of the present occupation. In addition, an unwavering devotion to an operational goal can create tunnel vision. In the quest to accomplish a specific goal, people could forget why they wanted to reach the goal in the first place. They may also become so committed to a course of action that they resist new information that runs counter to the value of the goal. Individuals should maintain an equal concern for the conceptual/expressive and the operational/instrumental qualities of career goals, allowing one to focus both on concrete positions and accomplishments and on the enjoyment that those positions and accomplishments bring. A healthy, balanced concern for the expressive, intrinsic qualities of career goals is therefore an essential part of career management. A simultaneous concern for present satisfaction and future direction is critical. 2. Career goal setting as described in this chapter emphasizes rational analysis of conceptual and operational goals. Should emotions and “gut level feelings” also play a role in goal setting? Why do you feel that way? This question is directly related to discussion question #2 at the end of chapter 3. While this chapter and the book prescribe a rational/systematic approach to exploration and goal setting, it would be nearly impossible to eliminate the emotional, intuitive, “gut level,” feelings from the process of setting career goals. Thus, while a rational/systematic process is the normative way to go about setting goals, the students should recognize that emotions and intuition have a role in the setting of career goals. 3. Have your career decisions and aspirations been based primarily on your own needs and values, or have you been heavily influenced by other people’s hopes and expectations for you? What can you do to ensure that future career decisions are guided by goals that are personally meaningful to you? This question allows the students to give their opinions on how heavily they are (or have been) influenced by others in the social network in the setting of career goals. For undergraduate students, it is likely that their career plans and aspirations have been partly or substantially influenced by their parents. (The Kimberly case at the end of chapter 5 gets at this issue). For working adults, their spouses and other family members could provide insight on the individual’s future career direction. While individuals should seek advice and input from family members and others in the social network on their career plans, the students should recognize that career decisions are, ultimately, the province and responsibility of the individual. Again, the Kimberly case is an example where the individual must take responsibility for a career decision. 4. Why can career goals easily become rigid and inflexible? Have you ever continued to pursue a goal that no longer makes sense? Why? Why are inflexible goals inconsistent with the model of career management presented in this book? Career goals can become rigid and inflexible for a few reasons. First, it is difficult to admit that a goal that has been set for some period of time is no longer relevant or appropriate. Second, people can “escalate their commitment” to a course of action, even if it is failing, because they don’t want to give up or admit failure in a mission. Third, people can become lazy or apathetic and do not make the effort to alter career plans. Finally, others in a person’s social network can put pressure on the person to “stay-the-course” with a career that is perhaps financially satisfying or prestigious, but no longer fits the individual. Inflexible goals are inconsistent with the career management model in the sense that the model encourages individuals to establish goals that are compatible with “current” personal qualities such as values, interests, and talents. In addition, the model stresses the need for periodic career appraisal as a way to assess whether career goals and strategies are appropriate and working for the individual. The conduct of career appraisal should help prevent rigidity and inflexibility in career goals. 5. Do you think that you are presently experiencing career indecision? If you are, what do you see as the primary cause(s)? If you are career decided, do you consider yourself vigilant or hypervigilant? Why? This question gives the student the opportunity to assess himself or herself in terms of career indecision. If they are undecided, they can reflect on the causes of the indecision. If the student is decided, he or she can reflect on whether it is the vigilant or hypervigilant form. Given that a number of students within a class might be experiencing career indecision (both young undergraduates and working adults), the instructor needs to be mindful that some of the students might see career indecision as a “negative” and therefore be reluctant or unwilling to share their true thoughts. The instructor should state that career indecision can be a “normal” state for people of all ages. The instructor should encourage the students to be frank and open about their status, noting that the process of understanding the causes of career indecision can be a useful exercise in helping the individual become career decided. 6. Although some strategies may help you achieve your career goals, they may be unacceptable to you on other grounds. What factors should be taken into account when judging the personal acceptability of a career strategy? Have you (or someone you know or have read about) pursued, avoided, or abandoned a career strategy that was personally unacceptable? What were the consequences of this decision? As stated in the chapter, there are a few career strategies that might be helpful in achieving career goals, but are personally distasteful to the individual. The determination of the acceptability of a particular strategy is really up to the individual. A student’s view on whether a strategy is personally unappealing is based on personal value structures, the culture and norms of the organization in which the person is employed, and the degree of harm that could be done to the person’s long-term reputation. The students, especially working adults, can offer examples of friends and co-workers who pursued, avoided, or abandoned a career strategy based on acceptability. 7. Why is career appraisal such an important part of the career management process? Do you think that career appraisal inevitably leads to a change in career strategies or goals? Why or why not? The importance of career appraisal is addressed in the summation for discussion question #3 at the end of chapter 3. As to whether career appraisal inevitably leads to career change, the “normal” answer would be no, since career appraisal is typically nothing more than a periodic check on progress toward career goals and the efficacy of career strategies. Nonetheless, if career appraisal is prompted by life events, such as job loss or transfer, then the likelihood of a career change as an outcome of the appraisal process increases significantly. Chapter 5 – Essay Questions 1. Identify and briefly describe the different dimensions of career goals. The chapter identifies and defines the basic dimensions of career goals, including the conceptual/expressive component, the operational/instrumental component, the short-term time horizon, and the long-term time horizon. The students should be able to identify these dimensions and articulate the differences. 2. Identify and briefly describe the subtypes of career indecision/decidedness. Is being career undecided always unfavorable? Is being career decided always favorable? Explain your views. The subtypes of career indecision and career decidedness are listed and described on pages 124 and 125 in the text. In addition, there are examples (short vignettes) of the four categories shown on page 125. The students should recognize that the usefulness and appropriateness of setting a career goal depends on the circumstances. There are times when the selection of a career goal is beneficial and there are times when it is useless or even harmful. For an individual who lacks sufficient decision making information, being developmentally undecided is an appropriate state, whereas being prematurely decided (hypervigilance) is an inappropriate state. Career goals should not be set until the individual is sufficiently aware of self and the environment and is confident that the goal is capable of providing compatibility with personal qualities (the vigilant category). 3. Identify the different types of career strategies. How does one determine what career strategies to employ? How does one determine the effectiveness of different strategies? The categories of career strategies are shown in Table 5.2 in the text on page 132. The various strategies are described on pages 131 through 135. In terms of determining what strategy or strategies to employ, it depends on the nature of the career goal and the willingness on the part of the individual to engage in certain behaviors. In addition, the effectiveness of a particular strategy depends on the organization's norms and values. For example, some organizations may encourage secrecy and political machinations, whereas others may reward openness and collaboration. Individuals should not limit themselves to one single strategy but should engage in a variety of strategic behaviors. Further, strategies should be used not only to reach a career goal but also to test one's interest and commitment to a goal. Finally, individuals should pursue “positive” career strategies that lead to career success, while avoiding “negative” or inappropriate strategies that could cause career failure. The determination of the effectiveness of a career strategy is based on whether a positive outcome (or outcomes) was achieved. In this sense, the strategy could be considered successful if it leads to the fulfillment of the individual’s significant goals or if it provides feedback on the appropriateness or inappropriateness of the career goals or the strategy itself. Chapter 6 Occupational and Organizational Choice Chapter 6 – Assignments 1. Think about an organization into which you were hired. List the characteristics of the organization that you evaluated before you made the choice. In making the choice did you consider just one or two important characteristics of the company (as with unprogrammed decision making), or did you evaluate more thoroughly a longer list of salient characteristics (as with programmed decision making)? In retrospect, were you satisfied with the organizational choice you made? Do you think your approach to decision making influenced your subsequent satisfaction with the organizational choice you made? Explain why or why not. Purpose/Perspective: This assignment gives students the opportunity to discuss and compare the programmed versus unprogrammed approaches to organizational choice, identifying the pros and cons of each. This assignment is mainly geared toward working adults who have already accepted at least one “career oriented” position. It could be used with younger undergraduates who have had one or more part-time jobs or internships, but it is unlikely that they would have used a programmed approach in accepting those kinds of positions. 2. Interview your parents and/or other relatives to understand how your family background can influence (or has already influenced) your career choices. Think back to when you were growing up. Consider such factors as your parents’ aspirations, the income of your family, the neighborhood(s) in which you grew up, the sports you played, and the religious training you have had. Try to trace the significance of these factors to your current career plans. What influence (if any) has your spouse or others from your peer group (siblings, friends, or colleagues) had on your career choices? Purpose/Perspective: This assignment gives the students a chance to assess how social and economic factors play (or have played) a role in career decisions such as occupational choice, organizational selection, and life-style commitment. The students can share their thoughts either in a small group of full class format as a way to gain a better appreciation of how these factors either facilitate or hinder career decisions. This greater awareness could then lead the students to a process of career re-appraisal or could serve as additional insight as students go through the re-appraisal process. Chapter 6 Case: Natalie the Retail Manager (Part A) Purpose This case is intended to highlight several related processes described in Chapter 6: organizational choice and entry by an individual, recruitment practices by organizations, and initial orientation/socialization experienced by new employees. Natalie chooses her employer in an unprogrammed fashion; she considers only one or two key aspects of the job/employer and then makes a quick decision on employment without considering all relevant aspects of the job and the company. In addition, her employer, Enigma, fails to use realistic recruitment as it makes its sales pitch to Natalie. The consequences of the combination of Natalie using an unprogrammed approach to organizational choice and Enigma uses unrealistic recruitment practices are the heart of the case. Perspective This case offers a fairly typical example of a graduating college student who makes a quick (and unprogrammed) decision on an employer, mainly because she just doesn’t have the time to do a more thorough (or programmed) approach to selecting an employer. Natalie also trusts that her employer is giving her a realistic preview of the job and the organization during the recruitment process. Because of her less-than-thorough assessment of Enigma and their unrealistic recruitment practices, Natalie experiences a rude awakening when she finds out that Enigma is not what she thought it was going to be and that its management practices run counter to her personality. Case Analysis Questions 1. Critique the process Natalie went through in her selection of Enigma as an employer. The students should recognize that Natalie took an unprogrammed approach in her selection of Enigma as an employer. They should also be able to articulate why she took this approach—she was busy getting ready for graduation and she believed what she was told by the recruiter. Do you think the selection of Enigma was right for her? The students could answer this yes or no depending on the perspective they take. On one side, they could answer yes in that the job satisfied her conceptual career goals of rising quickly to a managerial position and applying her dual majors of management and marketing. On the other hand, they could answer no by noting her limited assessment of Enigma as an employer and the fact that Enigma’s management style and culture run counter to her own personality and values. The students could also cite the physical problems Natalie experienced (and is still experiencing) after being on the job for one year as proof that the job/organization was/is not “right” for her. What could she have done differently in her job search? The students could suggest several ideas, all of which should point to the conclusion that Natalie should have been more thorough or “programmed” in evaluating potential employers. Specifically, she could have researched the company, asked more poignant questions during the interview process, and asked to speak with current Enigma employees about the company and their experiences. She could have also looked at other prospective employers, not just Enigma. 2. Do think Enigma was right in the approaches it used to recruit Natalie? This question gets at the issue of realistic recruitment and whether companies should use this approach when filling open positions. In a narrow and short-run view, the use of unrealistic recruitment can satisfy the immediate business goal of bringing highly qualified talent into the organization and could therefore be viewed by the students as an appropriate business strategy. In contrast, if the students take a broader and longer range perspective, unrealistic recruitment could be seen as a negative and ineffective strategy since the consequences of the resulting potential mismatch could be employee dissatisfaction, sub-optimal performance, absenteeism, and turnover. All of these outcomes have a negative influence on organizational performance. Should an employer have a moral obligation to always use realistic recruitment? This question is related to the one above, but also gets at the issue of business ethics and organizational social responsibility. In the preceding question, the students can comment on realistic recruitment as a business strategy and whether it is appropriate or not. In this question the students should address whether organizations should be moral, ethical, and socially responsible in the way they attract and recruit potential employees. Depending on the perspective taken, the students could answer no, stating that it is up to the recruit to do the job of validating or invalidating the message of the recruiter (i.e., buyer beware). In contrast, the students could answer yes, stating that “enlightened” organizations and their managers should be truthful and honest in the way they treat their prospective (and current) employees since this is the right and ethical thing to do. 3. Do you believe that the “survival of the fittest” approach that Enigma used in developing its managers was an appropriate strategy? This is an open ended question where the answer depends on the perspective the students take. If this practice is seen as an appropriate developmental tool by providing job challenge to employees early in their career, then the answer would be yes. Thus, a company could successfully use this strategy to ensure that they “test” their employees and only keep those who are the most qualified while “weeding out” those who are not. However, if this practice is seen as “abusive” and demeaning toward new employees, then the answer would be no. In this sense, an employer needlessly abuses its employees without even ensuring that they are keeping the best people. Do you think Natalie should have been more forceful in trying to correct managerial and cultural wrongs that she observed? The students should recognize that it would have been difficult for Natalie to be more proactive, given the culture of her employer and the fact that she was so young and had been with the company for less than a year. 4. Do you agree with Natalie’s decision to “stick it out for a while longer” with Enigma after she had been on the job for a year? The students could give yes and no answers, depending on how they view the physical ramifications of the stress that Natalie is experiencing. If the students see the stresses as being detrimental to Natalie’s longer-term health and well-being, then the answer would likely be no. If, on the other hand, they recognize that Natalie had grown in the managerial position at Enigma, learned to cope with the organizational culture, and was successful in putting her own imprint on the workings of her department, then the answer would likely be yes. Under this view, the success Natalie achieved and the prospects for future advancement would make it worthwhile for her to “stick it out a little while longer.” Should Natalie have been more proactive in considering other employment options at this point in her career? The answer to this question depends on the answer to the question above. Obviously, if the students agree with Natalie’s decision to stay with Enigma, then there would not be a strong impetus to actively consider other employers. Conversely, if the students believe that the troubles Natalie has experienced in her first year of employment are excessive, then Natalie should be proactive in considering other employment options. Chapter 6 – Discussion Questions 1. Do most people choose occupations that match their talents, values, interests, and desired lifestyle? What are some obstacles to establishing such a match? It would be difficult to say for sure whether most people choose occupations that match their personal qualities, although it certainly would appear, based on surveys, that people are satisfied with their work. Given the amount of effort, both formal and informal, that people spend trying to achieve self- and environmental awareness, it would be expected that they seek occupations that “fit” what they are looking for in a job and an organization. The obstacles to a match are well documented and include a failure to have a full awareness of personal qualities, insufficient knowledge of the internal or external work environments in terms of occupations and career paths, and the hypervigilant selection of an occupation without having gone through a thorough assessment process. 2. What is the role of emotion or “instinct” in deciding on an occupation? What weight should be given to a formal, rational analysis of a job versus a more subjective, emotional appraisal? This question gets at the issue of programmed versus unprogrammed occupational choice. As the chapter espouses, a programmed approach is desirable since it allows the individual to fully assess all of the relevant factors that bear on the selection of an occupation. In contrast, the unprogrammed approach is less systematic, involves the evaluation of just one or two critical elements of the occupation, and includes a higher degree of subjectivity and emotion in the selection process. Even when a programmed approach to occupational choice is used, it would be unlikely and even undesirable to totally remove instinct, emotion, or subjectivity from the process. People are not robots. When making a career decision, they need to weave together dispassionate, objective assessment with emotional, subjective analysis to get to the optimal choice. 3. What can you do to develop realistic expectations about a job in which you are interested? Identify as many sources of information as possible. As the chapter spells out, there are a number of approaches an individual could use to develop realistic expectations about a job. Researching the job through various sources (such as the O*NET) can provide a solid description of the job, both the positive and the negative qualities. Speaking with people who already hold that particular job or one that is closely related can offer a substantial amount of insight. In addition, information interviews are a great way for someone to learn about a job without the pressure of the “formal” interview process. Finally, anticipatory socialization assignments, such as internships, co-op employment, and apprenticeships, can give an accurate preview of what full-time employment might involve in that job and in other occupations. 4. To what extent have your educational and/or prior work experiences given you a realistic picture of what it would be like to enter a new organization? How could colleges and universities help individuals develop more realistic job expectations? While the answer to the first part of this question is rather subjective, the students could give examples of educational or work experiences that they believe serve (or served) as realistic previews of the job. In terms of what colleges and universities could do to help, there are a number of options that the students could cite, including offering/coordinating co-op and internship assignments, having a high-quality career center on campus that students are encouraged to use, hosting job fairs, offering students the ability to join professional associations and affiliated networks, inviting guest speakers to visit classrooms to discuss their “real world” experiences in the job market, asking older students who are already in a career-oriented occupation to share their front line experiences with the rest of the class, and having professors use/cite real life examples and cases as much as possible in teaching both graduate and undergraduate students. 5. What are the advantages that accrue to organizations that practice realistic recruitment? Are there any risks involved? In your prior attempts to seek employment, did organizations provide you with a balanced, realistic picture of the job and the organization? What were your reactions to the recruitment procedure? The chapter spells out these advantages. First, the major objective of realistic recruitment (RJPs) is to reduce voluntary turnover among new employees. Research has shown that RJPs can reduce turnover significantly which can provide considerable savings to organizations who have to recruit, select, and train fewer new employees to replace those who terminate. Second, RJPs present an image of the organization as an honest, caring, and socially responsible employer. 6. Why is an understanding of one’s preferred work environment so critical to effective job search and organizational entry? What does a job candidate risk if he or she lacks self insight in this area? Having a well-thought-out and articulated preferred work environment (PWE) is essential to effective job search and organizational entry processes. Specifically, it would be difficult or impossible to evaluate whether a given work situation or organization represents a solid match for the individual unless there is a clear understanding of what the individual prefers in an occupation/organization. In other words, a comparison to assess a match can only occur if there is something concrete (a PWE) to compare against. The consequence of an individual not having a thorough base of self-insight is that he or she risks experiencing a mismatch between wants/expectations and the actual work situation/organization. A mismatch can lead to dissatisfaction and disappointment, can threaten the individual’s self esteem, and might result in a decision to pursue another job in a different organization. 7. What can you learn about a job or an organization by visiting its facilities? How can you prepare for a visit to maximize the amount of useful information you receive? How can you assess whether a prospective employer will fit with your preferred work environment (PWE)? A site visit offers the job candidate the opportunity to gain a firsthand perspective on an organization and its facilities without actually being employed. The site visit gives the job candidate an overview of the physical layout of the organization and should allow the candidate to ask questions of a wide number of people employed in the organization. Preparation for the site visit should include a review of key information about the company, including major business lines and products, recent financial performance, stock price movement over the prior year, and a general idea of the key decision makers. The job candidate can gather most, if not all, of this information simply by checking the company’s website. In terms of assessment of fit with one’s PWE, a programmed approach should be used whereby all relevant aspects of the organization and its culture are compared against the factors that the candidate views as most important. Chapter 6 – Essay Questions 1. Discuss the difference between a programmed and a non-programmed approach to occupational choice. What are the potential dangers in using a non-programmed approach to occupational choice? The differences between the programmed and non-programmed approaches to occupational choice are discussed on pages 164 and 165 in the text. Under the programmed view, occupational choice is based on a rational, deductive, and systematic decision making process wherein people choose courses of action that are expected to produce desirable consequences. The individual becomes aware of the desired outcomes or rewards that are expected to emanate from a job, assesses the value of these job outcomes, identifies occupations that would provide the valued job outcomes, systematically chooses the occupation that has the highest desirability, and assesses the likelihood of actually getting into the identified occupations. With the non-programmed approach, occupational choice is neither as rational nor as systematic as described above. With this approach, individuals use decision making strategies wherein the first option that fulfills minimally acceptable standards on specific occupational attributes is chosen. The potential dangers in using a non-programmed approach result from a less thorough assessment of all of the possible criteria that could factor into the occupational choice. By focusing on just one or two decision criteria the individual might “miss” an important quality of an occupation that should have been taken into account, thus risking disappointment or dissatisfaction when one actually enters the job. 2. What actions can individuals and organiza¬tions take to restrict or prevent the development of unrealistic expectations during organizational entry? There are a number of approaches an individual could use to prevent the development of unrealistic expectations about an organization. Researching the organization through various sources (such as the company’s website or independent reports) can provide a solid description of the organization, both the positive and the negative qualities. Speaking with people who already are employed (or were employed) by that organization can offer a substantial amount of insight. In addition, information interviews are a great way for someone to learn about an organization without the pressure of the “formal” interview process. Finally, anticipatory socialization assignments, such as internships, co-op employment, and apprenticeships, can give an accurate preview of what full-time employment might involve in that organization. 3. Why should organizations practice “realistic recruitment” in their attempt to attract job candidates? The chapter spells out these advantages. First, the major objective of realistic recruitment (RJPs) is to reduce voluntary turnover among new employees. Research has shown that RJPs can reduce turnover significantly which can provide considerable savings to organizations who have to recruit, select, and train fewer new employees to replace those who terminate. Second, RJPs present an image of the organization as an honest, caring, and socially responsible employer. Solution Manual for Career Management Jeffrey H. Greenhaus, Gerard A. Callanan , Veronica M. Godshalk 9781412978262, 9780030753435, 9780030704468